Military Technological College

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE SAFETY,

TOOLS AND INSPECTION
FITS AND CLEARANCES

CONTENTS

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FITS & CLEARANCES 03

Basic Terms 03
Sizes of Holes 04
Classes of Fit 04
Clearance Fit 05
Interference Fit 05
Force Fit 05
Shrink Fit 05
Transition Fit 06
Common Systems of Fits & Clearances 07
Shaft and Hole Basis 07
Allowance & Tolerance 08
Unilateral and Bi-lateral 08
Limit System 08

PRECISION MEASURING TOOLS

Micrometres

Vernier Callipers

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Tolerances, Fits and Clearances

Standards of Workmanship

Aircraft technicians must always produce work to the highest possible standards within
limits set by the equipment manufacturers. These limits vary according to the accuracy
required for the task in hand.

Dimensions

Working drawings show the shape of a part and include all needed dimensions. Dimensions
that appear on a drawing represent the perfect size, and are called basic or nominal
dimensions. It is very difficult to manufacture any part exactly to the dimensions specified
on the detail drawing and it doesn’t necessarily have to be made so accurately. In many
cases a part will perform its function quite adequately if it is close to the nominal
dimensions; within certain limits.

Allowance and Tolerance

Allowance is the difference between the nominal dimension and the upper or lower limit,
e.g. If a dimension is depicted on the drawing as 0.312” ± 0.005”, the allowance each side
of nominal is 0.005" giving us dimensions between 0.307” and 0.317“.

Tolerance is the difference between the extreme permissible dimensions. In the example
above we have a nominal dimension of 0.312” ± 0.005”, the difference between the two
extremes is 0.010”; so therefore the tolerance is 0.010”.

Calibration Standards

Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
measurement equipment.

Modern technology is so advanced that it is possible to manufacture things accurately to

microscopic scale but as we saw in "standards of workmanship" it is not always necessary
or even desirable to be so accurate; the same applies to our measuring tools. The higher
the accuracy required the more expensive, time consuming and difficult the process
becomes so different calibration standards are applied according to the level of accuracy
required.

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Figure 5.3

As a general rule a measuring instrument should be accurate to 1/10 of the smallest unit
it will be called upon to measure.

The cheap plastic rule on your desk is used to guide a pencil when drawing straight lines.
The lead in the pencil is 0.5mm thick, the smallest increment on the rule is 1.00mm (approx:
1/25th") so there is no need to manufacture that rule to a degree of accuracy greater than
0.1mm. Higher levels of accuracy just are not needed for the work that the rule will be
called upon to do.

The engineer's steel rule has to be much more accurate; it will be used to measure
dimensions as small as 0.016" so must be accurate to at least 1/10 of that (0.0016").

Rarely are aircraft technicians required to measure anything to accuracy levels closer than
0.001" so there is no need for our day-to-day measuring equipment to be more than
adequately accurate to achieve the objective.

Both fixed and adjustable measuring tools can drift out of calibration with time so must be
checked against master dimensions in a laboratory at regular intervals and issued with a
calibration certificate. It is not permitted to use an adjustable measuring instrument unless it
has a valid calibration certificate.

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As mentioned earlier in this module, while it is possible to produce machine parts with close
to absolute dimensional accuracy the process is expensive and not always necessary or
useful.

It is necessary that the dimensions, shape and mutual position of surfaces of individual
parts are kept within a certain accuracy to achieve their correct and reliable functioning.

Routine processes produce parts that deviate slightly from nominal dimensions; these are
(within finite limits) referred to as production tolerances.

The surfaces of produced parts differ slightly from the design surfaces prescribed in
drawings.

The required level of accuracy for production of a part is given by the dimensional tolerance
prescribed in the drawing.

The production accuracy is determined with regards to the functionality of the product and
to the economy of production.

When building the individual piece parts into an assembly, reference to the Schedule of Fits
and Clearances will specify the quality of fit required for mating parts.

Basic Terms

Deviations of actual surfaces are divided into four groups to enable assessment and
checking of the permitted inaccuracy during production:

a. Dimensional deviations

b. Shape deviations

c. Position deviations

d. Surface roughness deviations

The mating of two parts creates a fit whose functional character is determined by
differences of their dimensions before they are joined.

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Sizes of Holes

Aircraft fasteners such as rivets or bolts come in a variety of sizes and types. The nominal
diameter of a rivet may be 3.2mm. An aircraft wing attachment bolt may be 50mm in
diameter. The question is, what size of hole do we need for these fasteners. Although the
obvious answer appears to be 3.2mm for the rivet and 50mm for the wing attachment bolt
this is not the case; we might find it difficult to fit the rivet or bolt in the hole. There is also
the possibility that the rivet or bolt diameter may not be exactly 3.2mm or 50mm. The size
of the hole may also be smaller or larger than specified.

If the rivet or bolt is slightly smaller than the hole the joint made may be slack or loose. If
exactly the same size, the joint will be more rigid. If we now consider examples of a shaft in
a hole, the same will apply. We may also require, by design variations of looseness or
tightness of the shaft in the hole. For example:

If the shaft must rotate in the hole the shaft must always be smaller than the hole.

If the shaft has to drive a gear wheel and the wheel is held onto the shaft by friction, the
shaft must always be slightly larger than the hole.

Classes of Fit

"Fit" describes the working condition between a mating shaft and hole. Depending on the
mutual position of tolerance zones of the mated parts, 3 basic classes of fit can be
distinguished:

a) Clearance Fit.

b) Interference Fit.

c) Transition Fit.

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Clearance Fit

A clearance fit always enables a clearance between the hole and the mating part. The
lower limit size of the hole is greater or at least equal to the upper limit size of the part that
mates in it.

This type of fit also includes Running or Sliding fits with guaranteed clearances that are
specified for bearing parts which have to run or slide against each other.

Where a shaft is required to rotate in a hole is classed as a “clearance fit”. If we use a

nominal size of 25mm and ensure that the hole is made between 25.00 and 25.02mm, the
shaft must always be made slightly smaller, for example between 24.96 and 24.98mm. This
will give a minimum “clearance” of 0.02mm and a maximum clearance of 0.06mm.

Figure 10.1

Interference Fit

An interference fit always ensures some interference between the hole and the mating part.
The upper limit size of the hole is smaller or at least equal to the lower limit size of the other
part.

Interference fits can be sub-divided by two methods of assembly:

Force Fit

A force fit guarantees interference between mating parts specified for fixed (non-
demountable) assemblies. The parts will be assembled either with hammer blows or a
mechanical press.

Shrink Fit

A shrink fit is similar to a force-fit in that it also guarantees interference between mating
parts. The assembly process involves heating or cooling one or both of the mating parts.
When the temperatures equalize the interference fit is achieved.

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Figure 10.2

Transition Fit

A transition fit is when (depending on the actual sizes of the hole and shaft) both clearance
and interference may occur between the mating parts.

The tolerance zones of each part partially or completely interfere with each other. In many
cases it is not important that the shaft is a clearance fit or an interference fit. The shaft and
hole sizes may vary so that sometimes the shaft is slightly smaller than the hole and
sometimes slightly larger. A solid rivet may sometimes fit easily into a hole and sometimes
it has to be driven in. This type of fit is called a “transition fit”. If the shaft size is between
24.98 and 25.02mm and the hole size is given the same tolerance, sometimes the shaft is
the larger and sometimes the hole.

Figure 10.3
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Common Systems of Fits & Clearances

When a system has been designed so that one component chosen at random will assemble
correctly with any mating component and give the required clearance as necessary we call
it an interchangeable system, limit system or system of limits and fits.

As already mentioned it is necessary to classify the various types of fit. We have already
identified clearance, transition and interference. Other common classifications are as
follows:

 Running Fit - A smooth easy fit for the purpose of a moving bearing.

 Push Fit – Can be assembled with light hand pressure (locating pins and dowels).

 Driving or Press Fit – Can be assembled with a hammer or with medium pressure.
Gives a semi-permanent fit such as necessary for a keyed pulley on a shaft.

 Force Fit – Required great pressure to assemble and gives a permanent fit. Used
for gear wheels and hubs on shafts from which they are never likely to be removed.

These may be further subdivided by adding fits such as “slack running” and “close running”
or “light driving” and “heavy driving”.

Shaft and Hole Basis

The variation in shaft and hole size that gives the required fit is called the allowance and
this may be obtained by either:

a. Keeping the hole constant and varying the shaft diameter to give the
appropriate fit.

or

b. Keeping the shaft constant and varying the hole diameter

Keeping the size of the hole constant is called the hole basis and keeping the size of the
shaft constant is called the shaft basis.

All modern limit systems favour the hole basis because most holes are produced with a
fixed size drill or reamer, while shafts are turned using an easily adjustable tool such as a
lathe. It is easier to adjust the shaft to the hole rather than the hole to the shaft.

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Allowance & Tolerance

Allowance is the difference between the nominal dimension and the upper or lower limit,
e.g. If a dimension is depicted on the drawing as 0.312” ± 0.005”, the allowance each side
of nominal is 0.005" giving us dimensions between 0.307” and 0.317“.

Tolerance is the difference between the extreme permissible dimensions. In the example
above we have a nominal dimension of 0.312” ± 0.005”, the difference between the two
extremes is 0.010”; so therefore the tolerance is 0.010”.

Unilateral and Bi-lateral

The difference between high and low limits given in dimensions is called the “tolerance”.
Sometimes the tolerance is allowed only on one side of the nominal diameter e.g. 25.00 +
0.02 / - 0.00. This is called a “unilateral” tolerance. If the tolerance is allowed on both sides
of the nominal e.g. 25.00 +/- 0.02 the tolerance is called “bilateral”.

Limit System

An effective limit system must allow for different classes of fit, different nominal sizes of
hole and shaft and also different qualities of product. If the limits are too close, a better
control of fit is possible, but the cost will increase. Wider limits will reduce the cost but might
not give a satisfactory fit.

The limit system commonly used in the UK is set out in British Standard (BS) 4500. This
was introduced in 1969 and allows for 27 types of fit and 18 grades of tolerance.

THE MICROMETER

Three types of micrometers will be discussed.

1) The outside micrometer.

2) The inside micrometer.
3) The depth micrometer.
THE OUTSIDE MICROMETER (IMPERIAL)

a) Each micrometer is designed to produce readings over a range of one full inch, for
example 0-1, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 or 5-6 inch micrometers are available.

b) Micrometers capable of measuring up to 60 inches are also available.

c) The micrometer consists of the following main parts (Figure 1).

1) Frame

2) Anvil

3) Spindle

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4) Lock nut

5) Sleeve

6) Thimble

7) Ratchet

Holding the micrometer

There is a special way to hold a micrometer. Micrometers for measurements up to 6 inches

may be operated with one hand.

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Bigger micrometers have to be supported with the free hand on the anvil side of the frame.

It is wise to keep micrometers in a protective case and away from excessive moisture.

After each use, wipe the tool down with a clean lightly-oiled lint-free cloth.

Do not dip a micrometer in a solvent or clean with compressed air.

Ensure periodic checks for accuracy for each time it was accidentally dropped or struck by
some object. The micrometer will be tagged with a serviceable sticker showing the expiry
date.

The outside micrometer is used to check the diameter of pistons, pins, crankshafts and
other machined parts.

READING THE MICROMETER (IMPERIAL)

a) Every full turn of the thimble will move the spindle 0.025 inches and it is marked from 0
to 25 on the tapered end. Every graduation on the sleeve represents 0,025 inches.

b) Every fourth space on the sleeve represents 0,100 inches, and is marked from zero (one
to nine) and again zero.

The last zero will be 1,000 inch or 1 000 units of an inch (zero to one inch).

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READING EXERCISE

a) The 1st Figure shows a sleeve exposed so that 0, 1, 2, 3 can be read, which means that
the size is bigger than 0.300 inches.

b) Every graduation represents 0.025 of an inch. There are two graduations after "3" visible, and that
will equal 2 x 0.025 inches which is 0.050.

c) The markings on the tapered end of the thimble reads zero, so the reading is exactly 0.350 inches.

d) The 2nd Figure shows a sleeve exposed to 5. It also exposes 3 x 0.025. This time the reading on
the tapered end is exactly 12.
e) 5 on the sleeve equals 0.500. Three graduations after the 5 equals 0.075 and each space on the
thimble equals 0.001 inches, which gives us 0.012 inches.
F) ADD 0.500 + 0.075 + 0.012 = 0.587 INCHES

g) If the reading was taken with a 0-1 micrometer, the reading would have been 0.587 inches.

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c) If a 5-6 inch micrometer was used, the reading would have been 5.587 inches, because the
micrometer will measure only the last inch.

READING A MICROMETER IN TEN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH

a) The reading on the sleeve is more than 2, which represents 0.200.

b) The reading after the 2 equals one complete space, which is 0.025.

c) The reading on the thimble taper is 17 full units equalling 0.017.

d) One space on the thimble taper equals 0.001 half of that gives you 0.0005
(five ten thousandths).
Add 0.200 + 0.025 + 0.017 + 0.0005 = 0.2425 inches

Reading a micrometer that is graduated to measure ten thousandths of an inch

Use the same technique as above but do not estimate the ten thousandths reading.

a) The Figure shows a reading past 1 which equals 0.100 inches.

b) Two full spaces equal 0.050 inches.

c) The reading on the thimble taper is 13 full units equalling 0.013. Turn the
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micrometer to see the vernier scale and check which line corresponds.

d) "3" on the vernier scale lines up, which gives you 0.0003.

e) Add 0.100 + 0.050 + 0.013 + 0.0003 = 0.1633 inches

INSIDE MICROMETERS
Description
An inside micrometer uses a single micrometer head consisting of a basic micrometer mechanism
and various extensions to cover a wide range of measurements. An inside micrometer calliper is read
in exactly the same manner as an outside micrometer. To use an inside micrometer place it inside
the opening being measured and adjust the micrometer until it is the same size as the opening. Once
this is done, the micrometer is removed from the opening and read.

Inside micrometers use a standard micrometer thimble and sleeve, and various extensions, to obtain
inside dimensions.
THE DEPTH MICROMETER (DEPTH GAUGE)

Description

It consists of the following major parts.

1) Base

2) Rod

3) Thimble

4) Ratchet (may be absent)

Using and reading the depth micrometer

a) A set of rods of different lengths are available with each micrometer. Care must

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be taken not to bend or damage the rod. After use, wipe lightly with an oiled, lint-

free cloth and store in a safe place.

b) Select the correct length rod for your measuring requirement and install in

micrometer by removing the cap or ratchet.

c) The correct way to hold a depth micrometer is illustrated in the figure.

d) The thimble is run down until the rod touches the bottom of the hole.

NOTE:

1. Both surfaces must be clean.

2. If there is no lock facility to retain the reading, handle the depth micrometer at the base.

The measurement indicated on the figure is as follows:

NOTE:

The sleeve marks run in a reverse direction.

1) The closest number to the thimble taper is a "7" so "6" is passed, giving you

0.600.

2) Between 6 and 7 there are four spaces, representing 0.02 inches each. One full

space is passed which gives you 0.02 inches.

3) The thimble taper reads 0.018.

4) Add 0.600 + 0.025 + 0.018 = 0.643 inches

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5) Every full inch of the installed rod must be added to the reading, for example 3

inches if the installed rod protrudes more than 3 inches but less than 4 inches.

METRIC MICROMETERS:

OUTSIDE MICROMETER

Description

a) One revolution of the thimble moves the spindle 0,5mm, which is the graduation below
the reading line on the sleeve

b) The thimble must therefore rotate twice to move the spindle 1,0mm.

c) The sleeve is graduated from 0 to 25mm.

d) Each graduation on the thimble taper represents 0,01mm

READING EXERCISE:

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a) The 10 is visible on the sleeve, giving you 10mm.

b) Half a graduation is passed representing 0,5mm.

c) The thimble taper reads 0, confirming that another revolution is completed, giving

you an extra 0,5mm.

Add 10,00mm + 0,50mm + 0,50mm = 11,00mm

d) If the thimble taper read 5, the reading would have been 11,05mm.

DEPTH MICROMETER (METRIC)

a) Sleeve is marked from 25 to 0 which gives you 25mm.

b) Each space on top reading line on sleeve equals 1,0mm.

c) Each space on bottom reading line on sleeve equals 0,50mm.

d) Each space on thimble taper equals 0,01mm.

e) One revolution of thimble equals 0,50mm.

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f) Two full revolutions of thimble equals 1,0mm.

READING EXERCISE

a) The number closest to the thimble taper is 15 but less than 15 which equals 14mm.

b) The thimble taper is exactly on 0 with two times 0,5.

Add 14,00mm + 0,00mm = 14,00mm

THE VERNIER CALLIPER

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THE IMPERIAL VERNIER CALLIPER

The Vernier principle

Suppose a rule has markings every 1/10” but we want to read accurately to 1/100”. A separate
scale is added, it has 10 markings on it that take up the same distance as 9 markings on the
rule scale. Thus, each space on the vernier is 1/10 of 9/10”, or 9/100”.

How much smaller is a space on the vernier than a space on the rule? The rule space is
1/10”, or 10/100” and the vernier space is 9/100”. The vernier space is smaller by the
difference between these two numbers, as follows:

Each vernier space is 1/100” smaller than a rule space.

Example:

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Suppose that we are measuring the steel bar shown below. The end of the bar almost
reaches the 3” mark on the rule, and we estimate that it is about halfway between 2.9” and
3.0”. The vernier marks help us to decide whether the exact measurement is 2.94“, 2.95” or
2.96”.

STEEL BAR BEING MEASURED VERNIER

The vernier principle may be used to get fine linear readings, angular readings, etc. The
principle is always the same. The vernier has one more marking than the number of markings
on an equal space of the conventional scale of the measuring instrument.

For example, the vernier calliper has 25 markings on the vernier for 24 on the calliper scale.
The calliper is marked off to read to 1/40” (0.025”); by using a vernier scale we can extend
the accuracy to 1/1000” (0.001”).

READING THE IMPERIAL VERNIER CALLIPER

a) First count the inches.

b) Count the tenths (0.100”).

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c) Count the 1/40ths (0.025 ins.) between the zero line on the main scale and the zero line
on the vernier scale plate and add them.

d) Then count the number of graduations on the vernier scale plate from its zero line to the line that
coincides with a line on the main scale.
e) Add this number of Vernier scale graduations to the number of inches, tenths and twenty fifths
you counted on the bar.

EXAMPLE:

a. How many inches? 6 6.000 inches

b. Count the tenths 1 0.100 inches
c. Count the twenty fifths 3 0.075 inches
d. Number of graduations on the vernier scale
21 0.021 inches
ADD a. 6.000
b. 0.100
c. 0.075
d. 0.021
= 6.196 inches

THE METRIC VERNIER CALLIPER

a) The main scale on the upper bar has 1 mm graduations across the entire bar.

b) Every tenth graduation (1 cm) is numbered in sequence :10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, up to
the limit of the bar.

c) The vernier scale plate is graduated in 10 parts, each representing 0.02 mm.

d) Every fifth line is numbered in sequence equalling 0.10 mm, 0.20 mm, 0.30 mm up to
1.00 mm, providing for direct reading in hundredths of a millimetre.

READING THE METRIC VERNIER CALLIPER

In the example below only the part from 9 cm (90 mm) to 16 cm (160 mm) is shown.

a) First note how many mm on the main scale are indicated at the zero line on the vernier (lower)
scale, which is 101 mm.

b) Find the graduation or the vernier scale plate that coincides with a line on the bar and note
the vernier numbered value, representing the nearest tenth of a mm.

c) After the vernier-numbered value count the smaller graduations each one of which equals
0.02 mm, and add these on
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e) This is your final reading to a hundredth of a millimetre.

EXAMPLE:

a) Count how many mm are indicated at the vernier zero line, which is 101 mm.

b) Lines coinciding on the main and vernier scale equals 0.70 plus 3 x 0.02 mm which equals
0.06 mm.

Add 101.00 mm 100 mm + 1 mm

0.70 mm tenths

0.06 mm hundredths

Total reading 101.76 mm

Do's and don’ts that apply to handling a vernier calliper

a. Do adjust the friction by means of the clamp screw so that the slider has a slight
resistance.

b. Do hold the main beam with the right hand, placing the thumb on the thumb
knob.

c. Do support the vernier with the left hand on the stationary jaw.

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d. Do, when making an outside measurement, place the object as deep between the
jaws as possible to prevent the slider form tilting, resulting in an incorrect reading.

e. Do, when taking a measurement with the depth vernier, always hold the jaws
square with the job.

f. Do store the vernier calliper in a safe place

g. Do, when taking a measurement with the depth bar in a rounded corner, ensure that the
cutaway faces the radius.
h. Do push down the depth gauge on a surface plate and check that the zeros line
up to verify calibration.

i. Do check that with both zeros lined up no light passes between the outside
jaws.

j. Don’t use the end of the jaws as a hammer.

k. Don’t use the jaws as a spanner.

l. Don’t attempt to measure an object while it is in motion.

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