Energy 239 (2022) 122299

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

A modeling framework and analysis of challenges faced by the Indian

petroleum supply chain
Sourabh Kumar, Mukesh Kumar Barua*
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Haridwar, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper aims to determine the petroleum industry's supply chain challenges and develop Total
Received 12 March 2021 Interpretive Structural Models (TISM) of the challenges faced by the companies and the consumers'
Received in revised form perspective. From the companies' perspective, nine supply chain challenges were identified through
29 September 2021
rigorous literature review and experts' opinions. From the consumers' perspective, five challenges var-
Accepted 7 October 2021
iables were identified by the literature and the north Indian retail consumers. A novel modeling tech-
Available online 13 October 2021
nique, TISM methodology, describes the leading and lagging variables, which helped them convert the
unstructured model to a well-articulated model. The MICMAC analysis is also performed to classify the
Keywords:
Supply chain management
contributory variables into different categories on the basis of their driving and dependence power. The
Oil and gas study reveals that government policies, adverse weather conditions, and environmental regulation are
Challenges the most influencing challenges, and resource availability is the least influencing by companies' per-
Weather condition spectives. The quality and the price of products are the most influencing challenges, and social welfare is
Environment the least influencing by consumers' perspectives. This study uses the Indian petroleum industry to
Total interpretive structural models describe the proposed method's applicability. This research intended to guide the practitioners, policy-
makers, and academicians to emphasize their effort towards effective supply chain management in the
petroleum industry.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The petroleum industry remains an essential driver for the
world economy. The development of technology and increasing
trends in computerized tools in nearly all stages, starting from
exploring crude oil to dispatched products to consumers. The pe-
troleum companies are still facing operational excellence diffi-
culties [ [1,2]]. The demand and supply of crude oil are the key
factors in identifying the world economy's status [ [3,4]]. Petroleum
companies provide more than 50% of global fuel consumption and
are expected to remain by 2035. On the one hand, global demands
for fossil fuels are rising, and on the other hand, companies are
facing supply chain challenges due to the severe operational ac-
tivities of exploration, production, and refining [ [5,6]]. The 2030
agenda for sustainable development also requires support from the
oil and gas industry [7]. The petroleum industry is a key pillar of the
global energy system and one of the drivers of economic and social
development [8]. This industry faces challenges in every aspect, and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: baruafdm@iitr.ac.in (M.K. Barua).
its supply chain has a significant impact on the cost and its de-
rivatives [9]. The petroleum industry supply chain is complex in
nature because it consists of international borders [10]. However,
cost-saving opportunities still exist for those interrelated activities
[11].
The long-distance between the suppliers takes high trans-
portation time and variability in operations, which can be harmful
to the customers regarding service level and brand values. More-
over, oil transportation is carried out by pipelines, trucks, railways,
etc [ [12,13]]. In a remote location, shipments have to exploit
multiple transportation modes before reaching consumers, which
is a difficulty faced by the shipping industry [14]. Nowadays,
companies optimize all the supply chain activities to enhance
profits with coordination of decisions across all the stages, but the
ultimate goal of fulfilling the demand and satisfying the customers
is lost somewhere [ [15,16]]. Oil and gas development negatively
impacts the environment and the communities in terms of carbon
emission and community displacement [17]. The oil and gas in-
dustry faces political uncertainty globally that causes risk in oper-
ations [18].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122299
0360-5442/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua
1.1. A brief overview of the indian petroleum industry
The petroleum industry is a core industry, and it plays a sig-
nificant role in affecting all other sectors of the economy. India
imports 82% of its oil needs, and demand is expected to increase
threefold by 2035 [19]. As per the India Brand Equity Foundation
report 2019, India was the third-largest crude oil importer in the
world in 2019. The country spent an estimated US$120 billion to
import 228.6 million tons of crude oil in 2018e19. Indian refining
capacity stood at 249.9 million metric tons, making it the second-
largest refiner in Asia [20].
1.2. Motivation of the research
Our research focuses on the challenges faced by the Indian pe-
troleum supply chain. According to the petroleum planning and
analysis cell, India has a pipeline network of only 44,000 km. This
limited network of pipelines creates challenges in the supply chain
such as accessibility in remote areas, high operational cost, time-
liness of delivery, etc. Rao Tummala et al. [21] explained organi-
zations could save about 10% cost in operations by implementing
effective supply chain policies. The Himalayan region (Uttarakhand,
Ladakh, and Himachal Pradesh) and northeast states (Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and
Tripura) have a limited network of pipelines. In these regions, local
communities and tourists face a shortage of oil and gas. In terms of
the strategic reservoir, India has only 36.92 million barrels. India is
looking to expand its reservoir capacity to 46.5 million barrels
more. These stocks can serve in an emergency to moderate the rise
in oil prices caused by a disruption in oil supply. The previous
research on supply chain focus on adverse weather [22], environ-
ment compliance [23], risk analysis [ [24e26]], cost parameters
[27], routing problems [ [28e31]], crude procurement [32], bull-
whip effect [33], sustainability dimension [ [11,17]], critical success
factors of the sustainable supply chain [2].
For effective supply chain management, managers have to
identify and manage supply chain challenges in the chain. The
existing literature suggests insufficient empirical evidence of
research investigating the petroleum industry's supply chain
challenges. To address the research gap, the present study explores
the supply chain challenges in the Indian petroleum industry. The
research considers the supply chain challenges in the context of
upstream, midstream, and downstream. The research also con-
siders customer's perspectives in the study separately. Under-
standing the dependence and driving relationships among
challenges variables helps practitioners emphasize their strategic
decision-making efforts. A novel modeling technique, TISM meth-
odology, was used to establish the driver-dependent relationship
among the challenges variables to achieve this.
The study's objectives are to bridge the literature gap by
considering the various supply chain challenges of the industry. In
this respect, there are three research questions arise.
(a) What are the prominent challenges faced by the Indian pe-
troleum supply chain by considering the companies'
perspective and the consumers' perspective?
(b) How can decision-makers develop models by considering
the companies' perspective and the consumers' perspective?
(c) What policies and suggestions would be adequate for over-
coming listed challenges?
To answer the above questions, the following objectives are
framed.
2
Energy 239 (2022) 122299
1. To identify the prominent challenges faced by the Indian pe-
troleum supply chain by considering the companies' perspective
and the consumers' perspective.
2. To develop the TISM models by considering the companies'
perspective and the consumers' perspective.
3. To present the managerial and theoretical implications for
improving the supply chain's challenges.
We have divided this study into 7 sections after an introduction,
and our motivation for research, the rest formation of the paper,
arranged as follows. Section 2 describes the related literature re-
view on the supply chain challenges faced by the petroleum in-
dustry. Section 3 demonstrates the research methodology and TISM
model development. In section 4, the result and discussion are
explained. Section 5 explains the theoretical and practical impli-
cations of the study. In section 6, limitations and future work are
explained. Finally, according to the finding of the research conclu-
sion is presented in section 7.
2. Literature review
The boom in the global demand for petroleum products and
complexity in the petroleum industry has made its supply chain
more intricate and challenging [ [31,34,35]]. Despite the complexity
of the petroleum industry's supply chain, it is still in the develop-
ment stage [36]. The petroleum companies maintain higher buffer
stock and search for alternative suppliers because of the volatility of
crude oil prices and political unrest in the Middle East [37].
Complexity in the supply chain consists of various constraints such
as government rules and regulations, storage capacity limitation at
refineries and depots, ineffective supply chain KPIs, weather con-
ditions, environmental compliance rules, etc [38]. To assess chal-
lenges in the whole organization, managers should have to focus on
operations and the inter-linkage of challenges on the other entities
[ [39e41]]. The petroleum industry's top management is now in
favor of implementing digitalization solutions and operations
innovation [42]. The quality issue of products is becoming a
constraint, as new fuel specification needs a more intricate opera-
tion, high-price equipment, and more investment at the refining
point. Most of the time, investments do not always offer an
attractive return because consumers are unwilling to pay high
prices [43]. Petroleum company's overall performance can be
improved if they match what to produce with what is required at a
particular time [44].
In our study, supply chain challenges are extracted from the
literature and experts' opinions. In this research, we concerted 448
experts through emails, telephones, and Linkedin. We obtain re-
sponses from 114 experts. Experts were different backgrounds 73
petroleum companies' experts (General managers, Audit managers,
Drilling experts, Environmental scientists, Marketing experts, and
Customer service experts), 15 government officers (Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Gas), 11 retail operators, and 15 academi-
cians. The experts verified all the supply chain challenges variables
and suggested three new supply chain challenges variables (high
demurrage cost, supply chain KPIs, and social welfare initiative).
The companies' perspective challenges variables are categorized by
upstream, midstream, and downstream. The supply chain chal-
lenges faced by the petroleum companies and consumers have
been listed in Table 1 and discussed in Subsection 2.1and 2.2 and
the need for total interpretive structural modeling in Subsection
2.3.
2.1. The petroleum companies' perspective supply chain challenges
From the petroleum companies' perspectives, the various
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua Energy 239 (2022) 122299

Table 1
List of challenges of petroleum companies' perspective and consumer's perspective.

S. no. Petroleum industry's perspective References

Upstream challenges
1 CH1) Environmental Regulatory Compliance [ [5,45e50]]
2 (CH2) Adverse weather condition [ [51e57]]
3 (CH3) Resource availability [ [58,59]]
Midstream challenges
4 (CH4) Storage capacity limitations [ [29,60e63]]
5 (CH5) A limited network of pipeline [ [4,14,55,61,64e67]]
6 (CH6) High demurrage cost Experts' input
Downstream Challenges
7 (CH7) Government policies [ [36,68e71]]
8 (CH8) High operational costs (Distribution, Financing, administrative, etc.) [ [10,16,27,72,73]]
9 (CH9) Use of effective supply chain KPIs Experts' input
S. no. Consumer's perspective References
1 (CC1) Quality of the product [ [22,43,74e80]]
2 (CC2) Price of the product [ [79,81e84]]
3 (CC3) Timeliness of the delivery [ [60,85e88]]
4 (CC4) Easily availability of product at remote locations [ [5,56,89e91]]
5 (CC5) Social Welfares initiative Experts' input

supply chain challenges are identified by the literature and the resources) [ [58,59]]. Remotely located sites face the semiskilled
expert's inputs. These are explained as; and skilled workforce plaguing in industry.

2.1.1. Environment regulatory compliance (CH1)
The petroleum industry plays a hazardous impact on the envi-
ronment at different levels as; water pollution, air pollution, soil
pollution, and all living human beings [ [47,49]]. Rahman et al. [50]
explained that pollution occurred in oil and gas production in
almost all activities, starting from exploration to refining. In the
exploration phase, drilling wastewater, solid waste, aerosols
generate, and in the refining phase, air pollution (emissions of
oxides of sulfur, hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, and particulate matter) occurs [5]. Refineries are also
considered a significant source of pollution in the surrounding area
of location and regulated by environmental laws. Refineries pro-
duce hazardous and toxic air pollutants like benzene, particulate
matter, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, etc. These hazardous
chemicals cause health-related problems like cancer, asthma,
reproductive problems. Refineries also contaminate the surface and
groundwater. Government can fix the gas fix greenhouse gas in-
tensity of upstream, midstream, and chemical plants. Offshore ac-
tivities of crude extraction have a devastating impact on the marine
environment. Almost all the activities starting from hydraulic
fracking to drilling and extracting crude and natural gas produce
waste in the sea. Sometimes, accident discharge also occurred in
the sea as an oil spill and hazardous chemical spills.
2.1.2. Adverse weather conditions (CH2)
The offshore petroleum industry frequently faces adverse
weather, which can hugely impact the oil installation's safety and
production [57]. Extreme cold weather negatively affects oil pro-
duction [ [53,56]]. If the temperature of crude oil goes down, it
starts to freeze because it has a freezing point between
40
and
60 , ultimately affect the crude oil supply. Extreme weather
has the potential to impact structure concurrently [54]. Plunging
temperature can hamper and malfunctions the refineries that
might require shutdowns such as flaring, equipment failure, or
broken products within the piping system.
2.1.3. Resource availability (CH3)
It is the source point for project planning and scheduling. In
terms of the definition, it is described as the access to the right
resources of a given project, at a particular time with the required
skill (human skill) or advanced mechanization (non-human
3
2.1.4. Storage capacity limitation (CH4)
Refinery facilities storage is subject to various constraints. It is
impossible to fill the storage tank up to the top. Commonly storage
tanks are divided into two groups, one is a storage tank that re-
ceives crude oil directly from the pipeline, and another is a charging
tank that receives crude oil from the storage tank [ [60,62,63]]. In
the storage tank, crude oil is supplied through a pipeline or pumped
through a railroad tank [29]. Strategic reserve refers to crude oil
held by the government of the country or private players to safe-
guard the economy and help maintain national security during the
energy crisis. India maintains an emergency fuel store of a total of
36.92 million barrels. In contrast, the USA and China have the ca-
pacity for 714 million barrels and 475 million barrels.
2.1.5. A limited network of the pipeline (CH5)
The pipelines are the most important carrier for oil and gas
transportation, and there are more than two million miles of
pipelines worldwide. In the petroleum industry, transporting oil
and gas over a long-distance pipeline is the most convenient and
efficient mode [ [4,14]]. Even solid can also be transported through
pipelines after converting them into a slurry. The Hajira-Bijaipur-
Jagdispur (HBJ) gas pipeline has a length of 1750 km, making it
the longest pipeline in India. India has about 44,000 km network of
crude, gas, and product pipelines. Pipelines networks in developed
and developing countries are now using the latest network tech-
nologies to monitor pipelines to ensure environmental safety and
economic growth [92].
2.1.6. High demurrage cost (CH6)
Demurrage cost is assessed on the cargo ship that stays at the
port beyond the allotted time. Generally, the standard time for
cargo is 4e5 days that can be varied. Once the allotted time is over,
they have to pay daily charges (demurrage) until the port's cargo
leaves. The demurrage rate and the conditions are stipulated in the
contract between the ship-owner and the charter. Sometimes
demurrage cost is higher than the ship earnings in the market [93].
2.1.7. Government policies (CH7)
The profitability of petroleum companies may come under
pressure when the government asks them to freeze the petroleum
products' price ahead of political power gain [ [68,69]]. Exchange of
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua
power in the center/state government may reveal new challenges
for the petroleum companies because the newly elected govern-
ment does not have clear policies. The Indian petroleum industry
faces structural challenges in 2021, such as dual shock from de-
mand and supply in the COVID-19 era, price sensitivity, and social
pressure. W. Ahmad et al. [17] explained that government policies
and priorities could affect implementing sustainable development
strategies. Indian government policies for ameliorating the petro-
leum industry's environmental, economic, and social problems
have been embedded in various oil and natural gas decree sections.
The central/state government intervention in the oil and natural
gas industry in terms of taxes and subsidies. Indian government
regulates the petroleum industry via three regulators; Directorate
General of Hydrocarbons (DGH), Petroleum and Natural gas regu-
latory board (Regulatory Board), and Oil industry Development
Board (OIDB). The DGH is responsible for the environmental, safety,
technological, and economic activities related to the petroleum
industry. The regulatory board regulates the refining, storage,
transportation, marketing, and distribution of petroleum products.
The OIDB aims to increase self-reliance in oil and gas by providing
financial assistance to the organizations. The monitoring policies
aim to examine the international oil companies' financial and
technological capabilities at government norms. To reduce the
dependence on oil government of India formed policies of 20%
ethanol blending in petrol to 2025 to 2030. To make in the field of
energy security Indian government planning to diversify the energy
sources.
2.1.8. High operational cost (CH8)
The dramatic fall in crude oil prices in 2014/15 and 2020 was the
challenge for the operators and service companies to realign their
cost structure while making the minimum impact on operational
excellence [27]. In the petroleum industry, critical success factors
must be managed in an integrated way to achieve operational
excellence. The prime factors are safety, well productivity, opera-
tional efficiency, and cost optimization [73]. In some cases,
reducing the number of consumables or uses frequency generates
substantial benefits [88]. Big oil companies rely on specialized ex-
plorers rather than internal exploration teams for cost optimization
[25]. Using disruptive technologies in operations can significantly
drop the operational cost. Disruptive technologies have been used
in exploration and production as well as in refineries. Uses of IoT
devices in refineries increase as they connect to the machines and
continuously record operating data under normal conditions.
Blockchain technology can help to ensure each process takes place
as needed with predefined parameters. Blockchain also removes
the intermediaries in the transactions process like bank/third part
and reduces operational costs.
2.1.9. Use of effective supply chain key performance indicators
(KPIs) (CH9)
It is required to configure and track key performance indicators
(KPIs) that impact the visibility of cross-functional operations and
applicability to individual supply chain modules. Anand and Grover
[94] suggested three types of measures for estimating supply chain
KPIs, namely, resource measure, output measure, and flexibility
measure. The use of KPIs ensures that operations are always
running smoothly. The KPIs are indicators of efficient production
planning, forecasting, process strategy, and marketing and sales
management. The supply chain team gets visibility to data at the
point of sales and predicts demand fluctuations with higher accu-
racy [95].
4
Energy 239 (2022) 122299
2.2. The consumer's perspective challenges
From the consumer's perspective, five challenges are identified
by the literature and north Indian retail consumers. These are
explained as:
2.2.1. Quality of products (CC1)
Every consumer wants the right quality product for their use. If
an issue arises like a lower mileage or engine problem, then the
blame goes on petrol/diesel quality. According to the consumer
protection act 1986, each petrol station should have filter papers,
and these should be supplied to the customers when they want to
test the quality of the products. The petroleum companies man-
agers should have to control petroleum products' quality at the
petrol pump/station [ [75,80]].
2.2.2. Price of products (CC2)
Various factors directly affect consumers if the price of petro-
leum products increases. A direct impact of the rising petrol/diesel
price is that consumers need to spend more for the same amount of
travel. The petroleum sector is connected to almost all industries;
therefore, a high price in products means the cost of goods trans-
portation will also go high across the country [ [81,83]].
2.2.3. Timeliness of the delivery (CC3)
Providing timeliness of delivery to the consumer is always
valuable. Petroleum consumers can expect that companies can
serve product delivery in the timeliest manner to cater to schedule.
The companies' main challenge is to deliver refined products to the
end consumers at the lowest cost [ [85e87]].
2.2.4. Easily availability of the products at a remote location (CC4)
Public service oil marketing companies dominate in the Indian
transporting fuel business. Their motive is to fulfill the demand for
petroleum products in urban areas or remote areas, or low service
areas (as declared by the central government) by setting up retail
oil outlets everywhere [ [56,91]]. In the past few years' govern-
ments more inclined to cover pan India by setting thousands of oil
retailers. The remote location of the Himalayan region of India faces
the problem of oil and gas availability. In the remote region, oil
retailers fix the quantity of oil to the consumers to fulfill every
consumer's demand.
2.2.5. Social welfare initiative (CC5)
Companies must have an equal pedestal in their core philosophy
towards fulfilling their societal and environmental responsibilities.
Companies must have corporate social responsibility projects and
programs such as sanitation, healthcare, skill development,
empowerment of women, sustainable environmental practices,
rural development, sustainable livelihood, etc.
2.3. Need for total interpretive structural modeling (TISM) for
model development
The interrelationship between the various factors and their
degree of interdependence can be estimated by interpretive
structural modeling (ISM) [ [96e100]]. ISM is useful as an aid to
individuals and groups in forming an understanding of complex
situations. In ISM methodology, the judgment of the groups decides
whether and how elements of a system are related. Based on the
relationship among a set of elements, the system's overall hierar-
chical structure can be developed. The links interpretations are
comparatively week in ISM. The ISM method is further explained in
total hierarchical relationships, which helps better understand and
theory building. ISM explains only the nodes of the digraph,
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua
whereas TISM explains nodes and links simultaneously [101]. In
TISM methodology, the limitations of ISM are tackled by using an
interpretive matrix. TISM method is a graphical model used to
recognize the relationship among the variables of interest that can
assist in understanding the system's structure [ [102e105]]. TISM
method uses the experts' causal thinking, which helps answer
‘why’ the relationship between the variables exists [ [106,107]].
TISM is an innovative qualitative modeling technique that has been
used in various fields [ [108,109]].
3. Research methodology
The TISM methodology consists of the numbers of steps as
discussed below:
3.1. Step 1: identifying and defining the elements
It is the first step in the TISM modeling in which variables are
identified, and their relationship is defined. The study identified 9
supply chain challenges from companies' perspectives and are
further categorized into upstream, midstream, and downstream
segments. From the consumers' perspective, we identified 5 chal-
lenges variables with the literature and north Indian consumers'
help.
3.2. Step 2: describe the contextual relation
TISM model requires the contextual relation between the supply
chain challenges variables. The contextual relations between the
supply chain challenges can be stated as ‘Environmental regulatory
compliance will influence or enhance adverse weather conditions.'
3.3. Step 3: interpret the relationships among variables
ISM only interprets the relationship between the selected vari-
ables but remains silent on how the relation works between vari-
ables; however, TISM explains and clarifies it, ‘How element A
influences or enhances element B.'
3.4. Step 4: interpretive logic of pair-wise comparison
It shows the interpretive logic of paired relationships in the form
of ‘Interpretive Logic-Knowledge Base.’ For each pair, the entry
could be ‘Yes (Y)' or ‘No (N).' If the questionnaire consists of n el-
ements, then paired, comparisons will be equal to n*(n-1)/2.
3.5. Step 5: construction of direct reachability matrix
The construction of the direct reachability matrix for challenges
of the petroleum companies and consumers' perspective is devel-
oped and made 1 if the entry is Y and 0 if the entry is N. Matrix
transitivity could be checked using the transitivity rule (if P-Q and
Q-R, then P-R).
3.6. Step 6: level partition in the final reachability matrix
The level partitioning in TISM is carried out likely to the ISM
technique. The reachability, antecedent, and intersection set for all
the elements are identified and arranged separately. The variables
for which the reachability set and the intersection sets are the same
are given as the first level. Then, this variable separates out from the
other set of variables for the next level iteration process.
5
Energy 239 (2022) 122299
3.7. Step 7: develop the digraphs
The elements are arranged graphically and level-wise with
directed links as relationship exhibits among the reachability ma-
trix elements. Transitive links that haven't distinct interpretations
may be dropped, and only those transitive links are retained that
have significant interpretations.
3.8. Step 8: interaction matrix
A binary direct interaction matrix is prepared by depicting all
the interactions among the elements in the digraph by ‘10 entry.
Furthermore, this may be constructed as an interpretive matrix by
dispensing a significant explanation for a cell with ‘10 entry in the
knowledge base.
3.9. Step 9: total interpretive structure model
The TISM model is constructed by obtained information from
the digraph and interpretation from the interaction matrix. Fig. 1
and Fig. 2 show the TISM models for supply chain challenges
faced by petroleum companies and the consumers' perspective.
3.1. Developing the total interpretive structural model -1 for
challenges faced by the petroleum industry
For developing the TISM-I model of supply chain challenges
faced by the petroleum companies, the variables of interest were
recognized through rigorous literature review and decision experts'
opinions, as explained in section 2. The contextual relationships
identified between the variables as “Factor A will influence or
enhance Factor B.” For showing all pair-wise comparisons, an
interpretive logic knowledge-base was constructed. As in the pre-
sent study, nine variables have been taken; therefore, the total
number of rows in the questionnaire were 9  8 ¼ 72. The ques-
tionnaire discussed with the 114-decision experts' team consists of
petroleum companies' experts, government officers. retail opera-
tors, and academicians. Different types of team composition are
essential for the diversification of supply chain challenges identi-
fied in the petroleum industry. Responses were collected from the
decision experts for further use to formulate the reachability ma-
trix, as shown in Table 2. For any pair-wise comparison, responses
more than 65% were marked as Y; otherwise, N. Collected responses
marked as Y if the interpretations are given by the experts and one
collective integration of response formulated. The transitivity ma-
trix was constructed to determine the transitivity among the sup-
ply chain challenges. The driving and dependence power of supply
chain challenges was also determined, as shown in Table 3. The
next step is the level partition; in this step, all the variables are
classified into different levels, as shown in Table 4. The interaction
matrix of companies' perspective supply chain challenges is shown
in Table 5. The TISM-I model is constructed, which is shown in Fig. 1.
3.11. Developing the total interpretive structural model eII for
challenges from the consumers' perspective
The TISM methodology was used to construct the model of
challenges faced by the consumers' perspective. The consumers'
challenges variables were identified in Section 2, which is taken as
variables to use for the model structure. As in the present study, five
consumers' perspective challenges have been taken; therefore, the
total number of rows in the questionnaire were 5  4 ¼ 20. For
filling the questionnaire, 427 consumers consulted in a structured
interview. Their responses were collected to formulate the reach-
ability matrix, as shown in Table 6. For any pair-wise comparison,
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua Energy 239 (2022) 122299

Fig. 1. TISM eI of petroleum companies' perspective supply chain challenges.

Fig. 2. TISM-II for consumer's perspective.

6
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua Energy 239 (2022) 122299

Table 2 Table 4
Reachability matrix of companies' perspective supply chain challenges. Level partition of companies' perspective supply chain challenges.

CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9 Factor Reachability set Antecedent set Intersection set Level

CH1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 CH3 3 3,4,5,6,8 3 I

CH2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 CH6 6,8 4,5,6,7,8,9 6,8 II
CH3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 CH8 6,8, 4,5,6,8,9 6,8 II
CH4 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 CH5 5 2,4,5,7,9 5 III
CH5 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 CH4 4,9 1,2,4,7,9 4,9 IV
CH6 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 CH9 4,9 1,2,4,7,9 4,9 IV
CH7 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 CH2 2,7 1,2,7 2,7 V
CH8 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 CH7 2,7 1,2,7 2,7 V
CH9 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 CH1 1 1 1 VI

responses more than 65% were marked as Y; otherwise, N. The Table 5

driving and dependence power of variables was also determined, as Interaction matrix of companies; perspective supply chain challenges.

shown in Table 7. The next step is the level partition; in this step, all CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9
the variables were classified into different levels, as shown in CH1 e 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Table 8. The Interaction matrix of consumers' perspective chal- CH2 0 e 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
lenges is shown in Table 9. The TISM-II model is constructed, which CH3 0 0 e 0 0 0 0 0 0
is shown in Fig. 2. CH4 0 0 1 e 1 1 0 1 1
CH5 0 0 1 0 e 1 0 1 0
CH6 0 0 1 0 0 e 0 1 0
4. Results and analysis CH7 0 1 0 1 1 1 e 0 1
CH8 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 e 0
CH9 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 e
The hierarchical structure of companies' perspective supply
chain challenges is shown in Fig. 1. There are six levels in the hi-
erarchical structure of the TISM-I model. Environmental regulatory
Table 6
compliance (CH1), government policies (CH7), and adverse Reachability matrix of consumers' perspective challenges.
weather condition (CH2) are positioned in the bottom levels (level
CC1 CC2 CC3 CC4 CC5
VI and level V). These challenging variables are leading variables/
high influential on the other variables. Controlling only these var- CC1 1 1 0 1 0
CC2 1 1 0 1 0
iables has a significant improvement impact on the system. As to
CC3 0 0 1 0 1
intermedium levels (level IV and III) of the TISM-I hierarchy CC4 0 0 1 1 1
structure, three variables (CH4, CH5, CH9) plays a role in trans- CC5 0 0 0 0 1
ferring the influence on the other variables. The top levels of the
TISM-I model (level II and I) in the hierarchy structure, the high
demurrage cost (CH6), high operational cost (CH8), and resources management. Managers can adopt strategies and set greenhouse
availability (CH3), act as superficial influencing challenges vari- gas targets to control environmental regulatory attributes. During
ables. Thus, the hierarchical structure TISM-I model inferences are; the interview phase with experts before the study was conducted,
The most critical variables: CH1, CH7, CH2 (most influential/ experts said that environmental concern is the biggest challenge as
leading variables). the industry is often accused of environmental degradation. Several
This shows that successfully overcomes these variables reduce companies have published sustainability reports over the years.
the petroleum supply chain issues significantly. Therefore, the Sustainability reports help their shareholders to know about the
manager's priority should be to deal with these variables. sustainable initiative to achieve sustainability. Roudneshin and
Second most critical variables: CH4, CH5, CH9 (medium Azadeh [62] suggested that waste management is essential in
influential). controlling environmental pollution in a gas refinery.
Superficial influencing variables: CH6, CH8, CH3 (least Further, a sustainable supply chain focuses on the environ-
influential). mental management process. For improving the environmental
We discussed our research with managers, and they accepted performance, multimodal freight transportation could be used as,
that environmental concern is a significant challenge for the top

Table 3
Direct reachability matrix with the transitivity of companies' perspective challenges.

CH1 CH2 CH3 CH4 CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9 Driving Power Rank

CH1 1 1 0 1* 0 0 1 0 1* 5 II
CH2 0 1 0 1* 1* 0 1 0 1 5 II
CH3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 V
CH4 0 0 1* 1 1 1 0 1* 1 6 I
CH5 0 0 1* 0 1 1 0 1 0 4 III
CH6 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 IV
CH7 0 1 0 1 1* 1* 1 0 1 6 I
CH8 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 IV
CH9 0 0 0 1 1 1* 0 1* 1 5 II
Dependence power 1 3 5 5 5 6 3 5 5
Rank IV III II II II I III II II

Note: 1* denotes transitivity links.

7
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua Energy 239 (2022) 122299

Table 7 Both the quality and price of products directly influence the avail-
Direct reachability matrix with the transitivity of consumers' perspective challenges. ability of the products in remote locations. The lagging variables are
CC1 CC2 CC3 CC4 CC5 Driving Power Rank timeliness of delivery and social welfare initiatives, as shown in the
CC1 1 1 1* 1 1* 5 I
TISM-II model. The availability of products directly influences the
CC2 1 1 1* 1 1* 5 I timeliness of delivery.
CC3 0 0 1 0 1 2 III
CC4 0 0 1 1 1 3 II 4.1. MICMAC analysis
CC5 0 0 0 0 1 1 IV
Dependence power 2 2 4 3 5
Rank IV IV II III I MICMAC (Cross-Impact Matrix Multiplication Applied to Clas-
sification) analysis was developed by Godet in 1993. The MICMAC
Note: 1* denotes transitivity links.
principle is based on the multiplication properties of matrices. In
the MICMAC analysis, variables are classified according to driving
i.e., the road to ship, ship to rail, rail to road, etc. [110]. Environment and dependence power. From the company's perspective, supply
regulatory compliance challenges directly influence adverse chain challenges variables are categorized into four categories
weather conditions (CH2) and government policies (CH7). The based on their power, as shown in Fig. 3. The category of variables
weather creates a hindrance to the production of crude oil, refinery are as follows;
operations, and pipelines. Crude oil tends to freeze at
between
40- and
60-degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature 1. Autonomous challenges variables (Quadrant I): These variables
drops to these depths, the oil and gas supply side are affected [56]. have weak driving power and weak dependence power. In our
Ethanol pipelines freeze due to low temperatures, and storms and study, companies' perspectives supply chain challenges, there
fog may temporarily close the ship channels [86]. The petroleum are no variables in this quadrant. The autonomous variables
industry comes under scrutiny based on environmental issues as air generally are disconnected from the system. Hence, they don't
and water quality and waste management [111]. The petroleum have much influence on the system.
industry is under pressure by the government to support the en- 2. Dependence challenges variables (Quadrant I): These variables
ergy system's decarbonization [70]. Adverse weather condition have weak driving power and high dependence power. In our
drives the supply chain key performance indicators (KPIs). It is study, resource availability (CH3), the limited network of the
difficult for companies to access efficient supply chain planning and pipeline (CH5), high demurrage cost (CH6), and high operation
make process strategies in adverse weather conditions. cost (distribution, financing, administrative, etc.) (CH8) fall in
In TISM-I, the pipeline network challenges variables driven by this quadrant. In TISM-I, they are seen at the top of the hierarchy.
the supply chain KPIs and storage capacity limitation. Companies Their strong dependence shows that they require all the other
need large pipeline networks to manage and access the KPIs in the challenges variables to minimize their effect on the supply
supply chain. The strategic reservoir also promotes the pipeline chain.
network to achieve cost optimization. The network of pipeline 3. Linkage challenges variables (Quadrant III): These variables have
variables directly influences the high operational cost and high strong driving power and strong dependence power. Our study
demurrage cost. In the last hierarchy structure, the lagging chal- shows that storage capacity limitation (CH4) and supply chain
lenge variable is resource availability and didn't drive any other KPIs (CH9) fall in this quadrant. These variables significantly
variables. The TISM-I structure clearly shows that out of nine supply impact the system, and any change directly impacts the other
chain challenges, the first driver variable is environment regulatory variables.
compliance, and the last lagging variable is resource availability. 4. Independence challenges variables (Quadrant IV): These vari-
As shown in Fig. 2, the TISM-II model reveals that consumers' ables have strong driving power and weak dependence power.
primary concern is quality and the products price. In the TISM-II In our study, environmental regulatory compliance (CH1),
model, quality and products price are driving forces. Managers adverse weather conditions (CH2), and government policies
should concern the price and quality of the products in similar (CH7) are fall in this quadrant. In TISM-I, they are at the bottom
manners. During the data collection phase, we saw a trend every of the hierarchy structure. These variables are the root cause of
consumer was concerned about the quality of the products [78]. all the other supply chain challenges, so managers need greater
attention while controlling these supply chain variables. As
these supply chain variables have high driving power, they need
Table 8 take care of on a priory basis because they affect other variables.
Level partition of consumers' perspective challenges.

Factor Reachability set Antecedent set Intersection set level The research also consists of a MICMAC analysis of consumers'
perspective challenges. All the consumer's perspective challenges
CC5 5 1,2,3,4,5 5 I
CC3 3 1,2,3,4 3 II
are classified into four categories based on their power, as shown in
CC4 4 1,2,4 4 III Fig. 4. The category of variables are as follows;
CC1 1,2, 1,2 1,2 IV
CC2 1,2 1,2 1,2 IV 1. Autonomous challenges variables (Quadrant I): There is no
variable in this quadrant according to the consumer's perspec-
tive challenges.
Table 9 2. Dependence challenges variables (Quadrant I): In our study,
Interaction matrix of consumers' perspective challenges.
consumer's perspective, two supply chain challenges variables
CC1 CC2 CC3 CC4 CC5 to fall in this category are; timeliness of delivery (CC3) and social
CC1 e 1 0 1 1 welfare initiative (CC5). These two variables are on the top of the
CC2 1 e 0 1 1 hierarchy structure of TISM-II.
CC3 0 0 e 0 1 3. Linkage challenges variables (Quadrant III): In our study, con-
CC4 0 0 1 e 1 sumer's perspective, one supply chain challenges variable falls
CC5 0 0 0 0 e
in this category; easily availability of product at remote locations
8
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua
Fig. 3. Cluster of companies' perspective supply chain challenges.
Fig. 4. Cluster of consumers' perspective challenges.
(CC4). This variable significantly influences social welfare ini-
tiatives and the timeliness of delivery.
4. Independence challenges variables (Quadrant IV): In our study,
the consumer's perspective, two supply chain challenges, fall in
this category. These are the quality of the product (CC1) and the
price of the product (CC2). These variables can be seen at the
bottom of the TISM-II of the hierarchy structure.
4.2. Validation of TISM model
TISM-I for the petroleum industry's challenges needs further
validation because it was constructed with the opinions of a few
decision experts. However, the TISM-II model that captures
9
Energy 239 (2022) 122299
consumers' perspectives has sufficient respondents; hence, there is
no need to validate this model further. In the present study, for
validation of TISM-I, all the 24 links were validated using quanti-
tative t-test methods. During validation, all the 24 links validated
by the 153 respondents using a five-point scale (‘5 ¼ strongly
agree’, ‘4 ¼ agree’, ‘3 ¼ undecided’, ‘2 ¼ disagree’, ‘1 ¼ strongly
disagree’). A research hypothesis was developed for all 24 links. The
example of a hypothesis is shown as:
“H0 (i). There is no significant difference between the observed
mean and the specified mean in relation to the opinion of 153
respondents."
“HA (i). There is a significant difference between the observed
mean and the specified mean in relation to the opinion of 153
respondents."
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua Energy 239 (2022) 122299

i.e. “H0 (i): mean (observed) e mean (specified) ¼ 000
“HA (i): mean (observed) e mean (specified) > 000
In order to test the hypothesis, a one-tailed one-sample t-test
was performed. The ‘test value’ was taken as 3.5. Minitab 16 was
applied to run the t-test. Results of the sample statistics and t value
are shown in Table 10. All the links were accepted at a 5% signifi-
cance level except link 23 and link 24 because the null hypothesis
was rejected for links 23 and 24. Another model developed in
which the rejected links were removed from the TISM-I, as shown
in Fig. 5.
5. Managerial and theoretical implications of the study
The research study shows the challenges faced by the petroleum
companies' perspective and the consumer's perspective. In the
present study, a modeling tool was used to construct the hierar-
chical structure of companies' perspectives and the consumer's
perspectives challenges. The present research highlights the
following implications:
5.1. The managerial and policy implications
 Managers can deal with harsh weather conditions by devel-
oping robust and climate-proof business plans.
 The study shows that managers face difficulty using suitable
supply chain KPIs. KPIs allow top management to determine the
health of critical functions such as forecasting, planning,
sourcing, procurement, customer order cycle, and logistics.
Frequent meetings between operation managers and supply
chain managers are essential for determining the KPIs.
 The result of the TISM-II shows that consumers are concerned
about the quality and price of the products. Managers have to
regularly monitor the quality of products and routine checkups
at the retail store. However, management could consider the
customer's feedback about the products' quality and price.
5.2. Theoretical implications of the study
The present study significantly contributed to determining the
prime supply chain challenges faced by companies' and consumers'
perspectives. The current research highlights the following theo-
retical implications:

 This work helps managers and practitioners to control the
supply chain challenges by understanding the nature of the
supply chain challenges in the TISM models. The TISM-I model
consists of driving variables such as environmental regulatory
compliance. Environmental scientists have to monitor the
environmental standards and develop a biodiversity action plan
in the operating areas.
 In TISM-I, the study's analysis shows that environmental regu-
latory compliance limits the effective supply chain KPIs. Supply
chain managers could make supply chain KPIs by considering
the environmental concern to achieve sustainable operations.
 The TISM-I models show that the pipelines network signifi-
cantly influences the operating cost. Managers can develop
policies to expanding the pipeline transportation network to
achieve low operating costs and environmental friendliness.
 The study shows that government policies have become the
leading performance challenge. Managers have to be aware of
the local government's tax, labour laws, and other plans.
 The present study is the first study, which considers the wide
range of supply chain challenges (9 þ 5) and develops models.
 The present study proposes the three new supply chain chal-
lenges (High demurrage cost, Use of effective supply chain KPIs,
and Social welfare initiative) in literature.
 In the study, 114 experts were involved to fill the questionnaire.
They have more than ten years of experience in the petroleum
industry, government office, retail outlet, and academics; ex-
perts can be more to obtain precise results. We used an example
of an Indian petroleum industry that can be a reference in other
petroleum industries.
6. Limitation and future research
The paper constitutes a number of limitations, as mentioned
here. Firstly, the study considers only nine supply chain challenge
variables from the companies' perspective and five variables from
the consumers' perspective; however, more challenge variables can

Table 10
Hypothesis testing of variables linkage.

Si. No Variable Linkage Mean SD t-value Sig.(1-tailed) Accept/Reject

1 Environment regulation influence or enhance government policies 40,182 0.874 2.5880 0.0135 Accept
2 Environmental regulatory compliance influence or enhance weather condition 4.091 0.701 2.7961 0.0094 Accept
3 Government policies influence or enhance weather condition 4.273 0.467 5.4898 0.0001 Accept
4 Government policies influence or enhance storage capacity limitations 4.000 0.775 2.1397 0.0290 Accept
5 Adverse weather condition influence or enhance government policies 4.091 0.831 2.3587 0.0220 Accept
6 Adverse weather condition influence or enhance supply chain KPIs 4.182 0.982 2.3033 0.0220 Accept
7 Storage capacity limitations influence or enhance supply chain KPIs 3.909 0.701 1.9350 0.0408 Accept
8 Storage capacity limitations influence or enhance limited network of pipeline 4.182 0.751 3.0119 0.0065 Accept
9 Supply chain KPIs influence or enhance storage capacity limitations 3.909 0.539 2.5166 0.0152 Accept
10 Supply chain KPIs influence or enhance limited network of pipeline 4.273 0.786 3.2617 0.0042 Accept
11 Limited network of pipeline influence or enhance high demurrage cost 4.000 0.894 1.8549 0.0466 Accept
12 Limited network of pipeline influence or enhance high operational costs 4.091 0.831 2.3587 0.0200 Accept
13 High demurrage cost influence or enhance high operational costs 3.909 0.302 4.4917 0.0005 Accept
14 High demurrage cost influence or enhance resource availability 3.818 0.405 2.6041 0.0131 Accept
15 High operational costs influence or enhance high demurrage cost 4.182 0.751 3.0112 0.0065 Accept
16 High operational costs influence or enhance resource availability 4.000 0.775 2.1397 0.0290 Accept
17 Environmental regulatory compliance influence or enhance storage capacity limitations 4.300 0.674 3.9300 0.0014 Accept
18 Environmental regulatory compliance influence or enhance supply chain KPIs 3.900 0.0539 2.4613 0.0168 Accept
19 Government policies influence or enhance supply chain KPIs 4.182 0.751 3.0119 0.0065 Accept
20 Government policies influence or enhance limited network of pipeline 4.091 0.701 2.796 0.0094 Accept
21 Government policies influence or enhance high demurrage cost 3.909 0.539 2.5166 0.01527 Accept
22 Storage capacity limitations influence or enhance high operational costs 4.000 0.632 2.6239 0.0127 Accept
23 Storage capacity limitations influence or enhance resource availability 3.273 0.905
0.8319 0.2126 Reject
24 Limited network of pipeline influence or enhance resource availability 3.364 0.809
0.5575 0.2948 Reject

10
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua
Fig. 5. Validation TISM-I of petroleum companies' perspective supply chain challenges.
be used in further studies. Secondly, we have used only 114 re-
spondents for the study who had tremendous experience in the
petroleum sector, government office, retail outlet, and academics.
However, more experts can be considered, and their views can be
taken on petroleum companies' challenges. Lastly, we used the
TISM method for our study; however, other MCDM tools such as
AHP, ANP, DEMATEL, VIKOR could also be used.
7. Conclusion
The petroleum industry is the backbone of the economy, so
there is a great need to explore this area further. Our study iden-
tified the supply chain challenges by considering the companies'
perspective and the consumers' perspective. The present research
identified the ten supply chain challenges variables based on the
literature and three new variables (High demurrage cost, Use of
effective supply chain KPIs, Social welfare initiative) by expert's
opinions. All the supply chain challenges are categorized by
considering upstream, midstream, downstream segments, and
consumers' needs. The present study develops a total interpretive
structural model (TISM-I and TISM-II) of companies' perspectives
and the consumers' perspectives. The hierarchical structure of the
TISM model describes the leading and lagging relationships among
the variables. An example of the Indian petroleum industry has
been presented to show the proposed method's real-world appli-
cability. In the TISM eI model, construction experts are from the
Indian petroleum industry, government office, retail outlet, and
academics in the decision-making procedure. Whereas for the
TISM-II model, construction experts are retail consumers of North
India.
Our study's contribution is to provide an academic-led review of
supply chain challenges in the petroleum industry. The present
work identifies the petroleum industry's supply chain challenges
and develops a hierarchical structure of the TISM-I model, TISM-II
11
Energy 239 (2022) 122299
model. The research shows that in the TISM-I model, government
policies, environmental regulatory compliance, and adverse
weather conditions are leading variables; however, resource
availability is a lagging variable. The environmental scientist/
operation managers must focus on the leading variables at the
TISM-I model's bottom. The policymaker should formulate their
policies and business plan based on government regulation, envi-
ronmental degradation factors, and adverse weather conditions of
the site areas. In the TISM-II model, the products' quality and price
are leading variables, and the social welfare initiative is a lagging
variable. So the managers should focus on the quality of their
products and build reasonable prices of products by keeping in
mind the consumers. The t-test has further validated the TISM-I
model. The TISM-II model has a sufficient number of experts;
hence, there is no need to validate it further. The Managerial and
theoretical recommendations define various highlights of the
study; these are cursory in nature, but the supply chain manager
can suggest recommendations in the industry. Thus, our study is a
significant step to uncover the role of supply chain challenges from
companies' perspectives and consumers' perspectives concerning
the petroleum industry.
Credit author statement
Sourabh Kumar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing e original draft,
Writing e review & editing. Mukesh Kumar Barua: Conceptuali-
zation, Formal analysis, Supervision, Visualization, Project
administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they had no conflicts of interest with
respect to their authorship or the publication of this article.
S. Kumar and M.K. Barua Energy 239 (2022) 122299

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