Chapter 2: SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

SOCIALIZATION AND
Charles Horton Cooley & George Herbert
Mead developed the SYMBOLIC

THE SELF
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE in the early
1900. They challenged the idea that biology
determined human nature.

 They argued that human nature is a product

SOCIALIZATION of society.
 The process by which an individual
learns how to interact with others and Symbolic Interactionism uses several key ideas
becomes a member of society; to explain socialization.
Socialization is a complex, lifelong
process.  The Self-Concept
 The looking – glass self
We are all product of our social experience.  Significant others
 Roles taking (imitation, play & game)
Socialization teach us:

- Language
-
-
Culture (norms, values, beliefs, etc.)
Understanding of others
TYPES OF
- Understanding of ourselves as a social
being or a “social self”
SOCIALIZATION
- Emergence of the social self
PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION
SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION
SOCIALIZATION PERSPECTIVES ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION
RECIPROCAL SOCIALIZATION
 All three theoretical perspectives agree that
RESOCIALIZATION
socialization is needed for culture and
society values to be learned
 It is also agreed that socialization occurs PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION
because it is internalized (becomes part
of you).  Socialization that occurs without the
subject’s knowledge of it.

SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE  Socialization that is purposeful and
 FUNCTIONALISM stresses the importance obvious.
of groups working together to create a
stable society. ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION

For example, schools and families socialize  Socialization that prepares people for
children by teaching them the basic norms, beliefs future roles and status.
and values.
RECIPROCAL SOCIALIZATION

 When children socialize with parents

while parents socialize with children.

RESOCIALIZATION
 The process of unlearning old norms,
roles and values and learning new ones
required in a new environment.
TOTAL INSTITUTION – A place where people
are isolated from the rest of society for a set
period of time and their lives are almost
completely controlled by officials who run the
institution.
Resocialization occurs in total institutions.
Examples: includes prisons, asylums and the
military.
AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION
An institutions or group that prepares an
individual for social life and society.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
FAMILY
SCHOOL
PEER GROUP
MEDIA
FAMILY
1. SCHOOL
o Schooling enlarges children’s
social world to include people
with social backgrounds different
from their own.
o School is the child’s first
experience with bureaucracy.
o Socializes children into gender
roles.
o Formal schooling teaches children a
wide range of knowledge and skills.
2. PEER GROUP
o Provides young people the
experience in developing social
relationships on their own and
establishing an identity apart from
their family.
o Provides a sense of belonging that
eases the anxiety of breaking away
from the family.
3. MEDIA
o Influences our attitude and
behavior through the images and
messages it conveys.
o Spreads info. on a mass scale,
and functions to connect people
4. FAMILY
o The most important agent of
socialization because it stands at
the center of children’s lives.
o Provides for basic needs and
teaches children skills, cultural
values and attitudes about
themselves and others.
o Passes on to children a social
position (places them in society in
terms of race, ethnicity, religion and
class)
o Socializes children into gender roles
 According to Burgess and Lock the
family is a group of persons united by
ties of marriage, blood or adoption
constituting a single household
interacting with each other in their
respective social role of husband and
wife, mother and father, brother and sister
creating a common culture.
 According to Maclver family is a group
defined by sex relationships sufficiently
precise and enduring to provide for the
procreation and upbringing of children.
 G.P Murdock defines the family as a social
group characterized by common
residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction. It includes adults of both
sexes at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship and
 one or more children own or adopted of the
sexually co – habiting adults.
 The family forms the basic unit of social
organization and it is difficult to imagine
how human society could function without it.
 The family has been seen as a universal
social institution an inevitable part of
human society.
 Families are factories which produce human
personalities.
TYPES OF FAMILY
NUCLEAR FAMILY
EXTENDED FAMILY
SINGLE – PARENT
CHILDLESS FAMILY
1. NUCLEAR FAMILY – Family that
consists of a mother, father, and their
biological or adoptive descendants, often
called the TRADITIONAL FAMILY.
2. EXTENDED FAMILY – Family that has
two or more adults from unlike
generations of a family, who share a
household. It consists of more than parent
and children; it may be a family that
includes parents, children, cousins, aunts,
uncles, grandparents, foster children. At
times children are raised by their
grandparents when their biological
parents have died or no longer can take
care of them.
SINGLE PARENT – Children are most likely to
live in a single parent structure for reasons
other than death of a parent.
One of the most luxurious things for a single
parents is child care. Single families frequently
have less pressure compared to the pressure
in families before divorce.
CHILDLESS FAMILY – Childless family is
basically a group of people from all variety of
backgrounds and all walks of life who, for
whatever reason, have never had children.
IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY
1. Family is very important part of our
everyday life. It helps us in improving our
personality.
2. It also helps us in shaping our life.
3. It teaches us the value of love, affection,
care, truthfulness and self – confidence and
provides us tools and suggestions which are
necessary to get success in life.
4. Family is a place where you can be
yourself. It is a place where you are
accepted for what you are. This is where
you are completely tension free and
everyone is there to help you.
5. Family encourages you when you are
surrounded by problems. It helps you
survive through tough times and bring joy
and happiness into life.
FRIENDSHIP
 A dynamic, mutual relationship between two
individuals.
 Is a form of interpersonal relationship
generally considered to be closer than
association.
 Friendship is a feeling of comfort and
emotional safety with a person.
 Friendship is much beyond roaming
together and sharing good moments, it is
when someone comes to rescue your from
the worst phase of life.
 Friendship is eternal.
“A friend is one who believes in you when you have
ceased to believe in yourself”.

VALUE THAT IS FOUND IN
FRIENDSHIPS
1. The tendency to desire what is best for the
other.
2. Sympathy and empathy
3. Honesty, perhaps in situations where it may
be difficult for others to speak the truth.
4. Mutual understanding and compassion
5. Enjoyment of each other’s company
6. Trust in one another
7. Positive reciprocity, the ability to be oneself,
express one’s feelings and make mistakes
without fear of judgement.
3. BFF (Best Friends Forever) – Slang used
primarily by teenagers and young adults to
describe a close friend.
4. BRO OR BRUH – Teenage and young adult
men to describe a male close friend. This
term is currently used to describe the
modern generation of college – age male
party goers.
5. SIS – Female equivalent of “bro”
6. BUDDY – Males and sometimes females
often refer to each other as “buddies”.
Buddies are also acquaintances that one
has during certain events.
7. CASUAL RELATIONSHIP OR FRIENDS
WITH BENEFITS – A sexual or near-sexual

14 TYPES OF and emotional relationship between two

people who do not expect or demand to

FRIENDSHIP share a formal romantic relationship.

8. FAMILY FRIEND – A friendship extended to

1. ASSOCIATE family member of the friends.
2. BEST FRIEND (CLOSE FRIEND)
3. BFF (BEST FRIEND FOREVER) 9. COMRADE – Means “ally”, “friend” or
4. BRO (BRUH) “colleague” in a military or political
5. SIS connotation.
6. BUDDY
7. CASUAL RELATIONSHIP / FRIENDS 10. FRENEMY – A portmanteau of the words
WITH BENEFITS friend and enemy, the term frenemy refers
8. FAMILY FRIEND
to someone who pretend to be a friend but
9. COMRADE
10. FRENEMEY actually is an enemy.
11. IMAGINARY FRIEND
12. COMMUNAL FRIENDSHIP 11. IMAGINARY FRIEND – A non physical
13. PENPAL friend created by a child or even an adult.
14. INTERNET RELATIONSHIP Sometimes they are human; other times,
they are animals.

1. ASSOCIATE – Not a true friend, sharing of 12. COMMUNAL FRIENDSHIP – A friendship

emotional ties is absent.
2. BEST FRIEND (OR CLOSE FRIEND) – A
person someone shares extremely strong
interpersonal ties with as a friend.
in which the friends gather often to provide
encouragement and emotional support in
times of great need.
13. PEN PAL – People who have a relationship
via postal correspondence.
 14. INTERNET RELATIONSHIP – A form of
friendship which takes place over the
internet.
WHY WE NEED FRIENDS?
 They serve as one of the biggest support in
our life.
 Friend are amongst those few people who
accept us, rather like us, as we are. They
never come into our life, expecting us to
change for them. However, they do correct
us when we are at fault.
 It is said that whether you need to hear the
bitter truth about yourself, go to your best
friend.
 You can always count on your friends,
whether you need any advice or any help.
They will shy away from none.
After family, friends are the one who care for you.
 Friends are the one with whom we can
share our darkest secret, without being
worried of them being leaked. They
acknowledge our worst ideas and try to fulfill
our silliest of wishes.
 Friends feel happy at your success and sad
at your failure. When you have friends you
never ever feel lonely.
 Friends love you and care for you. They
always make you feel special and never
expect anything in return, other than your
love and friendship. They stay true to you
throughout their lives.
LOVE RELATIONSHIP
AFFILIATION NEED
 The motive to form connection and contact
with other people resulting in the display to
affiliate behavior.
ATTRACTION
 The power that makes one person feel
positively about another.
What makes us feel attracted to another
person?
People are attracted to other person because they
are allured or charmed by someone, they want to
know that person, to spend valuable time with
them.
INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION – the desire to
approach another individual.
5 REASONS FOR
INTERPERSONAL
ATTRACTION
1. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
2. PROXIMITY
3. FAMILIARITY
4. RECIPROCITY PRINCIPLE
5. SIMILARITY
1. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS.
“Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”
“You can’t judge the book by its cover”
“Personal beauty is a greater recommendation than
any letter of introduction”
This shows that people viewed physical
attractiveness as an implicit personality theory,
these assumptions that people make about that
personality traits and behavior go together.
It suggest that physical attractiveness is a matter of
personal preference.
2. PROXIMITY
o Physical proximity of one person to
another is a potent factor which
facilitates attraction.
3. FAMILIARITY
o As one becomes more familiar with
a stimulus, one feels more
 comfortable with it and shows more
liking for it.
4. RECIPROCITY PRINCIPLE
o The law of doing unto other as they
do to you. An attempt to gain
compliance by first doing someone a
favor.
“ We tend to like those who like us and dislike who
dislike us”
5. SIMILARITY
o People tend to like others who have
values and attitudes similar to them.
When we met new people we talk to
them and learn what they think and
feel.
These interactions enables people discover if they
are similar.
Matching hypothesis:
“ Birds of the same feather really do flock together”
LIKING (ATTRACTION) AND LOVING
DIFFERENTIATED
LIKING
 Associated with attraction
 It has a different states from loving
Situational states in liking
1. Close proximity fosters liking
2. Familiarity breeds liking
3. Evolutionary theory – state that individual is
attracted to others on the basis of
increasing reproductive success.
LOVE
 Is an emotion of strong affection and
personal attachment.
 A virtue representing all of human kindness,
compassion, and affection; and “the
unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for
the good of another.
 May also be described as actions towards
other (or oneself) based on compassion, or
as actions towards others based on
affection
 Refers to a variety of different feelings, state
and attitudes, ranging from pleasure (“I
loved that meal”) to interpersonal attraction.
 May refer specifically to the passionate
desire and intimacy of romantic love, to the
sexual love of eros, to the emotional
closeness of familial love, or to platonic
love that defines friendship, to the profound
oneness or devotion of religious love.
 In it various forms acts as a major facilitator
of interpersonal relationships and, owing to
its central psychological importance, is one
of the most common themes in the creative
arts.
 Love in its various forms acts as a major
facilitator of interpersonal relationships and,
owing to its central psychological
importance.
 Love may be understood as part of the
survival instinct, a function to keep human
beings together against menaces and to
facilitate the continuation of the species.
 Love refers to interpersonal love, an
experience felt by a person for another
person. Love often involves caring for or
identifying with a person or thing including
oneself.
 Love is sometimes referred to as being the
“international language, overriding cultural
and linguistic divisions.
CATEGORIES OF LOVE
IMPERSONAL LOVE
 A person can be said to love an object,
principle or goal if they value it greatly and
are deeply committed to it. People can also
“love” material objects, animals or activities.
If sexual passion is also involved, this
condition is called paraphilia.
INTERPERSONAL LOVE
 Interpersonal love refers to love between
human beings. Unrequited love refers to
those feelings of love that are not
reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most
closely associated with interpersonal
relationships.
components: intimacy, commitment and
passion.
American psychologist Zick Rubin sought to
define love by psychometrics in the 1970s. His
work states that three factors constitute love:
attachment, caring and intimacy.
Following developments in electrical theories such
as Coulomb’s law, which showed that positive and
negative charges attract, analogs in human life
were developed, such as “opposite attracts”.
Psychologist Erich Fromm maintained in his book
“The art of loving” that love is not merely a feeling
but is also actions in this sense. Fromm held that
love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a
commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions
towards another, one self, or many others, over a
sustained duration.

DIFFERENT BASIS OF LOVE

EVOLUTIONARY BASIS
Evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide
BIOLOGICAL BASIS various reasons for love as a survival tool.
Biological models of sex tend to view love
Humans are dependent on parental help for a large
as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or
portion of their lifespans comparative to other
thirst.
mammals.
Helen Fisher, a leading expert in the
Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to
topic of love, divides the experience of love into
promote parental support of children for this
three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction
extended time period.
and attachment.

Recent studies in neuroscience have

indicated that as people fall in love, the brain CONSUMATE LOVE
consistently releases as certain set of chemicals,  Refers as ultimate form of love involving
including pheromones, dopamine, norepinephrine, passion, intimacy and commitment.
and serotonin, which act in a manner similar to
amphetamines, stimulating the brain’s pleasure
center.

PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS
Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and
social phenomenon.
PASSION – Equivalent to sexual attraction
Psychologist Robert Sternberg
INTIMACY – Feelings of warmth, closeness and
formulated a triangular theory of love and
sharing.
argued that love has three different
COMMITMENT – Person who resolves to maintain
the relationship, even in crisis.
ROMANTIC LOVE OR PASSIONATE
LOVE
 A state of intense absorption in another
person involving physiological arousal.
 It involve an intensely emotional state and
confusion of feelings associated with
tenderness, sexuality, elation and pain,
anxiety and relief, altruism and jealousy.
ROMANCE is the pleasurable feeling of excitement
and mystery associated with love. In the context of
romantic love relationships, romance usually
implies an expression of one’s love or one’s deep
ATTRACTION (ROMANTIC PASSION)
emotional desires to connect with another person.
TYPES / STAGES OF
LOVE
There are three (3) types or stages of “love”:
1. Lust or erotic passion
2. Attraction or romantic passion
3. Attachment or commitment
ATTACHMENT (COMMITMENT)
When all three (3) of these happen with the
same person, you have a very strong bond.
Sometimes, however, the one we lust after isn’t the
one we’re actually in love with.
LUST (DESIRE)
When we’re teenagers, just after puberty,
estrogen and testosterone become active in
our bodies for the first time and create the
desire experience “love”.
COMPANIONATE LOVE
Lust and romantic love are two (2) different
things caused by different underlying
substrates. Lust evolved for the purpose of
sexual mating, while romantic love evolved
because of the need for infant / child
bonding.
Sexologist John Money draws the line
between love and lust in this way: “Love
exist above the belt, lust below. Love is
lyrical. Lust is lewd”.
Pheromones, looks and our own learned
predispositions for what we look for in a
mate play an important role in whom we lust
after, as well.
Without lust, we might never find that
special someone. But, while lust keeps us
“looking around,” it is our desire for romance
that leads us to attraction.
While the initial feelings may (or may not)
come from lust, what happens next – if the
relationship is to progress – is attraction.
The old saying “love is blind” is really
accurate in this stage.
We are often oblivious to any flaws our
partner might have. We idealize them and
can’t get the, off our minds.
Passed fantasy love and are entering into
real love. This stage of love has to be strong
enough to withstand many problems and
distractions.
The more we idealize the one we love, the
stronger the relationship during this stage.
- Caring and affection for another person
which usually arises from sharing time
together.
- It exists between close friends and lovers.
- It develops out of a sense of certainty in
each other’s love and respect, and a feeling
of genuine mutual understanding.
ATTACHMENT SYSTEM

Has a goal of establishing and maintaining a

strong emotional bond between two people.

MARRIAGE CHAPTER 3:
Marriage is the process by which two (2)
people who love each other make their PROSOCIAL
BEHAVIOR: WHY DO
relationship public, official and permanent.

PEOPLE HELP?
It is joining of two (2) people in a bond that
putatively lasts until death. Personalities
change, bodies age, and romantic love
waxes and wanes. And no marriage is free
of conflict.
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
 Is any act performed with the goal of
Marriage is also recognized by the law and
benefiting another person.
has legal validity. The rights and duties of
the married couple are well defined and
enforceable in a court of law. ALTRUISM
 Is the desire to help another person even if
it involves some personal cost to help her.
TYPES OF MARRIAGE
The types, functions and characteristics of TWO BASIC QUESTIONS THAT PEOPLE HAVE
marriage vary from culture to culture, and can ASKED ARE:
change over time. A. Whether helping is an inborn tendency or
one that must be taught
In general there are two (2) types: Civil
B. Whether people ever help without receiving
Marriage, and Religious Marriage, and typically
some benefit in return.
marriages employ a combination of both (religious
marriages must often be licensed and recognized
by the state, and conversely civil marriages).

Marriages between people of differing

A. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY:
religions are called interfaith marriages, while
marital conversion, refers to the religious INSTINCTS AND GENES
conversion of one partner to the other’s religion
for sake of satisfying a religious requirement.
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
 Is the attempt to explain social behavior in
terms of genetic factors that evolved over
Marriage offers many benefits to a couple. time according to the principles of natural
 Living together selection.
 Functional Division of Labor
 Emotional Support
 Financial Security
 Rearing Children
 Social and Legal Recognitionw\
 1. KIN SELECTION
o Is the idea that behaviors that help a
genetic relative are favored by
natural selection.
Helping a kin member may decrease one’s own
probability for survival / passing one one’s genes,
but kin share the same genes, so saving a kin
member may pass on one’s own genes.
2. THE RECIPROCITY NORM
o Is the expectation that helping others
will increase the likelihood that they
will help us in the future.
Sociobiologists suggest that, as humans were
evolving, those who were the most likely to survive
would be those who developed an understanding
with the neighbors based on this norm.
B. SOCIAL EXCHANGE: THE COSTS
AND REWARDS OF HELPING
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
 Argues that much of what we do stems from
the desire to maximize our rewards and
minimize our costs.
HELPING CAN BE REWARDING IN THREE
(3) WAYS:
1. It can increase the probability that someone
will help us in return in the future.
2. It can relieve the personal distress of the
bystander
3. It can gain us social approval and increased
self – worth.
Helping can be costly; thus it decreases when costs
are high.
Social exchange theory presumes that people help
only when the rewards outweigh the costs. Thus
social exchange theory presumes that there is no
pure altruism.
C. EMPATHY AND ALTRUISM: THE
PURE MOTIVE FOR HELPING
Batson is the strongest proponent of the idea that
people often help purely out of the goodness of
their hearts.
He argues that pure altruism is most likely to come
into play when we experience empathy for the
person in need.
EMPATHY – The ability to put oneself in the shoes
of another person and to experience events and
emotions (e.g., joy and sadness) the way that
person experiences them.
Batson’s empathy – altruism hypothesis is the idea
that when we feel empathy for a person, we will
attempt to help that person purely for altruistic
reasons, regardless of what we have to gain,
III. PERSONAL QUALITIES AND
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: WHY DO SOME
PEOPLE GELP MORE THAN OTHERS?
A. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
o An altruistic personality are qualities
that can cause an individual to help
others in a wide variety of situations.
B. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
o Eagly and Crowley (1986) did a
meta – analysis and found that men
are more likely to help in chivalrous,
heroic ways, and women are more
likely to help in nurturant ways
involving long – term commitment.
C. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
It might seem as though people with an
interdependent view of the self, who come from
collectivist cultures, would be more likely to help a
person in need.
However, people everywhere are less likely to help
a member of an out – group, a group with which the
person does not identify, than a member of an in –
group, the group with which the person identifies
and feels he or she is a member.
Cultural factors come into play in determining how
strongly people draw the line between in – groups
and out – groups.
Simpatia in Latino and Hispanic cultures refer to a
range of friendly social and emotional traits. Levine
et al. (2000) found that people in cultures that
value simpatia were more likely to help in a variety
of nonemergency helping situations.
D. THE EFFECTS OF MOOD ON
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
One reason that personality alone cannot
determine helping is that helping depends on a
person’s current mood.
1. EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL
GOOD, DO GOOD
People who are in a good mood are more likely to
help.
Good moods can increase helping for three (3)
reasons:
1. Good moods make us interpret events in a
sympathetic way
2. Helping another prolongs the good mood,
whereas not helping deflates it;
3. Good moods increase self – attention, and
this in turn leads us to be more likely to
behave according to our values and beliefs
(which tend to favor altruism)
2. FEEL BAD, DO GOOD
When people feel guilty, they are more likely to
help.
Sadness may also lead to helping because people
may help in order to alleviate their own sadness
and distress.
IV. SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: WHEN WILL
PEOPLE HELP?
A. ENVIRRONMENT: RURAL VS. URBAN
People in rural areas are more helpful. One
explanation is that people from rural settings
are brought up to be more neighborly and
more likely to trust strangers.
An alternative hypothesis, posted by Milgram, is the
urban – overload hypothesis, the idea that
people living in cities are likely to keep to
themselves in order to avoid being overloaded
by all the simulation they receive.
B. RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY
People who have lived in one place for a long time
are more likely to engage in pro social behaviors.
C. THE NUMBER OF BYSTANDERS: THE
BYSTANDER EFFECT
BYSTANDER EFFECT
 Is the finding that the greater the number of
bystanders who witness an emergency, the
less likely any one of them is to help.
Latane and Darley (1970) developed a step – by –
step description of how people decide whether to
help in an emergency.
THE FIVE STEPS:
NOTICING AN EVENT
INTERPRETING AN EVENT AS AN
EMERGENCY
ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY
KNOWING HOW TO HELP
DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT THE HELP
1. NOTICING AN EVENT
In order for people to help, they must notice that an
emergency has occurred,
Sometimes very trivial things, such as how much of
a hurry a person is in, can prevent them from
noticing someone else in trouble.
2. INTERPRETING AN EVENT AS AN
EMERGENCY
The next determinant of helping is whether the
bystander interprets the event as an emergency.
Ironically, when other bystanders are present,
people are more likely to assume an emergency is
something innocuous.
PLURALISTIC IGNORANCE
 Occurs because people look to see others’
reactions (informational influence)
When they see that everyone else has a blank
expression, they assume there must be no danger.
3. ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY
The next step that must occur if helping is to take
place is for someone to take responsibility.
When there are many witnesses, there is a
diffusion of responsibility, the phenomenon
whereby each bystander’s sense of responsibility to
help decrease as the number of witnesses
increases. Everyone assumes that someone else
will help, and as a result, no one does.
4. KNOWING HOW TO HELP
Even if all the previous conditions are met, a
person must know what form of assistance to give.
If they don’t, they will be unable to help.
5. DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT THE HELP
Finally, even if you know what kind of help to give,
you might decide not to intervene because you feel
unqualified to help or you are too afraid of the costs
to yourself.
THE NATURE OF THE RELATIONSHIP
Much research examines helping between
strangers, but most helping occur between people
who know each other well.
COMMUNAL RELATIONSHIPS – Are those in
which people’s primary concern is with the welfare
of the other.
EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIPS – Are governed by
equity concerns.
One possibility is that rewards are equally important
in the two different types of relationships, but the
nature of the rewards is different.
V. HOW CAN HELPING BE INCREASED?
An important note is that people do not
always want to be helped – if being helped means
that they appear incompetent, they will often suffer
in silence, even at the cost of failing at the task.
A. INCREASING THE LIKELIHOOD THAT
BYSTANDES WILL INTERVENE
Simply being aware of the barriers to helping can
increase people’s chances of overcoming those
barriers.
B. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND PROSOCIAL
BEHAVIORN
Social psychology has not concentrated solely on
negative behaviors but one positive ones as well.
C. INCREASING VOLUNTEERISM
Many people engage in volunteer work.
How can rate of volunteering be increased? Some
schools and businesses require service work;
however, the overjustification effect suggests that
those who volunteer for a requirement will be less
likely to see their helping as intrinsically motivated
and may volunteer less in the future.
To encourage volunteerism, one must be careful to
make sure that people feel that volunteering is their
free choice and not an externally imposed
requirement.