Key Methods Used in Qualitative Document Analysis

Chanda Armstrong

Lecturer; Mpika College of Education

BA Soc Sci, M.Ed R.S. registered candidate
chandarmstrong@yahoo.com
Abstract

Carrying out a research requires that a researcher is aware of the many things
that need to be put into consideration and one of them definitely is document
analysis. This article attempts to discuss the document analysis strategies, their
use, functions/importance, epistemological approaches, types of documents used
for analysis in a qualitative research method and document analysis evaluation
considerations. The author finds it essential to also look into the importance and
use of document analysis in research to show its relevance in research study. The
inclusion of document types helps in creating an awareness of what is required
for analysis. The consideration of document analysis strategy and evaluation
helps invalidating the appropriate strategy to use for a particular research
method. While the importance and functions of document analysis helps to
appreciate the contributions of documents to research. The epistemological
approaches to document analysis strategies play a very vital role of indicating
and directing the appropriate strategy to use in a research study bearing in mind
of its theoretical demands.

Key words: Strategies, Methods, Analysis, Evaluations, Framework, Discourse, Triangulations

Introduction

Fischer (2006) defines document analysis as a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating
documents, both printed and electronic material. Just like any other analytical methods,
qualitative research document analysis requires that data be examined and interpreted in order to
produce meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge. Document analysis is
often used in combination with other qualitative research methods as a means of triangulation
which is, ‘the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon’ (Denzin,
2017, p. 48). The qualitative researcher is expected to draw upon multiple sources of evidence;
that is, to seek union and support through the use of different data sources and methods. Apart
from documents, there are such sources as interviews, participant or non-participant observation,
and physical artifacts, alludes Patton (1990). By triangulating data, the researcher attempts to
provide a joining together of evidence that leads to credibility, adds Rapley (2007). Through
scrutinizing information gathered from different methods, the researcher can corroborate

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findings across data sets and thus reduce the impact of potential biases that can exist in a single
study. According to Fischer (2006), triangulation helps the researcher protect against the
allegations that a study’s findings are merely an artifact of a single method, a single source, or a
single investigator’s bias.

By examining information collected through different methods, the researcher can validate
findings traversing data sets and consequently reduce the impact of probable biases that can exist
in a single study. Berg (2001) states that triangulation aids the researcher with a sentinel against
the indictment that a study’s findings are simply an artifact of a single method, a single source,
or a single investigator’s bias. Paul (2007) observes that document analysis takes a wide variety
of forms that are cross-cut by several different disciplines including sociology, anthropology,
media studies, film studies, women studies and so on.

The various procedures of document analysis involve analysing and interpreting data generated
from the examination of documents. What is required from a document is dependent on the
epistemological stance of the researcher. Hence, it is important to look at the epistemological
theories of research under document analysis.

Epistemological Theories of Research under Document Analysis

Positivistic approach to document analysis: looks for supposed factual evidence or corroboration
to affirm or discard a hypothesis. The main positivistic approaches comprise of confirmation of
fact, content analysis, qualitative document analysis and historicism as noted by Denzin (2017).

Phenomenological approach: is aimed at construing the meaning of the document: in both its
surface and underlying meaning that, the document avails. This approach involves inferencing,
which includes interpretative analysis, some forms of historical research/ historiography
(historicism), hermeneutics, narrative analysis and aesthetics. Consequently, the choice of a
document analysis in qualitative research is dependent on the epistemological stance of the
researcher.

Mills (2006), states that these epistemological underpinnings facilitate the basis at which
qualitative document analysis is built, because they answer fundamental questions of why the
research is being undertaken and how it is going to be undertaken and suggest possible analysis
strategies. And document analysis methods are particular to the epistemological theories.
Nevertheless, this discourse looks into the following few document analysis strategies such as
discourse, framework, thematic, narrative, content analyses and grounded theory that stand out as
key strategies in qualitative research method.

Discourse analysis is concerned with the production of meaning through talk and texts and how
people use language. It is used to analyse interaction with people. Moreover, it wishes to analyse
the social context in which the researcher and correspondent occurs. It also looks at the

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respondent’s day to day environment and uses that information during analysis. Additionally,
it is used to describe a number of approaches to analyse written and spoken language use beyond
the technical pieces of language, such as words and sentences, observes Berg (2001). Hence,
discourse analysis's key emphasis is on the use of language in social context. Language in this
case refers to either text or talk, and context refers to the social situation or forum in which the
text or talk occurs, states (Paul 2003).

It is for this reason that the research problem should be specific enough to inform the type of
communication appropriate to the investigation; for example, a particular set of speeches by a
political leader, printed news media in general and so on. In other words, the research problem
needs to be defined sufficiently to allow the researcher to locate suitable sources of
communication. The researchers need to familiarise themselves with the determinate universe,
including both context and process for the creation of the communications, indicates Silverman
(1997).

Some of the strengths of this strategy are that it can be used to study different situations and
subjects and it helps uncover deeply held attitudes and perceptions. On the other hand, it takes
large amount of time and effort and the technique solely focuses on language hence making it
blind to other factors.

Framework analysis: allows the researcher to either collect all the data and then analyse it or do
data analysis during the collection process. In the analysis stage the gathered data is sifted,
charted and sorted in accordance with key issues and themes. According to Fereday (2006)
framework analysis involves a five step process: familiarization, identifying a thematic
framework, indexing, Charting and mapping /interpretation. Familiarization refers to the process
during which the researcher becomes familiarised with the transcripts of the data collected that is
interview or focus group transcripts, observation or field notes and gains an overview of the
collected data. Fereday (2006) observes that throughout this process the researcher becomes
aware of key ideas and recurrent themes and make a note of them. Due to the huge volume of
data that can be collected in qualitative research the researcher may not be able to review all of
the material. Thus, a selection of the data set would be utilised. The selection depends on several
aspects of the data collection process.

Identifying a thematic framework, the second stage, occurs after familiarization, when the
researcher recognises emerging themes or issues in the data set. However, it is at this stage that
the researcher allows the data to dictate the themes and issues. To achieve this end, the
researcher uses the notes taken during the familiarisation stage. The key issues, concepts and
themes that have been expressed by the participants now form the basis of a thematic framework
that can be used to filter and classify the data, indicates Fereday (2006).

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Indexing as the third stage requires that one identifies sections of the data that correspond to a
particular theme. This process is applied to all the textual data that has been gathered. For the
sake of convenience Ritchie and Spencer (2003) recommend that a numerical system be used for
the indexing references and annotated in the margin besides the text charting.

The fourth stage, the specific pieces of data that were indexed in the previous stage is now
arranged in charts of the themes. This means that the data is lifted from its original textual
context and placed in charts that consist of the headings and subheadings that were drawn during
the thematic framework, or in the manner that is perceived to be the best way to report the
research, argues Ritchie & Spencer (2003). The important point to remember here is that
“although the pieces of data are lifted from their context, the data is still clearly identified as to
what case it came from. For clarity, cases should always be kept in the same order in each
chart”, (Ritchie & Spencer, 2003, 199).

The final stage, mapping and interpretation, involves the analysis of the key characteristics as
laid out in the charts. This analysis does provide a schematic diagram of the event/phenomenon
thus guiding the researcher in their interpretation of the data set. It is at this point that the
researcher is cognisant of the objectives of qualitative analysis, which are: “defining concepts,
mapping range and nature of phenomena, creating typologies, finding associations, providing
explanations, and developing strategies” (Ritchie and Spencer, 2003:210). Once again these
concepts, technologies, and associations are reflective of the participant. Therefore, any strategy
or recommendations made by the researcher echo the true attitudes, beliefs, and values of the
participants. Consequently, the clear step by step process of this analysis makes it suitable for
interdisciplinary and collaborative projects and it’s also an excellent tool for supporting thematic
(qualitative content) analysis because it provides a systematic model for managing and mapping.

Narrative analysis: is used to analyse content from various sources, such as interviews and
observations from surveys. It focuses on using stories and experiences to answer to the research
questions. Narratives or stories occur when one or more speakers engage in sharing and reporting
an experience or event. Typically, the telling of a story occupies several turns in the course of a
conversation and stories or narratives may share common structural features, explains Mays de
Pérez (2000).

Narrative analysis is another strategy which regards the story as an investigative focus.
Narratives or stories maybe oral or written and maybe elicited. It does focus on events and the
meaning of those events for those experiencing them for example oral histories; auto-
ethnographies, observes Coffey (2004). Some strengths of this analysis are that it doesn’t create
an illusion of objectivity and it’s extremely flexible. However, this strategy relies on skills of a
narrator and more subjective in dealing with data sources.

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Content analysis: is a document analysis strategy used to determine the presence of certain
words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyse the presence,
meanings and relationships of such words and concepts then make inferences about the messages
within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a
part, states Eisner (1991). Examples of texts can be book chapters, essays, interviews,
discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches and so on. When
to use this method depends on the research questions and research type. Nonetheless, Content
analysis is usually used as a qualitative research technique. This strategy manifests three distinct
approaches: conventional, directed and summative.

These three approaches are used to deduce meaning from the content of text data. The main
differences among the approaches are ‘coding schemes’, ‘origins of codes’, and ‘threats to
trustworthiness’ as observed by Pandit (1996). He further notices that in conventional content
analysis, coding categories are derivative of the text data. As with a directed approach, analysis
begins with a theory or appropriate research findings as a guide for initial codes. A summative
content analysis encompasses counting and comparisons, habitually of keywords or content,
followed by the interpretation of the basic context.

The strength of this strategy is that it can allow for quantitative and qualitative procedures and
provides insight into complex models of human thought and language that may be difficult for
other strategies to analyse. However, this strategy is time consuming and lack theoretical base
and also attempts too profusely to draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and
impacts implied in the study.

Thematic analysis: is a form of pattern recognition within the data, with emerging themes
becoming the categories for analysis, state Fereday & Muir-Cochrane (2006). This document
analysis process considers a cautious, more focused re-reading and review of the data. The
reviewer takes a deeper gaze at the selected data and carries out coding and category
construction, based on the data’s characteristics, to disclose themes applicable to a phenomenon.
Predefined codes may be used, especially if the document analysis is auxiliary to other research
methods deployed in the study. The codes used in interview transcripts, for example, may be
applied to the content of documents. Codes and the themes they produce serve to integrate data
gathered by diverse methods. The researcher is expected to represent the research material fairly
and respond to even subtle cues to meaning in the selection and analysis of data from documents.
These documents include, “Advertisements, agenda, attendance registers, and minutes of
meetings; manuals; background papers; books and brochures; diaries and journals; event
programs (i.e., printed outlines); letters and memoranda; maps and charts; newspapers”
(Atkinson and Coffey,1997. P 47). The strength of this strategy is that it supports the
interpretation of themes with the support of data. Furthermore, it is applicable to research
questions that go beyond an individual’s experience. However, its flexibility characteristic does

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make it difficult for new researchers to decide what aspects of data to concentrate on and does
not allow researchers to make technical claims about language usage.

Let us now look at a more theoretical document analysis strategy referred to as grounded theory.
Strauss and Corbin (1990) define this theory as the systematic discovery of theory from the data
of social research. It is a more structured and investigator bound strategy. It represents the
incorporation of a quantitative and qualitative perspective in both thinking and action processes.
The main purpose of this design strategy is to develop or “ground” a theory in the setting in
which the problem under study occurs. The theory that develops is closely connected to each
datum of daily life experience that it pursues to explicate.

Grounded Theory as explained by Glaser (1967) is inductive and interpretative in developing

new theoretical designs grounded on the given data. It inclines towards the use of qualitative
data to describe the reasons certain occurrences ensued. It does so by learning the diversity of
related cases in dissimilar situations and expending the data to develop causes or produce new
ones until an explanation that fits all cases is arrived at. This theory utilises a controlled data-
gathering and analytical process called the ‘constant comparative method’. Moreover, in
qualitative research it applies a scheme by which it codes, analyses, recodes, and produces a
theory from narratives acquired through an array of data collection strategies.

At a point it is important to avail to ourselves also the sources of documents used for analysis.
Understanding the types of documents necessary for document analysis helps in discerning the
right document analysis strategies to use. Bowen (2009) identifies Public Records, which have
been said to be official ongoing records of an organisation’s activities. Examples given include
student transcripts, mission statements, annual reports, policy manuals, student handbooks,
strategic plans, and syllabi. The other is Personal Documents as Rapley (2007) states; these are
first-person accounts of an individual’s actions, experiences, and beliefs. Examples given include
calendars, e-mails, scrapbooks, blogs, Facebook posts, duty logs, incident reports,
reflections/journals, and newspapers. And lastly is the Physical Evidence as identified by Rapley
(2007) as referring to Physical objects found within the study setting often called artifacts.
Examples include flyers, posters, agendas, handbooks, and training materials.

Let us now consider some functions of documentary material. Firstly, Documents offer
contextual information as well as historical perception. Such data and comprehension can assist
researchers recognise the historical origins of specific issues and can designate the circumstances
that impact upon the phenomena presently under analysis, observes Stake (1995).

Secondly, document analysis helps create new interview questions, and participant observation
occasions as long as opportunities to collect documents unravels. “Information contained in
documents can suggest some questions that need to be asked and situations that need to be

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observed as part of the research (Silverman 1997, p. 246). Thirdly, documents make available
additional research data. Material and comprehensions derived from documents can be valuable
add-ons to information sordid. Fourthly, documents offer a means of tracing modification and
development. Where several drafts of a particular document are available, the researcher can
compare them to detect the changes. “Documents provide background and context, additional
questions to be asked, supplementary data, a means of tracking change and development, and
verification of findings from other data sources” (Atkinson & Coffey,1997, p. 47).

Lastly, documents may well be the most effective means of gathering data when occasions can
no longer be experienced or when participants are unable to remember the specifics. It should be
noted that these document analysis methods discussed have weaknesses as well as strengths.
Therefore, it is important to consider them as we deploy any of these document analysis
strategies. Although documents can be a rich source of data, researchers should look at
documents with a critical eye and be cautious in using documents in their studies and this refers
to document evaluation. It is for this reason that it becomes imperative to evaluate the strengths
and weaknesses of these analysing methods.

Let us now look at the evaluation considerations to make. Paul (2003) emphasises that
documents should not be treated as necessarily precise, accurate, or complete recordings of
events that have occurred but they must be evaluated. He further cautions that Researchers
should not simply ‘lift’ words and passages from available documents to be thrown into their
research report. Rather, they should establish the meaning of the document and its contribution to
the issues being explored. The researcher as an analyst should determine the relevance of
documents to the research problem and purpose. In addition, Stake (1995) argues that the
researcher should ascertain whether the content of the documents fits the conceptual framework
of the study. It is necessary, as well, to determine the authenticity, credibility, accuracy, and
representativeness of the selected documents. It is important that the documents be assessed for
completeness, in the sense of being covering the topic completely or covering only some aspects
of the topic, suggests Patton (1990).

Increased understanding of document analysis is vital if qualitative research method is to be used

effectively. This article contributes to reinforcing the familiarity base and advancing
comprehension of document analysis as a qualitative research method. It has described specific
uses of documents and has delineated the advantages and limitations of these methods. The essay
has included a paradigm by which to elucidate the methods. The essay strives to make
researchers aware of the need to determine not only the existence and accessibility but also the
authenticity and usefulness of documents, taking into account the original purpose of each
document, the context in which it was produced, and the intended purpose. Furthermore the
researchers have been summoned to make the process of analysis as rigorous and as transparent
as possible.

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