Australian Journal of Education. Vol. 37. No. 3. 1993.

248-258

Teacher Knowledge, Education

Studies and Advanced Skills
Credentials
Award restructuring has been introduced by the Federal Rod Fawns
Government as a means of improving economic pro- David Nance
ductivity. This it hopes to achieve by upgrading the skills of University of Melbourne
the Australian workforce. As part of award restructuring,
both the teacher unions and the tertiary staff associations It is argued that appraisal
are currently negotiating new salary scales against not only of advanced skills in
increased work loads but also appraisal systems. teaching should be based
For teacher educators, almost all of whom are involved in on the pedagogical
content knowledge which
amalgamation negotiations in universities, these are likely
good teachers, in biology
to be particularly difficult times (Nance & Fawns 1991). for instance, could be
Student intakes in undergraduate teacher education are likely expected to possess and
to be severely cut and the appraisal systems sought by which a well-trained
universities provide explicitly for redundancy where staff biologist would not Public
cannot be relocated. Relocation would require acceptance of acceptance of this claim is
educators as academics in other faculties, a process which is the key element in any
unlikely to bring joy to many staff. argued case for a career
For academics seeking to be retained in education, staff restructuring which
appraisal will also be influenced by appraisal systems rewards the development
adopted under the new teachers award. Within universities, of teaching expertise in
responsibility for the quality of school teaching is often con- schools and universities
Several initial schemes
veniently charged to education faculties. It is clear that these employed in Victoria for
staff will be expected to co-operate with governments in the appraisal of Advanced
reskilling of teachers in line with the new teachers award. The Skills Teacher 1 are
new imperative is to develop an internationally competitive critically examined
workforce with new competencies or work skills acquired in An alternative to the
either formal education or in on-the-job training. There have competency-based
been increasingly persistent requests that courses organised approaches IS presented,
as in-service programs in priority areas by the Ministry of founded on research into
Education be granted formal credit by universities. Aca- the development of
demics would have the opportunity to be involved or to risk practical reasoning of
teachers
underemployment.
As the user-pays principle expands through the Higher
Education Contribution Scheme, award criteria are likely to
drive the curriculum of teacher education and hence increas-
ingly define the work of academics in education faculties.
These award criteria at all levels of certification from induc-
tion to advanced skills and principal class positions strongly
relate to practical knowledge learnt on the job. In initial
teacher training, for example, on-the-job supervision is de-
fined as an area of expected competency for Advanced Skills
Teacher I (AST1) teachers. How will this essential teacher
knowledge be provided to the profession and how will the
knowledge be appraised? Academics in education faculties
will be expected to liaise with schools in relation to supervisor

248
Teacher Knowledge, Studies and Advanced Skills 249
competence as well as to the placement of interns, and to rely increasingly
upon the judgements of the ASTls for assessment of the interns’ classroom
competence for admission to the profession.
The essential teacher knowledge defined in teachers award criteria will
need to be assessed by procedures which are likely to involve the education
academic both formally and informally. As a teacher’s knowledge is to be
appraised for its practical and contextual core rather than its theoretical grasp,
the educators will be expected to reorganise their labour to spend more time in
and around schools. Bernstein ( 1990) has observed in Britain the progressive
weakening of the voice of the education disciplines in the pedagogical dis-
course and their replacement by the technical language and school-based
professional training. The development of alternative career paths for
teachers will require unprecedented co-operation from universities, particu-
larly from faculties of education. Bluer and Carmichael (1991, p.29) define
this co-operation from the government perspective as an ‘acceptance of the
need to develop a new priority for teacher education both in teaching and
research, new patterns of staff deployment, closer relationships with schools
and employers and new methods of using time efficiently’. If the quality of
education research in universities is to be maintained or improved, academic
independence must be protected in (.ducation faculties. As Weber (1 990)
observes, the challenge of an academic career in education is to balance vari-
ous dualities of commitment to community service, teaching and research.
The principal argument in this paper is that, given the current situation, aca-
demics should take a lively public interest in the knowledge criteria being
developed for the advanced skills teacher award. This may not be simple for,
as Tisher ( I 989) has observed, teacher educators in Australia to date have not
been thought to have any role in training practising teachers for evaluation or
appraisal.

THE ADVANCED SKILLS TEACHER

Two years ago, the Industrial Relations Commission accepted ‘in principle’
the Australian Council of Trade Unions’ (ACTU) blueprint which included
the national teacher unions’ proposal for an advanced skills teacher (AST)
scale. The ACTU proposal presented the skills formation dimension of teach-
ing and an alternative career-path concept for Australia’s 200 000 school
teachers. The national project on the quality of teaching is clearly operation-
ally linked to the concept of the advanced skilled teacher (Dawkins, 1990;
Schools Council, 1990). Bluer and Carmichael (1991) observe that, if the
restructuring proposal is to be successful, it should enable:
0 a greater motivation and incentive for experienced teachers, especially
those who have been at or near the top of the automatic incremental salary
scale for some years but have not obtained an administrative class pos-
ition;
0 the development of new relationships between ASTs and other teachers in
a mentor sense or in a leadership role with teams of teachers;
0 the establishment of new strategies of leadership which will allow teachers’
work to be reorganised;
0 the development of systematic on-the-job skills acquisition programs for
teachers.
250 Australian Journal of Education

INITIAL AWARD CRITERIA IN VICTORIA

The Victorian Ministry of Education (1 990, pp.6-7) published the following
criteria which the first ASTl applicants are to satisfy:

A. Skills in effective classroom teaching and reporting and evaluating

student progess
B. Positive relationships with students and their classes and effective
communication skills when collaborating with parents and other
teachers
C. Awareness of current trends and developments in education
D. Knowledge of current government policy in education
E. Ability to develop ideas gained from professional development activi-
ties to enhance student learning
F. Contribute to the organisation, planning and development of cur-
riculum
G. Knowledge of and commitment to the development and implemen-
tation of equal opportunity/social justice strategies
H. Knowledge of the ‘action plan for women in the teaching service’ and
a commitment to its implementation
I. Capacity to assist other teachers in their professional development
and the ability to supervise, instruct and counsel student teachers.

The emphasis in these criteria is upon the moral context of teaching

through appraisal of knowledge of government social reform policies and
progressive pedagogy. However these criteria are also part of an industrial
agreement between the teacher unions and the government, in that between
85% and 95% of applicants qualified by their position at the top of the auto-
matic scale will achieve success in this peer appraisal. Three criticisms can be
made of the criteria. The first is the relative lack of attention given to content
as opposed to context. The second is the inadequacy of the description of the
intellectual framework of teaching. The third is the lack of sophistication
required in assessments of the relations between the moral and the action
frames.
There is certainly a socio-moral quality in teaching but it is only one.
Another is the act of pedagogy, the activity of instruction. Teacher profession-
alism has been rooted in teachers’ coherent and justified accounts of an ideal
of service, an epistemology of practice, the professional community and a
code of ethics. Any criteria of professional competence should be based on an
understanding of the development of teachers. Teacher education should pro-
ceed in the light of that understanding. This involves an appreciation of what
teachers do, what teaching entails, what it looks like when it is going well, how
it draws on understandings and capacities of individual teachers, and how
they tell when their efforts are bearing fruit. That is the sort of inquiry, the sort
of research base, we would expect to underpin ASTl appraisal.
We can neither educate teachers in a vacuum nor can we prepare teachers
as if the contexts in which they will practise are so wildly unpredictable that no
principles or expectations can be fashioned. There are predictable regularities
in the life of schools and even in the curriculum with which teachers will have
to cope. Indeed the thrust of many studies such as Cuban’s (1984) How
teachers taught and Dow’s ( 1979) Learning to teach, teaching to learn, among
many others, is to highlight the considerable similarities among classrooms.
This is not to say such similarity of contexts is a good thing, nor that particular
Teacher Knowledge, Studies and Advanced Skills 251
differences are not significant; it is simply a fact of the teaching profession.
Indeed the trend towards national curricula and testing appear to be aimed at
greater uniformity in the service of equity and/or accountability. Teacher
knowledge, reason and judgement rather than teacher behaviour should be
emphasised as the basis of an account of exemplary teaching because adap-
tability is essential. Exemplary teachers are both knowledgeable and skilled
enough to adapt to the unpredictable because it falls well within highly pre-
dictable limits which they also understand well. They would be identified as
advanced skills teachers because they possess the combination of knowledge,
skill, motivation and judgement needed to adapt to the contingencies they
encounter within the regularities they expect.
Although accounts of the purposes of an AST could be described in moral
terms, they would remain empty without the knowledge and capacities necess-
ary to pursue them. Our primary goal as teacher educators is to craft a
conception of pedagogy likely to lead to improvement in the quality of reason
and action in teaching. In our research, we therefore chose a descriptive and
explanatory language which lends itself to analysis of subject matter, of con-
texts and of educational purposes and to reflection and re-enactment in the
interests of improvement or reform. However, as Tom ( 1984) emphasises,
teaching is a skilled moral craft. When teachers speak from a moral stand-
point, they are not confined to expressions of goals or ideals but consider
every aspect of teaching. As Sockett (1 987) suggests, the language of the means
of teaching is as much a moral language as the language of educational ends.
ASTs must be able to express their moral purposes and relate these to govern-
ment policy made meaningful because of goals pursued and not only means
employed.
Teacher skills of deliberation upon moral purposes are sometimes more,
sometimes less important, depending on the context, than an understanding
of how to use knowledge to reason about and engage effectively in teaching.
A balance has to be struck in teacher education and appraisal between the
attention given to strategies, methods and techniques and desired ends of
teaching. Knowledge and skill make for good teaching especially in a proper
matrix of moral and ethical purposes. Within the matrix of moral and ethical
purposes proposed by the Ministry, other criteria need to be elaborated which
emphasise knowledge, skills and outcomes.
The first advanced skills teachers in ministry schools await their appoint-
ments, whereas the Methodist Ladies College (MLC), Melbourne, made its
first in 1990. The AST appraisal criteria and process (Methodist Ladies
College, 1990) emphasise the provision of evidence of sustained excellence
produced in references from others or directly by the applicant. The following
list suggests ways MLC staff might assemble evidence of their excellence
(suggested survey questions and other specific guidance are oflered to the
applicant):

Canvassing student opinion

Descriptions of teaching methodology
Examples of assessment methodology
Examples of work engaged in with other staff
Journals, log books etc.
Participation in student enrichment
Personal academic involvement
252 Australian Journal of Education

Publications-books or papers
References from staff or parents
Statement of computer ability
Student reports
Summaries from conferences, in-services, notes on education thinking
Video, audio, photographic evidence
This behavioural approach certainly tackles the issue ofjuridical evidence in a
way which leaves control clearly in the hands of the principal’s committee
rather than the teacher’s peers. Compared with the Ministry criteria, the MLC
model emphasises the observable knowledge and skills of teachers rather than
the moral and ethical purposes of their teaching
Both sets of appraisal criteria lack any sense of teacher development. They
make statements about what experienced teachers should be committed to or
be able to manage. However the transformation of the idea of teaching must
take seriously the practical reasoning of teachers, an emphasis which has been
ignored in policy research in the past. Questions which need to be asked are of
the type: What knowledge do teachers possess that the laity, including the
academics, do not? What are the sources of this knowledge? How is such
knowledge to be conceptualised? What are the processes of practical cultural
reasoning that are associated with this knowledge and its development? What
sort of research is required to comprehend and explicate this teacher know-
ledge and reasoning? What are the implications for teacher education and
appraisal? With Smyth (1988), we would find it difficult to ascribe value to an
aspect of teaching which we could not describe in practice. However we would
not wish to restrict this description and appraisal to teachers’ analyses, no
matter how socially critical the theoretical frame.

THE KNOWLEDGE BASE OF TEACHING

Scheffler (1963, Green (1 97 l), Schwab (1983), Fenstermacher (1 986), and
Shulman (1987) have discussed the qualities, understandings and abilities
which render someone a competent teacher. Current education reform pro-
posals on quality of teaching in Britain, Australia and the United States
suggest an expanded commitment to professional development and length-
ened induction or training. These proposals assume an understanding of the
difficulties which the novice teachers have, for instance with difficult ma-
terial, and how experienced teachers deal with the same material-how
particular material and particular pedagogical strategies interact. Research is
needed in this area. Teacher effectiveness research has provided an inad-
equate basis for the definition of good teaching behaviour because it ignores
the knowledge dimension of teaching, for instance knowledge about the form
of the lesson being organised or content expertise.
Fenstermacher (1 986) and Shulman (1 987) propose that the capacity to
teach centres around knowledge which a teacher possesses and which others
do not about transforming understanding, performance skills or attitudes,
pedagogical representations or actions. Shulman suggests that the categories
of teacher knowledge should at least include the following:
0 Content knowledge
0 General pedagogical knowledge-broad principles and strategies of
management and organisation that transcend subject matter
Teacher Knowledge, Studies and Advanced Skills 253
0 Curriculum knowledge-of materials and programs that serve as the
resources and tools of the trade
Pedagogical content knowledge-an amalgam of content and pedagogy
that is the unique province of teachers
Knowledge of learners and their characteristics
Knowledge ofeducational contexts-in the classroom, school, district and
beyond
Knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values and their philosophi-
cal and historical grounds.
Pedagogical content knowledge is the category which most readily dis-
tinguishes the understanding of the content specialist and the teacher. Such
understanding includes how particular problems or issues can be organised,
represented and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners.
All the categories of the knowledge base of teachers et all levels of experi-
ence, including ASTs, need to be assessed in some practical way, not simply in
some pencil and paper test, and the appraisal system should be more clearly
related to teacher development than is the case in either of the two systems
reviewed in this paper. Four major sources of this teacher knowledge base can
be distinguished. First there is the scholarship in content disciplines. On the
one hand, there is the accumulated literature and studies in content areas and
on the other, historical and philosophical scholarship on the nature of know-
ledge in the fields of study. This will include studies of interpretation and
criticism and how these might relate to issues of curriculum and teaching.
Secondly there are the materials and settings of institutionalised practice such
as subjects, texts, school organisation, finance and career structures. These are
the tools of trade and the contextual conditions. Thirdly there is the research
on schooling, social organisation, learning, teaching and development and
other social and cultural phenomena that affect what teachers can do. This
research can be general and context specific. Fourthly there is the wisdom of
practice by which good teaching is recalled and articulated. This may be by
way of principles, precedents and stories which advance caring and learning in
a context. Collective amnesia needs to be overcome through research which
records the details and rationales for specific pedagogical practice. Work by
Wise (1979) on teacher retrospectives, Elbaz (199 1) on teacher stories and
Fawns (1 978) on the rough theatre of science teaching are examples.

APPRAISING TEACHING AS PRACTICAL, CULTURAL

REASONING
Research is needed into teaching which, by interview, observation, structured
tasks and examination of materials, shows how a knowledge base provides the
grounds for choices and actions. Such reasons or premises of practical argu-
ment can be arbitrary and idiosyncratic or they can rest on ethical, empirical,
theoretical or practical principles which have substantial support among
members of the professional community nl'teachers. Good teaching is a com-
plex process not nearly well enough understood. It cannot be defined simply in
terms of effective behaviours or disciplinary knowledge but must also rest on
an ability to acquire professional knowledge, a foundation of adequately
grounded premises which deal with purposes as well as content, methods and
strategies. An active commitment to one's own learning is an important
 ~~ ~~

254 Australian Journal of Education

element in any model of professional practice. Good teachers, Shulman

(1 987) says, will not only experiment with their own teaching but will also
present ideas to evoke constructive thinking in their students. Schwab (1 963)
described the reciprocity of evocation and response by which good classroom
discussion could be appraised. The following codification of pedagogical
reasoning and action is proposed as a basis for an appraisal scheme which is
not bound to management models and deals directly with quality of teaching.
These processes are not meant to represent a set sequence. They could occur in
different order.
Understanding of purposes, the subject, ideas and their relationships within
the subject discipline and from the educational disciplines: these understand-
ings do not particularly distinguish a teacher from the laity.
Interpretationof ideas understood by the teacher with the intention of allow-
ing the students to be interested in and to understand these ideas. Interpret-
ation employs a repertoire within each of the following contributing
processes; these result in a plan, a set of strategies to present a lesson, unit or
course:
Framing: the critical analysis of available instructional materials for con-
tent coverage, purposes and the structuring, sequencing and dividing of
material more in line with the teacher’s understanding and purposes.
Portraying: the devising of examples, metaphors, analogies, demon-
strations, simulations, concept maps etc. which may provide a bridge for the
student to the teacher’s understanding.
Producing: the selection from a repertoire of an instructional method
which will embody the portrayal.
Staging: the consideration of student characteristics such as age,
ethnicity, ability, gender, language, prior knowledge, that will influence their
response to the portrayal and the instructional method.
Instruction:This is the observable performance in the classroom. It includes
all the acts of management, explanation and discussion in whatever observ-
able form.
Evaluation: This process includes checking for understanding and misunder-
standing. It is employed during instruction as well as during more formal
appraisal to provide feedback and grades in a particular context. This will call
upon all the forms of pedagogical content knowledge above.
Reflection: This is a retrospective accounting which may take the form
of a reconstruction, re-enactment, or story telling which draws upon evalu-
ations.
New understandings:Through the acts of teaching, the teacher achieves new
understandings in the areas described above and we have a new beginning.

SELF-APPRAISAL BY NOVICE TEACHERS

The adoption of such an appraisal scheme has implications for the agenda of
research into teacher education. To what extent do novice teachers feel that
their knowledge of the processes described has been transferred to them in
their teacher education programs? Are there areas of knowledge in which they
would claim not to be novices? Does their previous university study influence
starting points and self-perception? These were some of the research questions
discussed with a sample of our Diploma in Education students. In each of
Teacher Knowledge, Studies and Advanced Skills 255
the areas of pedagogical content knowledge, they were asked to discuss and
rate their own starting point and level of attainment at the completion of
their one-year programs. A summary of these self-appraisals for a group
of 30 Science and 20 Arts graduates is presented in Table 1.
These preliminary findings are not cited because they suggest any norma-
tive standards on prescribed competencies. Rather they are offered because
they suggest that significant progress in the transfer of complex pedagogical
knowledge can and is being made in teacher education programs. Further
discussions and observations will help us develop the schema further, not with
a view of turning it into a pencil and paper test, but with a view to under-
standing the process of becoming a good teacher. The novice teachers often

Table 1 Novice Teacher Perceptions of their Attainment of Pedagogical Content

Knowledge (Group means)

Rating

Area of At start After the

Pedagogical processes training of course course Gain

A Understanding
of teaching purposes Arts I .7 3.3 1.6
Science 0.9 3.3 2.4
of ideas and their relationship Arts 2.4 3.1 0.7
within the teacher’s subject Science 2.2 2.7 0.5
disciplines
of ideas from other areas and their Arts 2. I 3. I I .o
relationship with ideas from Science 1 .O 2.7 1.7
the teacher’s subject disciplines
of the education disciplines Arts I .5 3.1 I .6
Science 0.5 2.5 2.0
B Interpretation
Teachers represent their
understanding t o students using
the following processes:
Framing Arts I .5 3.4 1.9
Science I .o 3.2 2.2
Portraying Arts 1.5 3.2 1.7
Science I .3 3.4 2.1
Producing Arts 1.2 2.7 1.5
Science 0.9 3.3 2.4
Staging Arts 0.9 3.2 2.3
Science 0.9 3.4 2.5
C Instruction Arts 1.7 3.4 I .7
Science 0.9 3.5 2.6
D Evaluation Arts 2.0 3.5 1.5
Science 0.9 3.1 2.2
E Reflection Arts I .3 3.2 1.9
Science I .4 2.8 I .4

Key Achieved littleho knowledge and skill 0

Achieved poor/low knowledge 1
Achieved fair knowledge 2
Achieved good knowledge 3
Achieved high knowledge 4
256 Australian Journal of Education

remarked that in learning to teach their subject, their whole understanding of

their subject changed. They felt acutely aware of their own ignorance and felt
much of the year was a painful process of re-learning in order to teach.
The research we have embarked upon so far shows that students feel they
have made significant progress in attaining other kinds of knowledge related
to their subject. These are the repertoires of analogies, examples, demonstra-
tions and experiments which are useful in communicating or interpreting
ideas to different students in different situations. These repertories are ac-
cumulated, not by studying the subject directly, although a standard text is
often a starting point for a new topic, but by teaching the subject.
In conversations with the novices about their self-ratings at the end of
the course, it became clear that their high ratings related to the confidence
they felt as competent professional learners rather than their attainments
measured against exceptional teachers, of whom they had seen few. It became
clezr in discussions that the best teachers were not necessarily the best at
talking about teaching or transferring their knowledge.
Our concept of appraisal based on pedagogical reasoning places central
emphasis upon an epistemology of practice. If we took knowledge in action as
the basis of self-appraisal in teacher education, then education studies pro-
grams and school practice report forms would need to be revised. With this
greater emphasis on professional knowledge in education studies, the laity
would be less likely to confine the activity of teacher education to the content-
free domains of methods and supervision.
There is the danger in any appraisal scheme that it becomes over-technical
and standardised. There is that risk in attempting to define a knowledge-based
model. But the definitions of teaching held by the policy makers evidenced by
the models presented for AST appraisal, based on a commitment to govern-
ment policy or student appraisal or payment by results, pose a greater danger
to educational scholarship. Government policy initiatives are directed at
transforming teacher education into a wing of industrial training on a com-
petency-based platform (Peacock & Bluer, 1991). The question is whether the
competency-based standards approach is the most relevant and appropriate
and whether such an approach should receive the ‘unprecedented cooper-
ation’ which Bluer and Carmichael ( 199 I ) require from teacher educators to
implement national competency standards within ACTU guidelines. Analysis
of existing competency-based models points to inherent problems and
weaknesses:
1. There are difficulties associated with identifying and measuring the
body of knowledge and skills that derives from an agreed conception of the
teacher’s work (Lee, 1991).
2. Existing competency standards tend to focus on the mechanics of teach-
ing at the expense of the complexity and richness of the teacher’s work
(Peacock & Bluer, 1991; Watson, 1984).
3. Little funding of current competency-based appraisal schemes flows to
teacher development or research into teacher education.
4. There is no evidence (Chappell, 1989) that shows that good perform-
ance on competency-based criteria predicts future success in teaching.
5. Competency-based teacher education has attracted little interest in
Australia (Harris, 1982; Watson, 1984); and in the United States, concerns are
now being expressed about the serious decline in the foundation disciplines in
education (Edmundson, 1990; Goodlad, 1990; Sirotnik 1990).
Teacher Knowledge, Studies and Advanced Skills 257
6 . Effectiveness is fundamentally a curriculum rather than a process issue
and achievement is constructed locally by teachers and students under par-
ticular circumstances. Eraut (1 990) notes that there is an important role for
theory in teachers’ strategic thinking. To be successful, the teacher needs con-
siderable understanding of the context, a sense of priorities, awareness of
alternatives, and an ability to predict the consequences of various courses of
action over the longer term. This kind of thinking is important in many occu-
pations, yet difficult to observe in practice. It is unlikely to show up in short
observations of performance and may not develop very far prior to qualifi-
cation.
7. Generic indicators of effectiveness and isolated competencies necess-
arily embody very specific curriculum theories. Their widespread use for the
remote control of teaching quality inevitably distorts the purposes and
achievements of schools (Doyle, 1990).
The argument advanced here is that teachers’ pedagogical content know-
ledge is the core foundation for teaching, research, practice and appraisal. It
provides a framework for understanding how teaching can be understood,
represented, enacted and evaluated. It also provides a framework for invent-
ing practices grounded in the realities of school settings. All disciplines have
usefulness for teaching as resources in the continuing development of peda-
gogical content knowledge. Any workable criteria of good teaching would
require a research base of adequate sophistication in both its scope to deal
with differences in opinion about what constitutes good practice and in its
penetration to the intersection of practice and reasoning about professional
judgement. The critical appraisal of criteria for judging teachers’ working
knowledge should be a research focus in teacher education.

Keywords
education courses teacher characteristics teacher evaluation
knowledge level teacher effectiveness teaching process

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AUTHORS
Dr Rod Fawns and David Nance are Lecturers in the Department of Curriculum,
Teaching and Learning, Institute of Education, University of Melbourne, Parkville,
Victoria 3052.
Received: June 1991