water

Article
Influence of Scour Development on Turbulent Flow
Field in Front of a Bridge Pier
Jinzhao Li 1 , Yilin Yang 2, * and Zhiwen Yang 3, *
1 College of Transportation, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China;
kingle@bjtu.edu.cn
2 School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
3 National Engineering Laboratory of Port Hydraulic Construction Technology, Tianjin Research Institute of
Water Transport Engineering, Tianjin 300456, China
* Correspondence: yilinyang@bjtu.edu.cn (Y.Y.); oyangzhiwen@126.com (Z.Y.)




Received: 5 July 2020; Accepted: 21 August 2020; Published: 24 August 2020


Abstract: This study concerns the turbulent flow field influenced by the scour development around
a bridge pier. The scour hole evolution as well as the temporal variation of scour depth around
the pier were firstly analyzed. Subsequently, the flow fields in front of the pier at different instants
during the scour process were measured using particle image velocimetry (PIV). It shows that the
scour depth at the pier front exceeds that of the pier side at the later scouring stage. The temporal
development of scour depth can be well predicted by a simple practical engineering model based on
an exponential function with a change in the two adjustable coefficients. The flow field indicates
that with the development of scour hole, the downward flow in front of the pier becomes more
prominent, meanwhile the flow becomes more turbulent. The variation tendency for both velocities
and turbulence intensities along the streamwise direction in front the pier shows similarity. The
Reynolds shear stress generally increases with developing scour hole, and the region with large value
enlarges and moves upstream of the scour hole.

Keywords: scour development; bridge pier; flow field; turbulence; particle image velocimetry (PIV)

1. Introduction
Local scour around bridge piers is resulted from the interaction of local flow field with riverbed
sediment, which is one of concerned issues in hydraulic engineering [1]. The severe scour will
undermine the structure and even give rise to the failure of bridge [2]. It is therefore essential to
accurately estimate the scour depth around piers to guarantee the safety of bridges.
In the past several decades, numerous studies on pier scour have been conducted focusing on
the equilibrium scour depth, that is the maximum scour depth when it reaches to the equilibrium
state [3,4]. However, in reality, natural flood duration is usually far shorter than what is needed to
reach the equilibrium scour depth [5]. Hence, in order to predict the scour depth reasonably and
accurately from the viewpoints of both the safe and economical design of bridge pier, it is necessary to
study and identify the variation of scour depth with time during the pier scouring process.
In engineering practice, simple models (e.g., empirical equations) are normally used to predict the
scour process. Compared with large number of equations to predict the equilibrium scour depth, fewer
predictive equations are available on the temporal variation of scour depth (see the review [6,7]). The
widely-used predictor for the temporal scour depth is normally given by an exponential expression [7,8].
However, there are two empirical coefficients c1 and c2 included in the equations, of which the value is
usually ad-hoc and needs to be further clearly determined based on a solid physical explanation. For
example, Sumer and Fredsøe (2002) [7] simply used c1 = c2 = 1 for convenience. Simarro and Martin

Water 2020, 12, 2370; doi:10.3390/w12092370 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2020, 12, 2370 2 of 19

(2004) [9] noted that the value of c1 controls the scour rate, that is the curve of scour development is
shifted to the left by increasing c1 [9]. The value of c2 is usually considered as a constant [9], while it can
vary under different flow conditions. Cheng et al. (2016) [8] pointed out that c1 and c2 are dependent
on sediment coarseness. Ben and Mossa (2020, 2006) [10,11] applied this exponential function into
predicting the temporal scour evolution downstream of a sloped grade-control structure. They found
that compared to the scour evolution at the initial and equilibrium phases, the scour evolution during
the intermediate phase under different conditions shows different trend and specifically different value
of the two empirical coefficients c1 and c2 . This indicates that the scour evolution at the intermediate
stage is more influenced by the structural and hydraulic conditions. In the current study, the two
adjustable coefficients were thoroughly discussed from both theoretical and experimental points
of view.
The pier scour is a time-dependent process, and the flow fields around the pier is correspondingly
changed with time during the bed scouring process [12–14]. The presence of scour hole radically alters
the turbulent flow field, and the hydrodynamic characteristics (e.g., bed shear stress and turbulence
quantities) are strengthened, which induces further sediment transport and scour development around
pier [15]. For instance, the horseshoe vortex as well as the turbulent energy are enhanced with the
development of scour hole [16,17], indicating that the flow mechanism effected by the presence of
scour hole is different from the flatbed cases without scour hole, which needs to be further explored to
deepen the understanding of the pier scouring process. Recently, Ben et al. (2020) [18] experimentally
investigate the flow field within the scour hole downstream of bed sills, and further obtain a new
scaling of the equilibrium scour depth based on the phenomenological theory of turbulence. Their
results also indicates that the in depth understanding of the flow and turbulence influenced by the
scour hole is essential to improve the prediction of scour depth.
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a type of non-intrusive velocity measurement technique which
is capable of measuring the instantaneous velocity field in the defined flow region. Some scholars
have utilized PIV to study the flow field for the pier on the fixed flatbed, e.g., Lin et al. (2003) [19],
Huang et al. (2014, 2018) [20,21], Schanderl et al. (2014) [22], Ozturk et al. (2007) [23]. Recently, Li
et al. (2018) [24] used the high-resolution PIV system to study the flow characteristics induced by
the horseshoe vortex in front of the pier. Similar experimental studies can be found by Chen et al.
(2019) [25] who systematically analyzed the transient evolution process of horseshoe vortex. The
previous relevant PIV studies are mainly confined on the flow of a pier mounted on a flatbed without
scour hole, which can be regarded as the initial scour state. The limited and valuable study on the
flow affected by the pier scour hole can be found from Unger and Hager (2007) [26] who investigated
the temporal evolution of the vertical deflected flow in front of the pier with increasing scour hole by
PIV. Overall, the study on the flow field influenced by the development of scour hole at a pier by the
high-resolution PIV measurement is rather limited so far.
To our knowledge, a comprehensive understanding of the flow field around piers affected by the
scour development is still deficient. The purpose of the present study is twofold: (1) Obtain a simple
practical model to predict the temporal scour depth; and (2) study the effect of scour development on
turbulent flow field based on a high-resolution PIV system. The paper is organized as follows: The
experimental setup and PIV measurement are described in Section 2. In Section 3 we discuss the scour
development around the pier, involving the scour hole evolution and the temporal variation of scour
depth, and a simple practical model to predict the temporal scour depth is developed and validated. In
Section 4 the turbulent flow fields in front of the pier were investigated in terms of the time-averaged
velocities, turbulence intensities, Reynolds shear stress and turbulent kinetic energy. Finally, summary
and conclusions are drawn in Section 5. The present experimental results provide not only new insight
into the complex flow fields around piers but also valuable experimental data to validate and verify
numerical models.
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2. Experimental Setup and Methodology

2. Experimental Setup and Methodology
The present experiment was conducted in a water-recirculating and glass-walled flume with 6
The present experiment was conducted in a water-recirculating and glass-walled flume with 6
m length, 0.25 m width and 0.25 m depth, at Bejing Jiaotong University. The Flow straightener was
m length, 0.25 m width and 0.25 m depth, at Bejing Jiaotong University. The Flow straightener was
set at the entrance of the flume to calm the turbulence of flow, and a tailgate was set at the outlet of
set at the entrance of the flume to calm the turbulence of flow, and a tailgate was set at the outlet of
the flume to adjust the water depth. As depicted in Figure 1, a circular cylinder with diameter D = 4
the flume to adjust the water depth. As depicted in Figure 1, a circular cylinder with diameter D =
cm was used to model the bridge pier, and mounted vertically on the bed at 4 m downstream of the
4 cm was used to model the bridge pier, and mounted vertically on the bed at 4 m downstream of
flume entrance to ensure the fully developed flow occurred [27]. The sediment bed was set up on the
the flume entrance to ensure the fully developed flow occurred [27]. The sediment bed was set up
bottom with median diameter d50 = 0.6 mm and specific mass ρs = 2650 kg/m3. The blockage ratio (i.e.,
on the bottom with median diameter d50 = 0.6 mm and specific mass ρs = 2650 kg/m3 . The blockage
flume width to pier diameter) in the present test is 6.25, which is in the proposed acceptable range
ratio (i.e., flume width to pier diameter) in the present test is 6.25, which is in the proposed acceptable
[12,28,29]. The origin of the coordinate system is defined at the bottom center of the cylinder, with
range [12,28,29]. The origin of the coordinate system is defined at the bottom center of the cylinder,
the longitudinal x-axis parallel to the flume bed, the y-axis normal to the side wall of the flume, and
with the longitudinal x-axis parallel to the flume bed, the y-axis normal to the side wall of the flume,
the z-axis vertical to the flume bottom.
and the z-axis vertical to the flume bottom.

Figure 1.
Figure Experimental setup:
1. Experimental setup: (a)
(a)global
globalside
side view;
view; (b)
(b) local
local top
top view.
view.

The experiment was performed under a steady-flow condition, i.e., the incoming discharge from
The experiment was performed under a steady-flow condition, i.e., the incoming discharge from
the inlet of the flume is constant. The flow depth h = 5 cm and the approaching depth-averaged
the inlet of the flume is constant. The flow depth h = 5 cm and the approaching depth-averaged flow
flow velocity U0 = 0.233 m/s, the Reynolds number based on pier diameter (ReD ) was 9400, and the
velocity U0 = 0.233 m/s, the Reynolds number based on pier diameter (ReD) was 9400, and the Froude
Froude number based on water depth (Fr) was 0.28. The present Shields number was calculated as
number2 based on water depth (Fr) was 0.28. The present Shields number was calculated as Θ0 =
Θ = u /[(ρs − ρ)/ρ]gd50 = 0.029, where u∗ (=0.016 m/s) is the bed friction velocity obtained from the
u∗20/[(ρs ∗− ρ)/ρ]gd 50 = 0.029, where u∗ (=0.016 m/s) is the bed friction velocity obtained from the best
best fitting of a log-law profile of the approaching velocity, and ρ is the fluid density. In this test, the
fitting of a log-law profile of the approaching velocity, and ρ is the fluid density. In this test, the
critical Shields number for incipient sediment motion on flat planar bed Θcr can be determined by
critical Shields number for incipient sediment motion on flat planar bed Θcr can be determined by the
the well-known diagram of Shields curve. Here, for convenience, Θ = 0.033 is given by the method
well-known diagram of Shields curve. Here, for convenience, Θcr cr= 0.033 is given by the method
outlined in Soulsby and Whitehouse [30], and thus the test was performed in a clear-water scour
outlined in Soulsby and Whitehouse [30], and thus the test was performed in a clear-water scour
condition (i.e., Θ < Θ ).
condition (i.e., Θ00 < Θcrcr).
During the scouring process, the temporal variation of scour depth around the pier has been
During the scouring process, the temporal variation of scour depth around the pier has been
measured. A scale label was marked on the surface of the pier to facilitate the direct observation of the
measured. A scale label was marked on the surface of the pier to facilitate the direct observation of
scour depths. The scour hole morphology was measured by a bed profiler, with space resolution of 2
the scour depths. The scour hole morphology was measured by a bed profiler, with space resolution
mm. Since the geometry of the scour hole was observed symmetric about the symmetry plane of the
of 2 mm. Since the geometry of the scour hole was observed symmetric about the symmetry plane of
pier, only half of the scour hole was measured.
the pier, only half of the scour hole was measured.
The two-dimensional instantaneous flow fields in the symmetry plane in front of the pier were
The two-dimensional instantaneous flow fields in the symmetry plane in front of the pier were
measured using a time-resolved PIV system, which consists of a high-speed camera, a pulse laser,
measured using a time-resolved PIV system, which consists of a high-speed camera, a pulse laser,
tracer particles and post-processing software. It is worth noting that the scour holes that typically
tracer particles and post-processing software. It is worth noting that the scour holes that typically
develop are, in fact, reasonably symmetric about the symmetry plane, and thus the time-averaged
Water 2020, 12, 2370 4 of 19

Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19

develop are, in fact, reasonably symmetric about the symmetry plane, and thus the time-averaged flow
flow
field field
on theonsymmetry
the symmetryplaneplane
can becan be regarded
regarded as two-dimensional
as two-dimensional in principle.
in principle. The laser Thewaslaser was
placed
placed
directlydirectly
above the above
flumetheand
flume and produced
produced a 1 mm-thick
a 1 mm-thick light sheetlight sheet illuminating
illuminating the fieldthe field of
of view. Inview.
order
In order to perform PIV measurements, the flow was seeded
to perform PIV measurements, the flow was seeded with micro-spheres with mean diameters of 10with micro-spheres with meanµm
diameters
and specific ofgravity
10 μm and specific
of 1.06. gravity ofdigital
A high-speed 1.06. A high-speed
CMOS cameradigital
with aCMOSNikkorcamera
AF 50 mm withf/1.4D
a Nikkorlens
AF
was50 mm f/1.4D
placed on onelenssidewas placed
of the flumeon to one sidethe
capture of the flume to capture
high-resolution particletheimages.
high-resolution
The camera particle
has a
images. The camera has a maximum frame rate of 500 fps at full spatial
maximum frame rate of 500 fps at full spatial resolution of 1280 × 1024 pixels, and the exposure resolution of 1280 × 1024
time
pixels, and the exposure time between two consecutive frames is 2 ms. The
between two consecutive frames is 2 ms. The size of the camera viewing area is 52 × 42 mm such that size of the camera viewing
area is 52 ×resolution
the spatial 42 mm such that pixels/mm.
is 24.5 the spatial resolution
Due to theislimited
24.5 pixels/mm.
memory ofDue to the(2limited
camera memory of
GB), a sequence of
camera (2 GB), a sequence of 2000 frames was captured for each case,
2000 frames was captured for each case, and we used 2000 frames to calculate the time-averaged and we used 2000 frames to
flow
calculate the time-averaged
field. It should be noted that flowsincefield. It should
the cameras were bepositioned
noted thatparallel
since the cameras
to the were positioned
test section and due to
parallel
the presence of the sand bed, the field of view of the cameras was blocked. Hence, theof
to the test section and due to the presence of the sand bed, the field of view the cameras
measurements
was blocked.
inside the scour Hence,
holethe measurements
greater insidenot
than 1 cm could the bescour hole greater than 1 cm could not be acquired.
acquired.
The
The solution
solutionof ofinstantaneous
instantaneousvelocity
velocityvectors
vectors between
between twotwoconsecutive
consecutive frames
frames waswasachieved
achieved by
using the iterative multigrid image deformation algorithm [31]. For the
by using the iterative multigrid image deformation algorithm [31]. For the present application, thepresent application, the final
interrogation
final interrogationwindow windowsize size
was was
32 ×3232×pixels
32 pixelswhich
which havehaveananoverlap
overlap ofof50%,
50%,thatthatisisthe
the adjacent
adjacent
velocity vector interval is 16 pixels. Based on the flow velocity in our experiment,
velocity vector interval is 16 pixels. Based on the flow velocity in our experiment, the interval time the interval timeofof2
2msmsassured
assured that the maximum particle displacement between two consecutive frames is 5 pixels,pixels,
that the maximum particle displacement between two consecutive frames is 5 which
which satisfies the one-quarter rule for PIV correlation analysis [32,33]. The accuracy
satisfies the one-quarter rule for PIV correlation analysis [32,33]. The accuracy of the velocity vectors is of the velocity
vectors is approximately
approximately 0.1 pixels,
0.1 pixels, which which corresponds
corresponds to approximately to approximately 0.7% of velocity
0.7% of the full-scale the full-scale
in the
velocity in the present measurement. For more specific details on the PIV
present measurement. For more specific details on the PIV setup, the readers can refer the previously setup, the readers can refer
the previously
published paperpublished paper by
by the authors the authors
[24,34]. [24,34]. The
The validation ofvalidation of the PIV measurement
the PIV measurement can be seencan be
as the
seen as the
Appendix A. Appendix A.

3.
3. Scour
ScourDevelopment
Development Around
Around the
the Pier
Pier

3.1. Scour
3.1. ScourHole
Hole Evolution
Evolution
Figure 22 presents
Figure presents the
the photographs
photographs of of local
local scour
scour hole
hole around
around the
the pier
pier at
at four
four different
different instants
instants
during the
during the scour
scour process.
process. In
Inthe
the figure,
figure, the
the approaching
approaching flow flow is
is from
from the
the left
left to
to right.
right. The time tt is
The time is
normalized by:
normalized by: p
g(s − 1)d5033
t * = g ( s − 12 ) d 50 t
∗
(1)(1)
t = D2 t
D

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Photographs
Photographs ofof local
local scour
scour hole
hole around the pier
around the pier at
at the
the time
time of
of (a) t* == 11;
(a) t* 11; (b) t* =
(b) t* = 133;
133; (c) t* =
(c) t* =
266;
266; and
and (d) t* ==931.
(d) t* 931.

As can be seen from the scale label on the pier surface, the scour hole around the pier becomes
larger (i.e., deeper and broader) gradually with time, and eventually the equilibrium scour is almost
attained. In fact, the duration to reach equilibrium in the laboratory can be very long, usually 1–2
weeks [35]. Hence, the present scour experiment with duration of 420 min is far shorter to reach the
 Water 2020, 12, 2370 5 of 19

As can be seen from the scale label on the pier surface, the scour hole around the pier becomes
larger
Water (i.e., deeper
2020, 12, x FORandPEERbroader)
REVIEW gradually with time, and eventually the equilibrium scour is almost 5 of 19
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19
attained. In fact, the duration to reach equilibrium in the laboratory can be very long, usually 1–2
equilibrium.
weeks [35]. Hence,However, it can be seen
the itpresent from the experimental observation thatfarthe scourto depth seems
equilibrium. However, can bescour experiment
seen from with duration
the experimental of 420 min
observation that is the shorter
scour depth reach
seemsthe
to be gradually
equilibrium. approaching
However, it can bethe equilibrium
seen from the as the variation
experimental of scour depth
observation that at later
the scour stage
depth is seems
small andto
to be gradually approaching the equilibrium as the variation of scour depth at later stage is small and
the scouring
be gradually process
approaching is very
theslowslow with
equilibrium time.
as the Hence
variationit can be regarded as a quasi-equilibrium scour
the scouring process is very with time. Hence it can of bescour
regardeddepthasatalater stage is small and
quasi-equilibrium the
scour
state. Here
scouring processsome is of the
very slowcharacteristic
with time. features
Hence it of the
can be steady current
regarded as a scour around a scour
quasi-equilibrium pier canstate.be
state. Here some of the characteristic features of the steady current scour around a pier can be
observed.
Here some Upstream of
of the characteristic the pier the
featuresexpected
of the semicircular
steady current shape
scour of the
around scour hole is clearly visible,
observed. Upstream of the pier the expected semicircular shape of the scour ahole pieriscan be observed.
clearly visible,
whereas of
Upstream thetheshape
pier of
the scour
expectedhole downstream
semicircular cannotofbethe
shape characterized
scour hole is asclearly
semicircular.
visible, Additionally,
whereas the
whereas the shape of scour hole downstream cannot be characterized as semicircular. Additionally,
the scour
shape of scourdepth
hole behind
downstream the pier is obviously
cannot be smaller than
characterized as the scour depth
semicircular. in frontthe
Additionally, of scour
the pier, and
depth
the scour depth behind the pier is obviously smaller than the scour depth in front of the pier, and
downstream
behind the pier of the pier
is obviously bed material
smaller than is deposited
the scour along
depth the edges of the scour. In the present study,
downstream of the pier bed material is deposited along theinedges
front of of the
the pier,
scour.and In thedownstream
present study, of the
webed
pier mainly focusis on
material the region
deposited in the
along front of the
edges of pierscour.
the where In the
the maximum
present scour
study, we depth
mainly isfocus
normally
on
we mainly focus on the region in front of the pier where the maximum scour depth is normally
occurred
the region and
in theof
front influence
the pier of turbulent
where the horseshoe
maximum vortex
scour depthis most
is pronounced
normally occurred [24].and the influence
occurred and the influence of turbulent horseshoe vortex is most pronounced [24].
Figure 3 shows the
of turbulent scour is morphology around the pier at different time of the scour process, in
Figure 3 horseshoe
shows thevortex most pronounced
scour morphology around [24].
the pier at different time of the scour process, in
which the 3scoured bedscourelevation is normalized by the pier different
diameter D. As the scour
scour process,
profile is
whichFigure
the scouredshowsbed the elevation morphology
is normalized around by the
the pier
pier at diameter D.time As of thethe scour profile is
symmetrical along the spanwise (y−) direction, only half of region is plotted.
D. It clearly illustrates the
symmetrical along the spanwise (y−) direction, only half of region is plotted. It clearly illustrates theis
in which the scoured bed elevation is normalized by the pier diameter As the scour profile
evolution
symmetrical of the
along scour
the hole
spanwise around the pier, both the scour depth and scour area become larger with
evolution of the scour hole around(y−) direction,
the pier, both theonly halfdepth
scour of region and isscourplotted. It clearly
area become illustrates
larger with
time.
the The maximum
evolution of the scourscour hole depth
around at the
the final
pier, equilibrium
both the scour stage
depthis located
and scourat thearea front
become of the pier.
larger
time. The maximum scour depth at the final equilibrium stage is located at the front of the pier.
Furthermore,
with time. The the
maximumevolution of scour profile along the centerline in front of the pier is specifically
Furthermore, the evolutionscour depth
of scour at thealong
profile final equilibrium
the centerline stagein is located
front of the at the
pierfront of the pier.
is specifically
plotted in Figure
Furthermore, the 4. It canofbe
evolution seenprofile
scour that the bedthe
along slope at different
centerline in fronttime
of keeps
the pier almost
is same, plotted
specifically which is
plotted in Figure 4. It can be seen that the bed slope at different time keeps almost same, which is
inapproximately
Figure 4. It can
approximately
equal
be seen
equal
to the angle
to thethat theof
angle
of slope
bed repose.
repose. Thisat This visible finding
different
visibletime
findingkeeps is consistent
almost
is consistent same, with
with which theisprevious
approximately
the previous
studies
studies
[36,37].
equal to the angle of repose. This visible finding is consistent with the previous studies [36,37].
[36,37].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c)
(c) (d)
(d)

Figure 3. Scour morphology around the pier at the time of (a) t* = 11; (b) t* = 133; (c) t* = 266; and (d)
Figure
Figure 3.3.Scour
Scourmorphology
morphology around
around the pier at
at the
the time
timeof (a)t*t*==11;
of(a) (b)t*t*==133;
11;(b) (c)t*t*==266;
133;(c) 266;and
and(d)
(d)t*
t* = 931.
t*==931.
931.

Figure4.4.Scour
Figure Scourprofile
profilealong
alongthe
thecenterline
centerlineininfront
frontofof
the pier
the atat
pier different time.
different time.
Figure 4. Scour profile along the centerline in front of the pier at different time.
Water 2020, 12, 2370 6 of 19
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

3.2. Temporal Development of Scour Depth

3.2. Temporal Development of Scour Depth
The measured time series of the scour depth taken at both the front and back face of the pier are
The measured time series of the scour depth taken at both the front and back face of the pier
plotted in Figure 5. As can be seen, at the early stage, the scour depth at the side of the pier is clearly
are plotted in Figure 5. As can be seen, at the early stage, the scour depth at the side of the pier is
larger than that of the front of the pier, and the scouring rate is comparatively higher. At the later
clearly larger than that of the front of the pier, and the scouring rate is comparatively higher. At the
scouring stage, the scour depth at the front of the pier exceeds that of the pier side, and the final
later scouring stage, the scour depth at the front of the pier exceeds that of the pier side, and the final
maximum scour depth occurs at the pier front. In fact, it is observed that scour starts from the sides
maximum scour depth occurs at the pier front. In fact, it is observed that scour starts from the sides of
of the pier due to the separation of flow creating a large amplification of bed shear stress at the side
the pier due to the separation of flow creating a large amplification of bed shear stress at the side of the
of the pier. As the scour develops with time, the bed shear stress at the side of the pier is decreased
pier. As the scour develops with time, the bed shear stress at the side of the pier is decreased and the
and the scour mechanism is mainly related to the turbulent horseshoe vortex at the pier front rather
scour mechanism is mainly related to the turbulent horseshoe vortex at the pier front rather than the
than the contracted streamlines, which results in the maximum scour depth occurred at the front
contracted streamlines, which results in the maximum scour depth occurred at the front position of
position of the pier.
the pier.

Figure5.5.Measured
Figure Measuredscour
scourdepths
depthsversus
versustime
timeatatthe
thefront
frontand
andside
sidefaces
facesofofthe
thepier.
pier.

InInengineering
engineeringpractice, simple
practice, models
simple models(e.g., empirical
(e.g., equations)
empirical are normally
equations) usedused
are normally to predict the
to predict
scour process. The widely-used predictor for the temporal development of the scour depth
the scour process. The widely-used predictor for the temporal development of the scour depth is given byis
the following
given by the exponential expressionexpression
following exponential [9]: [9]:
S S   tt c2c2 
   
= =1
1 −− exp −c
exp  − c11 Ts   (2)
Se (2)
Se   s  
T
where S is the scour depth, Se is the equilibrium scour depth, c1 and c2 are fitting coefficients which can
where S is the scour depth, Se is the equilibrium scour depth, c1 and c2 are fitting coefficients which
be determined by the experimental data, and Ts is the time scale of scour calculated by integrating the
can be determined by the experimental data, and Ts is the time scale of scour calculated by integrating
scour curve [38]:
the scour curve [38]: Z tm
Sm − S
Ts = tm S − S dt (3)
Ts =0  Sm dt
m
(3)
0 Sm
where Sm is the maximum scour depth at any given time and tm is the time at which the maximum
where
scour Sm is the maximum scour depth at any given time and tm is the time at which the maximum
occurs.
scour occurs.
Figure 6 provides the comparison between the predicted and measured temporal development
of scourFigure
depth6 provides
at the side theand
comparison
front faces between the predicted
of the pier. and measured
For comparison, temporal
the predicted development
results by the
equations depthc1at= the
of scour with c2 =side and front
1 (Sumer faces of 2002)
and Fredsøe, the pier. For the
[7] and comparison, the value
current fitted predicted results
are both by the
included
inequations
Figure 6. with c1 = cindicates
It clearly 2 = 1 (Sumerthatand
theFredsøe, 2002) [7] by
results predicted andthe thecurrent
currentequation
fitted value
(blueare both
solid included
line) with
in Figure c6.1 It
adjustable andclearly
c2 fitindicates
better. The that the results
equation predicted
of Sumer and by the current
Fredsøe (2002)equation (blue solidthe
[7] under-predicts line) with
scour
adjustable
depth duringc1the
andearlyc2 fitstage
better.
at The
which equation
the scour of Sumer
rate is veryand Fredsøe (2002) [7]
high, especially forunder-predicts
the side position theofscour
the
pier. By inspection of Equation (1), when t is small, c1 represents the slope of the function which meansof
depth during the early stage at which the scour rate is very high, especially for the side position
thescour
the pier.rate.
By inspection
Therefore,of toEquation
improve the (1), fitting
when degree
t is small, with c1 experimental
represents thedata slope of the
at the function
early which
scour stage,
means
the valuetheof scour
c1 should rate.beTherefore,
increasedto improve
larger than the
1 tofitting
increase degree with rate
the scour experimental data
at the initial at the
stage. Asearly
for
scour
the stage, cthe
exponent 2 , itvalue of c1 should
characterizes be increasedof
the dependence larger than hole
the scour 1 to increase
volume (V) the on
scour
the rate
scouratdepth
the initial
(S)
stage.
from theAs for themeaning
physical exponentofc2pier, it characterizes
scour, and c2 the = 1/3 dependence
if the rate of ofchange
the scour
of Vhole volume
is the same as (V)that
on of the
S3scour depth (S) from
[8]. Combining the physical meaning
the above-mentioned of pier
analysis on thescour, andhole
scour c2 = evolution,
1/3 if the rate
the of change
scour holeof V is the
deepens
same as that
meanwhile of S3 [8].
extends Combiningand
horizontally, thetheabove-mentioned
slope of the scour analysis on the scour
hole remains almost hole evolution,
constant. thescour
If the scour
hole deepens meanwhile extends horizontally, and the slope of the scour hole remains almost
 Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19
Water 2020, 12, 2370 7 of 19

constant. If the scour hole is idealized and can be assumed as an inverted pyramid, then S is
proportional
hole to and
is idealized V1/3, can
andbe
thus the exponent
assumed c2 is equal
as an inverted to 1/3, then
pyramid, which is proportional
S is consistent totothe value
V 1/3 , andofthus
0.33
proposed
the exponentbycSimarro and Martin (2004) [9]. Based on the present experimental data, the value of c2 is
2 is equal to 1/3, which is consistent to the value of 0.33 proposed by Simarro and Martin
smaller than 1, especially
(2004) [9]. Based on the presentfor the c2 at the sidedata,
experimental of the
thepier is 0.329,
value of c2 iswhich
smalleris very
than close to the theoretical
1, especially for the c2
atvalue of 1/3.
the side of the pier is 0.329, which is very close to the theoretical value of 1/3.

Figure6.6.Comparison
Figure Comparisonbetween
betweenthe thepredicted
predictedand
andmeasured
measuredtemporal
temporaldevelopment
developmentof
ofscour
scourdepth
depthatat
the
the(a)
(a)side
sideand
and(b)
(b)front
frontface
faceofofthe
thepier.
pier.

In
In order
order totofurther
further validate
validate the thesimple
simplepredictive
predictivemodel
model proposed
proposed above,
above, other
other previously
previously
experimental
experimentaldata datafrom
fromliterature
literatureisiscollected
collected[6,39,40],
[6,39,40],and
andthe
thecomparisons
comparisons areare
plotted
plottedin in
thethe
Figures
Figures7
and 8. In these experiments, the test duration for a single run lasted longer than
7 and 8. In these experiments, the test duration for a single run lasted longer than 40 h, which is much 40 h, which is much
longer
longerthanthan those reported in
those reported inmany
manyother
otherstudies.
studies.TheThe detailed
detailed experimental
experimental conditions
conditions for those
for those tests
tests are listed in the Table 1. Figure 7 presents the comparison of temporal
are listed in the Table 1. Figure 7 presents the comparison of temporal scour depth at the pier scour depth at thefront,
pier
front,
in whichin which the subplots
the subplots (a)–(j) correspond
(a)–(j) correspond to Test to
1–10Test 1–10inlisted
listed Tablein1.Table 1. The
The value of value
the two ofempirical
the two
empirical
constantsconstants c1 and c2 in
c1 and c2 included included in the exponential
the exponential equation isequation
given byisthegiven by the
present present proposed
proposed value, i.e.,
value,
1.046 and 0.510, respectively. It demonstrates that the present simple model fitfitwell
i.e., 1.046 and 0.510, respectively. It demonstrates that the present simple model well with
with thethe
experimental
experimental data from other previous studies. Apart from the scour depth at the pier front whichisis
data from other previous studies. Apart from the scour depth at the pier front which
always
alwaysconcerned,
concerned,the thescour
scourdepth
depthat atthe
thepier
pierside
sideisisalso
alsocompared
comparedas asplotted
plottedin inFigure
Figure8,8,for forwhich
which
the c = 1.243 and c =
the predicted results are based on 1c1 = 1.243 and 2c2 = 0.329. As can be seen, the present simplemodel
predicted results are based on 0.329. As can be seen, the present simple model
does
doesaagood goodjob ofof
job predicting thethe
predicting scour depth
scour observed
depth at both
observed pier front
at both and side.
pier front and Itside.
needs It to be noted
needs to be
that
noted that the limitation of our present study is only based on the experiments listed in Table 1,iswhich
the limitation of our present study is only based on the experiments listed in Table 1, which also
the application condition for the current proposed
is also the application condition for the current proposed model. model.
 6 Yanmaz (2006) [40] 0.057 0.26 0.09 0.84 14,900 0.352 0.015
7 0.057 0.33 0.14 0.84 18,800 0.444 0.015
8 0.115 0.25 0.23 0.53 28,500 0.235 0.005
9 Alabi (2006) [39] 0.073 0.25 0.15 0.53 18,100 0.296 0.007
10 0.115 0.20 0.23 0.53 22,800 0.188 0.005
Note:
Water 2020, D is pier diameter; U0 is approach flow velocity; h is flow depth; d50 is sediment median size;
12, 2370 8 of 19
ReD = U0D/ν; FrD = U0/(gD)0.5

Figure
Figure 7. 7.Comparison
Comparisonof of temporal
temporal scour depth at
scour depth at pier
pierfront
frontcalculated
calculatedbybythe
thepresent
present exponential
exponential
equation with other previously experimental data: (a–d) Pandey et al. (2018) [6]; (e–g) Yanmaz
equation with other previously experimental data: (a–d) Pandey et al. (2018) [6]; (e–g) Yanmaz (2006)
Water (2006)
2020, 12, x
[40]; FOR PEER
(h–j) REVIEW
Alabi (2006)
[40]; (h–j) Alabi (2006) [39]. [39]. 9 of 19

Figure
Figure 8. Comparison of
8. Comparison of temporal
temporal scour
scour depth
depth at
at pier
pier side
side calculated
calculated by
by the
the present
present exponential
exponential
equation with the experimental data from Pandey et al. (2018) [6]. (a) Test 1; (b) Test 2; (c) Test
equation with the experimental data from Pandey et al. (2018) [6]. (a) Test 1; (b) Test 2; (c) Test 3;
3; (d)
(d) Test
Test 4. 4.

4. Turbulent Flow Fields

To identify the physics of the flow disturbed by the generation of the scour hole around the pier,
the flow and turbulence characteristics at different scour stages (t* = 2, 11, 133, 266, 931) were analyzed
Water 2020, 12, 2370 9 of 19

Table 1. Summary of experimental data and parameters used for current model validation.

Test No. Data Set D (m) U 0 (m/s) h (m) d50 (mm) ReD FrD d50 /D
1 0.135 0.74 0.125 10.7 99,000 0.643 0.079
2 0.115 0.53 0.1 8.6 60,400 0.499 0.075
Pandey et al. (2018) [6]
3 0.135 0.7 0.13 8.6 93,700 0.609 0.064
4 0.115 0.7 0.1 4.38 79,800 0.659 0.038
5 0.057 0.23 0.07 1.07 13,000 0.308 0.019
6 Yanmaz (2006) [40] 0.057 0.26 0.09 0.84 14,900 0.352 0.015
7 0.057 0.33 0.14 0.84 18,800 0.444 0.015
8 0.115 0.25 0.23 0.53 28,500 0.235 0.005
9 Alabi (2006) [39] 0.073 0.25 0.15 0.53 18,100 0.296 0.007
10 0.115 0.20 0.23 0.53 22,800 0.188 0.005
Note: D is pier diameter; U0 is approach flow velocity; h is flow depth; d50 is sediment median size; ReD = U0 D/ν;
FrD = U0 /(gD)0.5 .

4. Turbulent Flow Fields

To identify the physics of the flow disturbed by the generation of the scour hole around the
pier, the flow and turbulence characteristics at different scour stages (t* = 2, 11, 133, 266, 931) were
analyzed and presented in this section. The flow fields at the symmetry plane in front of the pier were
obtained as well as the typical flow and turbulence characteristics are described in detail, in terms of
the time-averaged velocities, turbulence intensities, Reynolds shear stress, and turbulent kinetic energy.
Moreover, the space-averaged quantities (can be regarded as the representative of the focused area)
were obtained to clarify the influence of scour development on the flow and turbulence characteristics.
The instantaneous velocity components were denoted as u for the streamwise and v for the vertical
direction along the x- and z-axes, respectively. Such instantaneous flow velocities could be separated
into time-averaged (U, V) and fluctuating (u’, v’) components according to Reynolds decomposition
(i.e., u = U + u’). The time-averaged velocity is obtained by averaging the instantaneous velocity.
q q
The streamwise and vertical turbulence intensities are calculated by urms (= u0 2 ) and vrms (= v0 2 ),
respectively. The Reynolds shear stress (RSS)
 is calculated
 as RSS = −ρu0 v0 , and the turbulent kinetic
energy (TKE) is calculated as TKE = 0.65 u0 2 + v0 2 [41].

4.1. Time-Averaged Velocities

Figure 9 shows the velocity vectors superimposed on the velocity contours at different time during
the scouring process. The velocity components, including the streamwise and vertical velocities are
made non-dimensional with the friction velocity (U+ = U/u* , V+ = V/u* ). It is worth noting that the
results within the scour hole (i.e., below the initial bed) was not available because the sand bed at
the lateral side blocks the optical access of the field view inside the scour hole. The vectors clearly
illustrate the downward movement of flow (downflow) in front of the pier, and the downflow is more
visible with the scour hole development. The streamwise velocity decreases when flow approaching
to the pier due to its blocking effect. The contours of V+ show that the area with negative value of
V+ in front of the pier expands, indicating that the downflow extends with developing scour hole.
Moreover, the region with large value of V+ moves downward along the vertical direction as the scour
depth increases.
Water 2020, 12, 2370 10 of 19
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

t* = 2

t* = 11

t* = 133

t* = 266

t* = 931

(a) Streamwise velocity (b) vertical velocity

Contoursand
Figure9.9.Contours
Figure andvectors
vectorsofoftime-averaged
time-averagedvelocity
velocityatatdifferent
differenttime
timein
inthe
thepier
pierscouring
scouringprocess.
process.

To further
To further compare
compare the the variation
variation of of velocity
velocity under
under different
different scour
scour depth,
depth, the
the space-averaged
space-averaged
velocities were obtained and plotted in Figure 10. The left subplot is the velocity
velocities were obtained and plotted in Figure 10. The left subplot is the velocity variation along variation alongthethe
centerline
center linefor
for which
which thethe value
value was
was obtained
obtained by by averaging
averaging the the velocities
velocities over
over vertical
vertical direction.
direction. To To
clearly show the influence of scoured bed on the velocity, the corresponding
clearly show the influence of scoured bed on the velocity, the corresponding space-averaged resultsspace-averaged results (i.e.,
by averaging
(i.e., by averaging the data
the in theinmeasured
data the measuredarea) versus scour depth
area) versus scour were
depthpresented in the right
were presented in the subplot.
right
That canThat
subplot. be regarded
can be as the double-averaged
regarded results obtained
as the double-averaged resultsbyobtained
both timeby and space
both averaging
time and space the
instantaneous flow field data. The distribution of U + (Figure 10a) along x direction exhibits that it is
averaging the instantaneous flow field data. The distribution of U+ (Figure 10a) along x direction
reducedthat significantly closesignificantly
to the upstream of U +
exhibits it is reduced closeface of the
to the pier. The
upstream magnitude
face of the pier. Thegenerally
magnitude increases
of U+
with increasing scour depth. This can be explained that as the scour evolves
generally increases with increasing scour depth. This can be explained that as the scour evolves upstream, the bed slope
increases due to the formation of the scour hole, and the flow velocity is
upstream, the bed slope increases due to the formation of the scour hole, and the flow velocity iscorrespondingly increased.
Figure 10b indicates
correspondingly that the
increased. value
Figure of indicates
10b V+ increases
negative that the value near the pierV+due
of negative to the near
increases formation
the pierof
downflow, and the magnitude of V + increases with increasing scour depth, especially for the early
due to the formation of downflow, and the magnitude of V increases with increasing scour depth,
+
scouring stage
especially for thewith high
early scour rate.
scouring stageCombining
with highthe velocity
scour rate. contour
Combininganalyzed above, contour
the velocity it furtheranalyzed
indicates
that with
above, the increase
it further of scour
indicates depth
that with thethe downflow
increase in front
of scour depthof the
the pier becomes
downflow more of
in front prominent,
the pier
becomes more prominent, and both the extent and strength of the downflow increase hole.
and both the extent and strength of the downflow increase with the development of scour with This
the
development of scour hole. This finding is consistent with the results from the acoustic Doppler
velocimeter (ADV) measurement by Dey and Raikar (2007) [12].
Water 2020, 12, 2370 11 of 19

finding is consistent with the results from the acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) measurement by
Dey and Raikar (2007) [12].
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Figure
Figure10.10. Velocity
Velocity distributions
distributions along
along the
the center
center line
line at
at different
different time
time in
in the
thepier
pierscouring
scouring process
process
and
and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier scour depth. (a)
the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier scour depth. (a)streamwise
streamwise
velocity,
velocity,(b)
(b)vertical
verticalvelocity.
velocity.
4.2. Turbulence Intensities
4.2. Turbulence Intensities
The contours of turbulence intensities at different time during the pier scouring process are
The contours of turbulence intensities at different time during the pier scouring process are
depicted as Figure 11, in which the streamwise and vertical turbulence intensities (urms and vrms ) are
depicted as Figure 11, in which the streamwise and vertical turbulence intensities (urms and vrms) are
normalized by the friction velocity. Figure 11a shows that at the initial scour stage (e.g., t* = 2) the
normalized by the friction velocity. Figure 11a shows that at the initial scour stage (e.g., t* = 2) the
region with high value of urms is near the bed outside of the scour hole. With the development of
region with high value of urms is near the bed outside of the scour hole. With the development of scour,
scour, the region with large urms moves towards the inside of the scour hole meanwhile the extent
the region with large urms moves towards the inside of the scour hole meanwhile the extent with large
with large urms becomes more significant. This is related to the horseshoe vortex within the scour hole,
urms becomes more significant. This is related to the horseshoe vortex within the scour hole, which
which was also observed by Dey and Raikar (2007) [12]. As the scour hole size increases, the strength
was also observed by Dey and Raikar (2007) [12]. As the scour hole size increases, the strength and
and size of the horseshoe vortex increase, resulting in the associated turbulence intensity increases
size of the horseshoe vortex increase, resulting in the associated turbulence intensity increases
correspondingly. Figure 11b shows that the maximum value of vrms is located close to the upstream
correspondingly. Figure 11b shows that the maximum value of vrms is located close to the upstream
face of the pier, which can be further illustrated by the following Figure 12.
face of the pier, which can be further illustrated by the following Figure 12.
Figure 12 presents the distributions of turbulence intensities along the center line at different time
during the pier scouring process, and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless
pier scour depth is also plotted in the right subplot. It can be seen that the streamwise turbulence
intensity is decreased close to the pier, while the vertical turbulence intensity is increased and reached
the maximum just near the upstream face of the pier. This variation tendency is reasonably similar to
the distribution of flow velocity as shown in the left subplot of Figure 10. The space-averaged value for
both urms and vrms increase with increasing scour depth, and vrms is comparatively smaller than urms .
Overall, the flow in front of the pier becomes more turbulent with the development of scour due to the
effect of horseshoe vortex. This implies that the influence of turbulence on sediment transport becomes
more prominent, which should be considered in the numerical computation of pier scour [24].
Water 2020, 12, 2370 12 of 19
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

2 =2
t* = t*

11= 11
t* = t*

t* = t* = 133
133

t* = t* = 266
266

t* = t* = 931
931

(a) Streamwise
(a) Streamwise turbulence
turbulence intensity
intensity (b) Vertical
(b) Vertical turbulence
turbulence intensity
intensity

FigureFigure
11.11.
Figure 11. Contours
Contours
Contours of turbulence
of turbulence
of turbulence intensities
intensities at time
at different
intensities different
at different thetime
intime pier in the
pierpier
scouring
in the scouring
process.
scouring process.
(a) (a)
(a) streamwise
process.
streamwise
turbulence turbulence
intensity, (b) intensity,
vertical (b)
turbulencevertical turbulence
intensity. intensity.
streamwise turbulence intensity, (b) vertical turbulence intensity.

12. Turbulence
FigureFigure intensities
12. Turbulence distributions
intensities along the
distributions center line
along at different time in the pierinscouring
Figure 12. Turbulence intensities distributions along the the center
center line line at different
at different timetime
in the the
pierpier
process and theprocess
scouring corresponding
and the space-averaged
corresponding value versusvalue
space-averaged dimensionless
versus pier scour pier
dimensionless depth.
scour depth.
scouring process and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier scour depth.
reasonably similar to the distribution of flow velocity as shown in the left subplot of Figure 10. The
space-averaged value for both urms and vrms increase with increasing scour depth, and vrms is
comparatively smaller than urms. Overall, the flow in front of the pier becomes more turbulent with
the development of scour due to the effect of horseshoe vortex. This implies that the influence of
turbulence
Water 2020, 12,on sediment transport becomes more prominent, which should be considered in
2370 the
13 of 19
numerical computation of pier scour [24].

4.3.Reynolds
4.3. ReynoldsShear
ShearStress
Stressand
andTurbulent
Turbulent Kinetic
Kinetic Energy
Energy
Figure 13 presents
Figure presentsthe thecontours
contoursofof Reynolds
Reynolds shear stress
shear (RSS)
stress and and
(RSS) turbulent kinetic
turbulent energy
kinetic (TKE)
energy
at different scour stage, in which the value is normalized by the friction velocity.
(TKE) at different scour stage, in which the value is normalized by the friction velocity. It indicates It indicates that the
region
that thewith
regionlarge
with RSS expands
large with thewith
RSS expands scourthe hole development.
scour For instance,
hole development. the core of
For instance, thethe high
core of RSS
the
is located
high RSS isat located
just the at
front
justofthe
thefront
pier at
ofthe
theinitial scour
pier at the stage = 2). stage
initial(t*scour When(t* t* = 11, When
= 2). the maximum
t* = 11, RSS
the
is occurred at the upstream edge of the scour hole (turning point) as a result
maximum RSS is occurred at the upstream edge of the scour hole (turning point) as a result of flow of flow separation. As
the scour evolves
separation. As the upstream,
scour evolves the upstream,
flow with high RSSwith
the flow expands
highto RSStheexpands
outsideto ofthe
theoutside
scour hole (e.g.,
of the scoursee
the red-color
hole (e.g., seeregion at t* = 931),
the red-color which
region is =
at t* probably due to
931), which is the effect ofdue
probably turbulent
to the horseshoe vortex in
effect of turbulent
the scour hole.
horseshoe vortexThe distribution
in the scour hole. of The
TKEdistribution
is similar toofthat
TKE ofisstreamwise turbulence
similar to that intensity,
of streamwise which is
turbulence
consistentwhich
intensity, with the results of with
is consistent Dey and Raikar of
the results (2007)
Dey [12].
and Raikar (2007) [12].

t* = 2

t* = 11

t* = 133

t* = 266

t* = 931

(a) Reynolds shear stress (RSS) (b) Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE)

Figure13.
Figure ContoursofofReynolds
13.Contours Reynoldsshear
shearstress
stressand
andturbulent
turbulentkinetic
kineticenergy
energyatatdifferent
differenttime
timein
inthe
thepier
pier
scouring process.
scouring process.

Figure 14 further illustrates the RSS increase with developing scour hole, and the large value
of RSS enlarges and moves upstream as shown in the right subplot of Figure 14a. The variation of
TKE with scour depth is relatively complicated rather than monotonic increasing or decreasing. It is
inferred that the TKE is closely generated by the horseshoe vortex. With the development of scour
depth the horseshoe vortex moves towards the bottom of the scour hole. Hence most of the TKE is
taken into the scour hole, and the TKE in the region up the scour hole is correspondingly reduced.
However, the size and strength of the horseshoe vortex increase at the same time, and the influence
may expand to the flow outside of the scour hole, which leads to the increase of TKE as clarified in
 RSS enlarges and moves upstream as shown in the right subplot of Figure 14a. The variation of TKE
with scour depth is relatively complicated rather than monotonic increasing or decreasing. It is
inferred that the TKE is closely generated by the horseshoe vortex. With the development of scour
depth the horseshoe vortex moves towards the bottom of the scour hole. Hence most of the TKE is
taken
Water into
2020, 12, the
2370 scour hole, and the TKE in the region up the scour hole is correspondingly reduced.
14 of 19
However, the size and strength of the horseshoe vortex increase at the same time, and the influence
may expand to the flow outside of the scour hole, which leads to the increase of TKE as clarified in
the right subplot of Figure 14b. However, more in-depth investigations are needed to confirm this
the right subplot of Figure 14b. However, more in-depth investigations are needed to confirm this
conjecture and it is beyond the scope of this study.
conjecture and it is beyond the scope of this study.

Figure 14. Reynolds shear stress and turbulent kinetic energy along the center line at different time in
Figure 14. Reynolds shear stress and turbulent kinetic energy along the center line at different time in
the pier scouring process and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier scour
the pier scouring process and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier
depth. (a) Reynolds shear stress, (b) turbulent kinetic energy.
scour depth. (a) Reynolds shear stress, (b) turbulent kinetic energy.
4.4. Production of Turbulent Kinetic Energy
4.4. Production of Turbulent Kinetic Energy
The TKE budget based on the PIV data obtained in present measurement is analyzed. The
The TKE
production termsbudget
included based on TKE
in the the PIV dataequation
budget obtainedareinherebypresent measurement
mainly concerned, is including
analyzed. the The
production terms included in the TKE budget equation are hereby mainly
productions from the streamwise stress Puu and shear stress Puv , which are denoted as [42,43] concerned, including the
productions from the streamwise stress Puu and shear stress Puv, which are denoted as [42,43]
∂U
0 2 U
∂U
0 0 U
Puu== uu '2 ∂x , Puv
Puu Puv==uu v' v '∂z (4)
(4)
x , z
whereu’
where u’ and v’ represent
and v’ represent streamwise
streamwiseand andvertical
vertical fluctuating
fluctuating velocity,
velocity, respectively;
respectively; U isUtheis time-
the
time-averaged streamwise
averaged streamwise velocity. velocity.
The
Thecontours
contoursof ofTKE
TKEproduction
productionatatdifferent
differenttime timeduring
duringthe thepier
pierscouring
scouringprocessprocessare aredepicted
depicted
asasthe
thefollowing
followingFigure
Figure15. 15.ItItshows
showsthatthatatatthetheinitial
initialscour
scourstage (i.e.,t*t*==2)2)the
stage(i.e., theregion
regionwithwithhigh
high
absolute value of
absolute value of P P is near the bed outside of the scour hole, and the
uuuu is near the bed outside of the scour hole, and the patch of large uu patch of large P Puu seemstoto
seems
move
movetowards
towardsthethefront
frontface
faceofofthe
thepier.
pier.This
Thisisissimilar
similartotothe distributionofofurms
thedistribution urms, ,which
whichillustrates
illustratesthat
that
the
theturbulence
turbulenceintensity
intensitytermtermdominates
dominatesthe theTKE TKEproduction
productionininfront frontofofthethepier
pierdueduetotostreamwise
streamwise
fluctuation.With
fluctuation. With the
the development
development of scour, scour, the
the region
regionwith
withlargelargePPuuuumoves
moves towards
towards thethe
inside of the
inside of
the scour hole meanwhile the absolute value of Puu is generally decreased because most of turbulent
kinetic energy is transported to the scour hole.
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

scour hole12,meanwhile
Water 2020, 2370 the absolute value of Puu is generally decreased because most of turbulent
15 of 19
kinetic energy is transported to the scour hole.

t* = 2

t* = 11

t* = 133

t* = 266

t* = 931

(a) Streamwise stress production (b) Shear stress production

Figure 15. Contours of turbulent kinetic energy production at different time in the pier scouring process.
Figure 15. Contours of turbulent kinetic energy production at different time in the pier scouring
(a) streamwise stress production, (b) shear stress production.
process. (a) streamwise stress production, (b) shear stress production.
Figure 15b clearly shows that the core of the high Puv is located at just the front of the pier at
Figure 15b clearly shows that the core of the high Puv is located at just the front of the pier at the
the initial scour stage (t* = 2). In this region, the streamlines experiences large curvature and thus
initial scour stage (t* = 2). In this region, the streamlines experiences large curvature and thus there
there exists a large shear rate in the streamwise velocity component. The location of its maximum
exists a large shear rate in the streamwise velocity component. The location of its maximum
corresponds approximately to the peak position of RSS and TKE. When t* = 11, the maximum Puv is
corresponds approximately to the peak position of RSS and TKE. When t* = 11, the maximum Puv is
formed at the upstream edge of the scour hole (turning point) as a result of flow separation, which is
formed at the upstream edge of the scour hole (turning point) as a result of flow separation, which is
consistent to the distribution of RSS. This patch of shear production is probably a main contributor to
consistent to the distribution of RSS. This patch of shear production is probably a main contributor
the turbulent kinetic energy. With the development of scour, the region with large Puv moves towards
to the turbulent kinetic energy. With the development of scour, the region with large Puv moves
the inside of the scour hole, giving rise to the value of Puv decreased at this region.
towards the inside of the scour hole, giving rise to the value of Puv decreased at this region.
Water 2020, 12, 2370 16 of 19
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

Figure 16
Figure 16 shows
shows thethe variation
variation ofof double-averaged
double-averaged TKE TKE budget
budget under
under different
different scour
scour depth,
depth, inin
whichthe
which theleft
leftsubplot
subplotisisthe
thevelocity
velocityvariation
variationalong
alongthe
thecenter
centerline
linefor
forwhich
whichthe thevalue
valuewaswas obtained
obtained
by averaging the velocities over vertical direction. The corresponding space-averaged
by averaging the velocities over vertical direction. The corresponding space-averaged results results (i.e., by
(i.e.,
averaging
by averaging thethedata
datain in
the
themeasured
measuredarea)area)versus
versusscour
scourdepth
depthwere
werepresented
presented in in the
the right subplot.
right subplot.
Figure 16a
Figure 16a demonstrates
demonstrates that thatthe
theabsolute
absolutevalue
valueofofPuu is decreased
Puu is decreasedclosing to the
closing pierpier
to the and and
almost zero
almost
zero near the front face of the pier. This variation tendency is reasonably similar to the distributionurms
near the front face of the pier. This variation tendency is reasonably similar to the distribution of of.
uThe
rms . absolute space-averaged
The absolute space-averagedvaluevalue
for Puu is Pdecreased
for with increasing
uu is decreased scour depth.
with increasing FigureFigure
scour depth. 16b shows16b
that the P is small along the x direction except for the region close to the pier
shows that the Puv is small along the x direction except for the region close to the pier with a significant
uv with a significant
change to
change to aalarge
largeabsolute
absolutevalue.
value. With
With the
the development
development of of scour
scour depth,
depth, the
the space-averaged
space-averaged valuevalue ofof
PPuv is reduced
uv is reduced because
because most
most ofof turbulent
turbulent kinetic
kinetic energy
energy isis transported
transported into
into the
the scour
scour hole.
hole.

Figure 16. Production of turbulent kinetic energy along the center line at different time in the pier
Figure 16. Production of turbulent kinetic energy along the center line at different time in the pier
scouring process and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier scour depth.
scouring process and the corresponding space-averaged value versus dimensionless pier scour depth.
(a) streamwise stress production, (b) shear stress production.
(a) streamwise stress production, (b) shear stress production.
5. Summary and Conclusions
5. Summary and Conclusions
This paper experimentally investigated the influence of scour development on turbulent flow field
This
in front of paper
a bridgeexperimentally
pier. The scour investigated
development, theincluding
influencetheof scour hole
development
evolutionon andturbulent flow
the temporal
field in front
variation of adepth
of scour bridge pier. The
around scour
the pier weredevelopment, including the
thoroughly discussed. The scour hole in
flow fields evolution andpier
front of the the
temporal
at differentvariation
instants of scourthe
during depth
scouraround thewere
process pier were thoroughly
obtained discussed. The PIV
by the high-resolution flowmeasurement.
fields in front
of the pier at the
Furthermore, different instants during
hydrodynamic the scourinprocess
characteristics, terms ofwere obtained by the
the time-averaged high-resolution
velocities, PIV
turbulence
measurement.
intensities, Furthermore,
Reynolds shear stress, theturbulent
hydrodynamic characteristics,
kinetic energy, in terms
and production of the time-averaged
of turbulent kinetic energy
velocities,
were analyzedturbulence intensities, Reynolds shear stress, turbulent kinetic energy, and production of
in detail.
turbulent
During kinetic energy
the scour were analyzed
process, in detail.
the bed slope upstream of the scour hole at different moment remains
almostDuring the which
constant, scour process, the bed slope
is approximately equalupstream of the
to the angle scour hole
of repose. Theat different
scour depthmoment remains
at the pier front
almost constant,
exceeds that of thewhich is approximately
pier side equalstage.
at the later scouring to theTheangle of repose.
temporal The scourofdepth
development scour at the pier
depth can
front
be wellexceeds
predictedthatbyofathe pier practical
simple side at the later scouring
engineering modelstage.
basedThe
ontemporal development
an exponential functionofwith
scour a
depth can
change betwo
in the welladjustable
predictedcoefficients
by a simple (c1 practical engineering
and c2 ), of model based
which c1 represents on anrate
the scour exponential
and c2 is
function
found with a change
analytically to be in the two
related adjustable
to the scour holecoefficients
geometry(cwith
1 andacvalue
2), of which
smaller c1 than
represents the scour
1. Comparison
rate and c2 is found analytically to be related to the scour hole geometry with a value smaller than 1.
Water 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

Comparison with other previously experimental data demonstrates that the present simple model
does 2020,
Water a good job of predicting the scour depth observed at both pier front and side.
12, 2370 17 of 19
The flow field indicates that with the scour hole development, the downward flow in front of
the pier becomes more prominent, and the flow becomes more turbulent due to the effect of turbulent
with other previously
horseshoe vortex within experimental data demonstrates
the scour hole. The variationthat the present
tendency simple
for both model does
velocities a good job
and turbulence
of predicting the scour depth observed at both pier front and side.
intensities along streamwise direction in front the pier shows similarity. The Reynolds shear stress
The flow
increases field indicates
with developing that
scour with
hole, and thethescour
regionhole development,
with the downward
large value enlarges and movesflowupstream
in front
of the pier becomes more prominent, and the flow becomes more turbulent due
of the scour hole. The variation of turbulent kinetic energy with scour depth is relatively complicated to the effect of
turbulent horseshoe vortex within the scour hole. The variation tendency
rather than monotonic increasing or decreasing. The analysis of TKE budget illustrates that the for both velocities and
turbulence
turbulence intensities
intensity termalong streamwise
dominates thedirection in front the
TKE production in pier
frontshows
of thesimilarity.
pier due toThe Reynolds
streamwise
shear
fluctuation. With the development of scour, most of TKE production is transported into themoves
stress increases with developing scour hole, and the region with large value enlarges and scour
upstream
hole. of the scour hole. The variation of turbulent kinetic energy with scour depth is relatively
complicated rather than monotonic increasing or decreasing. The analysis of TKE budget illustrates
that theContributions:
Author turbulence intensity term dominates
J.L. conducted the TKE
the experiments, production
analyzed in front
the data, and of the the
wrote pierpaper;
due toY.Y.
streamwise
reviewed
and edited the paper and provided suggestions for the improvement of the paper; Z.Y.
fluctuation. With the development of scour, most of TKE production is transported into the scour reviewed and provided
hole.
suggestions during the revision of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
Author Contributions: J.L. conducted the experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the paper; Y.Y. reviewed
manuscript.
and edited the paper and provided suggestions for the improvement of the paper; Z.Y. reviewed and provided
Funding: This
suggestions research
during the was funded
revision by the
of the BasicAll
paper. Funding ofhave
authors the Central Public
read and Research
agreed to theInstitutes
published (TKS190101,
version of
the manuscript.and the Key science and technology projects of Ministry of Transport of China (2019-ZD10-059).
TKS20200101)
Funding: This research
Acknowledgments: Thewas funded
authors by the
would Basic
like Funding
to thank the of the Central
editors and thePublic
two Research
anonymous Institutes (TKS190101,
reviewers for their
TKS20200101) and the Key science and technology projects of Ministry of Transport of China (2019-ZD10-059).
constructive comments and suggestions during the revision of the manuscript. The first author expresses sincere
Acknowledgments:
gratitude to Meilan QiThe
forauthors would
providing the like to thank the
experimental editors and
equipment, andthe
alsotwo anonymous
Qigang Chen forreviewers for their
the assistance on
constructive comments
PIV measurement. and suggestions during the revision of the manuscript. The first author expresses sincere
gratitude to Meilan Qi for providing the experimental equipment, and also Qigang Chen for the assistance on
PIV measurement.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Appendix A
Validation of PIV Measurement
Appendix A.1. Validation
The velocity of PIV Measurement
fields measured at the initial flatbed condition were used to compute the turbulence
statistics at different streamwise
The velocity fields measured at positions.
the initialFigure
flatbedA1 presentswere
condition the used
profiles of meanthe
to compute velocity and
turbulence
statistical quantities (turbulence intensity and Reynolds shear stress) at x/D = −3.0
statistics at different streamwise positions. Figure A1 presents the profiles of mean velocity and upstream of the
pier. The quantities
statistical direct numerical simulation
(turbulence intensity (DNS) result byshear
and Reynolds Del Alamo etx/D
stress) at al. =
(2004) [44] for a of
−3.0 upstream turbulent
the pier.
The direct numerical simulation (DNS) result by Del Alamo et al. (2004) [44] for a turbulent that
channel flow at comparable Reynolds number was plotted for comparison. It shows the
channel
experimental
flow profilesReynolds
at comparable agree well with the
number wasDNS results
plotted forexcept in the upper
comparison. part that
It shows of the
theflow due to the
experimental
influences of free surface, verifying the present measured results by PIV is reasonable
profiles agree well with the DNS results except in the upper part of the flow due to the influences and accurate,
of
and also the turbulent open channel flow is quasi-two-dimensional and fully developed
free surface, verifying the present measured results by PIV is reasonable and accurate, and also the upstream of
the cylinder.
turbulent open channel flow is quasi-two-dimensional and fully developed upstream of the cylinder.

1000 1 1 1
Present DNS Present
Present
DNS Present DNS
DNS
0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6
z+

0.6 0.6
z/h
z/h
z/h

100

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

10 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 0 1 2 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.4 0.8 1.2
U+ urms vrms RSS

Figure A1. Comparison of velocity and turbulence quantities by the present particle image velocimetry
(PIV) measurement with direct numerical simulation (DNS) results.
Water 2020, 12, 2370 18 of 19

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