TASK 01

01. elemental makeup, quantity

02. mining/ petrochemical(s)/ metals/ cement/ food and
beverage/ R&D
03. on distinct energy levels
04. (high) energy

TASK 02
05. True
06. False
07. True
08. Not Given

TASK 03
09. B
10. D
11. C
12. A
13. B

TASK 04
14. components - requirements
15. calibration
16. a regression curve
17. semi-quantitative solutions
18. analytical dynamic range
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TASK 01
What is XRF? How does it work and what is it used for? X-ray
fluorescence or XRF is a reliable method for determining the (01)
elemental makeup of any material as well as determining the
quantity of each material. Modern XRF instruments are easy to
use, or non-destructive, and can measure material with little to no
sample prep. This makes XRF a preferred analysis method for a
great number of industries, including (02) mining, petrochemicals,
metals, cement, food and beverage, and R&D. An XRF experiment
begins by irradiating a sample material with X-rays from an X-ray
source. Every material is made up of many atoms and each atom
has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged electrons. (03) The electrons orbit the nucleus
on distinct energy levels or shells. When X-rays encounter an
atom, they're absorbed by the electrons orbiting the nucleus. (04)
If the energy from an incoming X-ray is high enough, the electron
receiving the X-ray will be released from the atom.

TASK 02

An empty electron spot close to the nucleus is not a stable state

for an atom, so it will pull an electron from a farther away shell to
fill that spot. (05) When this happens, a new X-ray is emitted as
an X-ray fluorescence photon, which is unique for each element.
The energy shells from an atom are named alphabetically with the
closest ring being K then L, M and so on. This atomic structure is
described by the familiar Bohr model. (06) The photons emitted
from these shells were originally described in a notation by a
physicist named Karl Manne Siegbahn. Appropriately, this is
known today as the Siegbahn notation, so when you hear the
characteristic lines of elements referred to as K lines and outlines
or K Alpha and K beta, (07) you now understand that it all refers
back to these two models. By applying the Siegbahn notation we
stated earlier that XRF cannot only (08) determine which
elements are in the material but also determine the quantity.
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TASK 03

If the key factors to measuring the fluorescence relies on (09) a

careful balance between the instrument's power, sensitivity and
the ability to resolve the data, each element emits a unique
fluorescence. There are two techniques used to separate and
identify these energies. The first method is known as energy
dispersive or EDXRF. The spectral resolution in EDXRF is achieved
by the quality of the detector. These detectors have several
thousand channels to simultaneously measure the entire spectrum
coming off the sample. (10) The more channels, the better the
resolution. Because all radiation from the sample is collected
directly after the sample, (11) the power of these systems can be
lower. This makes EDXRF perfect for benchtop systems and low
intensity setups like micro XRF or handheld XRF. In wavelength
dispersive or WDXRF techniques, (12) Bragg's law is applied to
determine at what angle these characteristic X-rays will be
located. Filters are used to improve the background of spectra
results, collimators are used to make a parallel beam coming off
the sample, and crystals with known lattice parameters separate
the wavelength related to an element of interest. The detector is
positioned at 2-theta to measure the specific elemental
wavelength placing all of these components between the signal
coming off the sample and the detector comes at a cost. The
intensity reaching the detector is diminished significantly;
therefore, WDXRF X-ray sources must be much more powerful.
WDXRF usually has better resolution than EDXRF, especially for
the most common elements, (13) which is mostly needed for
advanced applications.
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TASK 04

Due to the higher power, WDXRF is also capable of measuring

light elements that naturally have very low fluorescence yield and
cannot be easily detected using EDXRF, (14) but remember
EDXRF systems have far fewer components and lower power
requirements, so if you're looking for a fast, broad and less
expensive way to determine the elemental makeup of your sample,
EDXRF provides an ideal solution. So how do we get from
detecting the elements from the Spectrum to quantifying them?
(15) XRF spectrometers not only determine the presence of
elements, but also the amount of them in the sample. This
happens by setting up a calibration, standards with known
concentrations of a material , for example cement, are measured
and the intensity is plotted versus the concentration. (16) A
regression curve is fitted and thanks to modern software, can be
optimized to improve the calibration. When an unknown cement
sample is measured, the intensity is compared to the calibration
curve of the standard, this sort of calibration can be set up for a
wide variety of materials like petroleums, polymers, metals and so
on. (17) Modern systems offer semi-quantitative solutions, which
can analyze the material without those standards, in other words
they’re standardless methods. XRF is a versatile solution that can
analyze any material from solids to liquids, loose powders, or
pressed powders. (18) For most elements, XRF's analytical dynamic
range is from parts per million to 100 percent, and thanks to WD
and EDXRF techniques these instruments are suitable for an
increasingly wider range of applications and budgets.