P-I > ERROR & MEASUREMENT > KINEMATICS > LAWS OF MOTION & FRICTION P-Il >» CIRCULAR MOTION » WORK, POWER & ENERGY > CENTRE OF MASS >» COLLISION & MOMENTUM P-Il >» ROTATION & >» SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION P-IV > GRAVITATION v FLUID MECHANICS & v PROPERTIES OF MATTER P-V > HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS P-VI > MODERN PHYSICS & » SEMICONDUCTORSPHYSICAL WORLD CONCEPT SUMMARY 1. Physical deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in different phenomena, The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely different contexts and conditions. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physical quantities Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise to new physics at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact on society. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of the macroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the “gravitational force’ the ‘electromagnetic force’, the strong nuclear force’, and the ‘weak nuclear force’. Unification of different forces’ domains in nature is a basic quest in physics. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved quantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws of conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity, etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of space and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of fundamental forces in nature. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS, CONCEPT SUMMARY Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity). is define reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, mole and candela). in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but property standardized Bach base quantit The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base units. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units, The International System of Units (SI) based based on seven base units is at present internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).10. ML. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.) Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision of the numbers, Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities tll the desired units are obtained. Direct and indirect methods can be used for the measurement of physical quantities. In measured quantities, while expressing the result, the accuracy and precision of measuring instruments along with errors in measurements should be taken into account. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained. Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic operations with them, and “rounding off the uncertain digits must be followed, The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical quantities. etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (correct) equation. but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong, MOTION IN A PLANE CONCEPT SUMMARY 1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed, mass and temperature. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direetion both. velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra. Examples are displacement, A vector A multiplied by a real number 2, is also a vector, whose magnitude is 2 times the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending upon whether . is positive or negative, ‘Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram method. Vector addition is commutative: A+B=B+A It also obeys the associative law: (A+B) +C=A4(B+O) A null or zero vector is a veetor with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properti At+0=A20=010. ul 13. 14, The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and—B A-B=A+(-B) ‘A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the same plane: A=ha+pb where % and 4. are real numbers, A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude one and is along the vector A: aA ll The unit vectors i,j,k are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of the x, y-. and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system. A vector A can be expressed as A=Ai+Aj Where A,,A, are its components along x-, and y-axes. If vector A makes an angle 0 A 8,A, =Asin® and A=|A|= Al, tan@=— £080,A, = Asin |al= JAP eae 7 With the x-axis, then A, Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R. then: R=Ri+R,j, where, R,=A,+B, and R, =A, +B, The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r= position r to position is given by yj and the displacement from =(x-a)ie(yhy)i = Axi +Ayj If.an object undergoes a displacement Ar in time At, its average velocity is given by v= = The velocity of an object at time tis the limiting value of the average velocity as At tends to zero: v= lime = It can be written in unit veetor notation as: vav,ituitok where v, =v, -y,-% “dt dt dt When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system. v is always tangent to the curve representing the path of the object. Ifthe velocity of an object changes from v to v' in time At, then Its average acceleration is given v-v'_ av b: yee at The acceleration a at any time tis the limiting value of as At —>0 atim’v =o mat dt In component form, we have: +a,jtak15, 16. 17. dv dv, _ dy, dt dt dt where, a, If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration « =|a|= Jaz +a; and its position vector at time t=0 is ro, then at any other time t, It will be at a point given by ren tyytetat 2 and its velocity Is given by: v=v,tat where vo is the velocity at time t= 0 In component form: lie XEXytVaytteayt 2 lie pty ttsae fox FAyt fy Fat Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one - dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is projected with Initial velocity vp making an angle 8, with x-axis and If we assume its initial position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position and velocity of the projectile at time t are given by: x=(v, cos, )t y=(vpsin@, )t-(V/2)e 1, = Vp, = 0) 6080, v, =v, sind, -g t The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by: y=(tan0,)x-—®* (tonsa) 2(v, c080,) ‘The maximum height that a projectile attains is : (v, sin, 2g The time taken to reach this height is: The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position it passes y= 0 during its fall Is called the range. R of the projectile. It is: Ra visin20, g When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is called uniform circular motion, The magnitude of its acceleration is a,=v'/R. The direction of a,, is always towards the centre of the circle.The angular speed «, is the rate of change of angular distance. It Is related to velocity vby v=oR The acceleration is a, =00°R IfT is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and v is its frequency, we have nv, =2mvR,a, = 4n°V-R MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE CONCEPT SUMMARY 1 An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as negative. Path length is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object. Displacement is the change in position: Ax =x. of the displacement between the same points. ,- Path length is greater or equal to the magnitude An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equal in equal intervals of time, Otherwise, the motion is said to be non-uniform. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which the displacement occurs: —_ ax at On an.x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the line connecting the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding time interval. The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. Instantaneous velocity interval At becomes inf r simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time itesimally small: = lim The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on position-time graph at that instant. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which the change occurs: =_Av At Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval At goes to zero: i? 8 At dt The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola while the v1 graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis10. i. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t; and t; is equal to the displacement of the object during that interval of time. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement .x, time taken t, initial velocity v , final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion: If the position of the object at time r= replaced by (x ~ x. is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0, x in above equations is LAWS OF MOTION CONCEPT SUMMARY 1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body in uniform motion is wrong, A force is necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of friction, Galileo extrapolated simple observations on motion of bodies on inclined planes, and arrived at the law of inertia, Newton’s first law of motion is the same law rephrased thus: “Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise’. In simple terms, the First Law is “If external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero”, Momentum (p) of a body p=my the produet of its mass (m) and velocity (v): Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of @ body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts. Thus rake at Where F is the extemal force on the body and a its acceleration, We set the constant of proportionality k= 1 in S units. Then a at (a) The second law is consistent with the First Law (F =0 implies (6) Itisa vector equation (c) Its applicable to a particle, and also to @ body or a system of particles, provided F is the total external force on the system anda isthe acceleration of the system as a whole. (4) F ata point at a certain instant determines a atthe same point at that instant, That isthe Second Law isa local law: a at an Instant does not depend on the history of motion, ma % Impulse is the product of force and time which equals change in momentum. The notion of impulse is useful when a large force acts for a short time to produce a measurable change in momentum. Since the time of action of the force is very short, one can assume that there is no appreciable change in the position of the body during the action of the impulsive force.Newton’s third law of motion: To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction in simple terms, the law can be stated thus Forces in nature always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a body A by body B is equal and opposite to the force on the body B by A. Action and reaction forces are simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect relation between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual forces can be called action and the other reaction. Action and. reaction act on different bodies and so they cannot be cancelled out. The internal action and reaction forces between different parts of a body do, however, sum to zero. Law of Conservation of Momentum The total momentum of an isolated system of particles is conserved. The law follows from the second and third law of motion. Friction Frictional force opposes (impending or actual) relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It is the component of the contact force along the common tangent to the surface in contact. St friction £, opposes actual relative motion: kinetic friction f, opposes actual relative motion. They are independent of the area of contact and satisfy the following approximate laws £5 (E)gq = A =HKR H, (co-efficient of static friction) and 1, (co-efficient of kinetic friction) are constants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is found experimentally that 41 is less than 1, FORMULA SUMMARY (ay MOTION Uniformly Non-uniformly Accelerated Accelerated Straight-Line Motion in a Plane Straight line Motion ina plane e.g, projectile Motion eg, circular motion For Uniformly Accelerated Motion: vqu+at => S=iit+at’/2 svi sul +248 so=ut Glen =1) _si= displacement in the n® second uty Vow a2, If acceleration is not uniform, above equations are not applicable. Then, use basic differential equation == at dt dt? [Imp : a=v2” is used in many problems ie. & = 2%, $v rs at dt dxThis is used especially when acceleration is given as a function of x] fost Jat “a Average speed = (2) Relative Veloci Wwo=¥,-¥, Vag : velocity of A w. rt. B l= We 42-20, 0058 Note? Velocity of swimmer will always be the velocity relative to water & hence his velocity relative to ground changes Woo = Vow + V, AIO Vosn mn + Vaan = Vain > While finding minimum distance between two objects moving with constant velocity, when their position at certain instant is given, find relative path using relative velocity & the ar distance is the minimum distance Voa Zz x: minimum distance. x “a Ay By (3) Projectile Motion : ucos6) i+(usin@-gt) j 8x’ 2 weos'® (i) Equation of trajectory : y= x tan ~ (i) Average Velocity = : x [(scos + (a sin Ot - te] 2usin® ii) Time of flight= Maximum height = “Sit” ® Range = maximum at @ = 45° For a given velocity and range two values of angle of projection are possible (iv) Minimum Velocity of projectile to pass through pt. (x,y) is=g(y+ Vv +)" ~ where a, is the component of acceleration perpendicular to a, the velocity at_that point (v) Radius of curvature =Radius of curvature at angle B = (vi) Onan inclined plane at angle Take X & Y axes along & perpendicular to the incline respectively & solve problem from basic equations. v=[ucos(a-B)-(gsinB)t] i+[usin(a-B)-(gcosB)t]j] S=[ucos(a-B)t-%4(gsinB)t]i+[usin(a-p )t-%(geosB)t]j range = 2 sin(a = )eosa gcos? B = for fixed B, range is maximum for a= | + for fixed, range is maximum for a= | 7+ 2usin(a~ f) time of flight = geos B (4) Cireular Motion : For non uniform circular motion, ‘@° a, : radial acceleration qv a=ra= a: tangential acceleration it () Banking of tracks : tan 0 = Re if friction coe then for particular radius Vg= _[ReQeand=1) Vonax = | RECand +10) (1 wtan@) (I= wtan@)(ii) condition for skidding and toppling of car : Ras Vase = ARE Verne = oe partion between inner & outer wheels height of centre of gravity from ground condition for toppling for motion on banked road (angle 6) ‘Veoppiing = 4/Rs rng 1 [senses Conical Pendulum: where 2a fh time period = 2 g for constant angular acceleration «., o=otat FORMULA SUMMARY a) 2) GB) @ 6) v While solving problems using Newton’s laws, apply the following method: Draw the free body diagrams. Make sure that all the forces are taken into account. They include: Normal force & friction (at all points of contact ), gravitational force, spring force, electrostatic force, Lorentz force or any other given force Choose axes properly & apply Newton’s 2™ law along each axis after resolving all the forces. Look for constraint equations until number of equations = number of unknowns. While working in non-inertial frame, consider pseudo forces. Be sure what your system is Work in a non-inertial frame of reference only if the study of motion becomes very simple compared to that of the ground frame. Here, acceleration of block of mass ’m’ is along the incline only ‘When in the frame of the wedge. But, in the ground frame the motion RE is complicated. Even direction of acceleration is unclear Don't use non-inertial frame for such cases m Study motion of m F in ground frame itself For a system of variable mass =M iy a at ae> a) Q) Important points Ina system involving pulleys , work done by tension force on the whole system=0 2 2Tds=0 SE TW=0&2DTA=0 This gives the required constraint equations. equations can be applied for internal normal forces ie. ENA3=0 =ENV=0 & ENA=0 Spring fors =-ki, kk: spring constant Equivalent spring constant : (i) For series combination AN —ww— ww AWW Toned foe In question involving friction , be sure that friction is static or kinetic Fi=¢NFu= iN FSF : Angle of friction , — Also, angle of repose = a. oon a smooth surface _-mgsin@ cos iy “” (M+msin? 0) Se (M+mgsind a, = Mimesind oO ©” (M+msin? 8) ag, 8, +4,Sr | Physical Quantity Dimensions Unit ST CGS Conversion Factor No (1SL/1 CGS) 1 Length [LMT] M* cm 100 2 ‘Mass [LM'T’) Kg* 1000 3 Time [UMT'] s* s 1 4 |Current (LMT Tr} AY | CGSE unit [3 x 10" 5__| Temperature - Ke K 1 6 | Area [EMT] m em" 10" 7 ‘Volume (Mr ry m em’ 10° 8 Wavelength (iM) m cm) 100 9 ‘Velocity [LMT] mis, ‘cm/s 10° 10 [Acceleration [LMT] mis emis 10) T__| Momentum [M'L'T™ ] Kgms | g—oms! 10° 12__| Force. [M'LT™] N dyne 10° 13__| Work [M'LT™ | J erg 10" 14 | Energs [MT] J erg 107 15_| Power [MET] W erg /s 10" 16 | Densit [ML?T] Kgim? fom? 10> 17__| Frequency [M'L'T™] Hz Hz 1 18 [Angular Displacement | - Rad. Rad 1 19 | Angular Velocity [ML'T"] rad/s rad/s 1 20 | Angular acceleration [M'L'T™ ] rad/s rad/s 1 21 | Angular momentum_ [M'L7T] kg- mis |g-em‘/s__| 10’ 22 | Torque [MLT"] N-m Dyne-em | 10) 23 | Moment of Inertia [MT] Kg-m" g-omr 107 24 | Pressure (MLTTy Pa ‘dyneiem® | 10 25 _| Entropy [MT] J erg 10" 26 | Charge (MUTT) ‘coulomb GGSE unit 13 x10" 27_| Voltage IMT rT) Vv GGSE 1/300 28 _| Resistance IMT J Q GGSE unit 1/(9 x 10") 29 _ | Resistivity IMUTT } Qm GGSE unit | 1/(9 x 10°) 30__| Electric field [MLTT' ] vim, GGSE unit | 1/(3 x 10°) 31__| Gravitational Potential | {U7 T™] ms ems 10" 32__| Flectric Potential [MTT | Vv GGSE unit_| 1/300 33 | Capacitance Ieee) lr em 9x10" 34 | Inductance Mer | H cm 10° 35__ | Conductivity [ML°Tr } Sm" CGSE unit | 9 x 10" 36 | Current Density UL] Alm CGSE unit | 3 x 10° 37__| Electric Dipole Moment_ | [L'T' I" ] C-m CGSE unit [3 x 10"! 38__| Electric Flux IMUTT" | Vem CGSE unit | 1/3 39 __ | Magnetic Dipole moment | [ L'I') Asm’ Oejem 4nx 10" 40__| Magnetic Field strength | [L"I'] Alm Oc 4n x 10° 41 __| Magnetic Flux. [MT] | Wb Mx, 10° 42 _ | Magnetic Induction [were ry T G 10 43 | Permeability IM'LTr! |_| Wo/A-m 44 | Permittivit IML Tr | CiN=m" 45 | Pole Strensth mot A-m Oe = em’ An x 10"46 _ | Magnetic Potential [IMU TT | Woim 41__| Specific Heat [UT] Jkg 'K "| Ergg"K™ 10" 48_| Stress [M'L"T=] Pa dyne/em’ 10 49 | Electric potential [MLTT"] Vim CGSE unit | 1/(3 x 10) gradient 50 | Luminous intensity Ca¥ Ca 1 51__| Amount of Substance Mole* Mole 1 * Basic SI unit (total 7 ) > Least Count : (i) Smallest non — zero reading by an instrument (ii) _ Decides the precision of measurement > Significant Figures : (Rules to identity: ()) All the non — zero digits are significant (ii) All the zeroes between two non — zero digits are significant, irrespective of the position of the decimal point (iii) Ifa number is less than 1 , the zeroes on the right of decimal pt. but to the left of the first non- zero digit are not significant e.g. 0.003746 : 4 significant figures. (iv) The terminal or trailing zeroes in a number without decimal pt. are not significant; but in a number with decimal pt, are significant. (¥) In scientific notation, every number is expressed as a x 10° where b € Land 1<|a|<10 The total number of significant figures in the number equals that in a, irrespective of b (ID Rules for arithmetic operation : ()_ Inmuttiplication or division , the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in the original number with the least significant digits. Gi) Inaddition or subtraction , the final result should retain as many decimal places as there are in the number with the least decimal places. (1) Rounding off the uncertain digits : (i) The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the insignificant digit to be removed is more than 5 & is left unchanged if the later is less than 5. (i) Incase when uncertain digit is 5, ifthe preceding digit is even , the insignificant digit is simply dropped ; if itis odd , it is raised by 1 > Error Estimation : @ WX sat at we tay then absolute error in measurement of x is Aa, , where Aa, is absolute error c) wx-T]s a .${,14| Ax ail then , the relative error in the measurement of X is given (iii) For a given instrument , when no other source of error is mentioned ‘maximum error = least count of instrument .LENGTH MEASUREME! oO @ (i) Vernier Callipers = Principle : If (N+ 1 ) vernier divisions are equal to N main sacle division , then v= where v = smallest division of vernier scale wep = smallest division of main scale Least Count: L.C of vernier caplliper = —S— (N+ Note : Least count of a vernier calliper in general = ( least count of main scale )— ( least count of vernier (iii) wy) (a @ w (ii) (iv) “ oO a scale ) Zero error : is to be subtracted from observed reading s +) Length = M.S. reading + 7 x vernier scale reading line of v.s. coinciding with line onMS.) Micrometer ( Serew gauge ) Pitch : The linear distance moved by the screw forward or backward when one complete rotation is given to circular cap, Le pitch of the serew numberof divisions or circular sacle Length = M.S. reading + circular scale reading x L.C. Zero error : same as in V.C. Experiments Determination of *g” by simple pendulum a(t g=4n (4) for small amplitude J: Jength of pendulum T : Time period of pendulum Error Estimation Determination of Young’s Modulus by searle’s method : y= MB where a M : Mass of load L: length of wire r: Radius of cs. of wire J: extension of wire for the given loadError Estimation AY AM , aL | 2ar a Y M Lor € (IID Specific heat of liquid using calorimeter = Meo(Ts=T) _™ where m,(T-T) m, M = Mass of liquid 1m) = mass of calorimeter & stirrer m2 = mass of cold liquid T, = Temperature of cold liquid ‘T)= Temperature of hot solid ‘T= final temperature of (liquid + solid + calorimeter) Cy = Sp. heat of calorimeter C2= Sp. heat of solid Error estimation : _MC,(T; =) m6 m,(T-T,) m, AC = Ax, + Ax; (AT, +AT) GTHT) g a-(2}, 1) T-1, x Ax, Ax, =(2%2)x, % (IV) focal length using u— v method : Forma: 1-1 ; for lens 1 for mitror r uu: object distance v : Image distance f: Focal length [ For sign convention , refer Optics ] Error formula : Af Au, Av, Ausav fou ov. uty(V)__ Resonance Tube Experiment : Ith, & [zare first two readings ( from water level to top of tube ) V=2f(h-h) V:: velocity of sound in air f frequency of tuning fork 3d or e Error estimation ; 4¥. =F 4 A+ Aly vf i-h (VD) Verification of ohm’s law : |__jy); —_] aly | y constant=R where, —_-V:: Voltage across R 1: Current flowing through R (VID) Specific resistance of material of wire using meter ~ bridge : x Oe 4 \ 1 Error Estimation : Ax _AR xR, X=R unknown resistance , 1; is the balancing length. Here Af,=lem or Imm tet $0, Af, =Al, «ue Generally 2% Pardee |-.©% is minimum when ¢,¢, is maximum but £, + ¢5=L=Im When the balancing point ( null point ) is near the centre error is minimum (VIL) Post office box Mathematical Approximation Methods : Binomial Series : Ct xytsttnx+ MOoD For |x|<1 neR If |x| <<1 then neglecting second & higher order terms of x (1+x)"=1+nx It is especially useful in thermal expansion ete. BAY ONG Ys GH) a+ 212% x x x-y Xx if |y| < <|x] & similarly X-¥.)_2y x+y xWORK, ENERGY AND POWER CONCEPT SUMMARY > > MOTION IN VERTICAL CIRCLE: Body of mass m tied to a string on a circular path, with velocity V as shown B AY B () v= Sgr , body completes a vertical citele. (i) 2gr Work -Energy Theorem : w= [FS Work done by external forces on a system gives change in KE of system. Work done in Cartesian coordinate system is we fraxefray+ freee work done is also area under force ~ displacement graph > Conservative Force: - Work done along a closed path is zero, Work done depends only on initial & final position. > To find iffa given force field is conservative or not: Given : Fy.) =f, OY ZI+E (sy.2) J+ OO ZIk It is conservative iff. fy Oh Oh _ of Of _ Of ox ty i &x & by > Ifin a problem, velocities of bodies are asked, use energy conservation, and other laws which give velocity directly acceleration is asked , use Newton's laws. > Power: water of density +, flows out with velocity v and cross sectional area of pipe is A, then force = rAv’, power = rAv! Ifa bodv is in eauilibrium. it may have non zero velocity.FORMULA SUMMARY > — Momentum: Absence of external force. > Mechanical energy: Absence of dissipative force. > Angular Momentum: Absence of external torque. In momentum conservation, small forces can be neglected if time interval considered is small. e.g. In collisions effect of gravity is usually neglected Centre of Mass: vy (1) Semicircular wire : 2R/x from diameter (2) Semicircular plate : 4R/3 x from diameter. (3) Hollow hemisphere : R/2 from base (4) Solid Hemisphere : 3R/8 from base. (5) Hollow cone. H/3 from base (6) solid cone. H/4 from base (7) Triangle : Centroid Momentum is conserved In ‘elastic collisions’, energy is conserved. (Velocity of separation) _ Velocity of approach (u-u,) Resolve velocities of the bodies at the point of collision before &after collision, along the common normal to the surface of collision & use definition of e. O Ri+Ry) ML, MR? (8) Hollow M Radius | Rowse TS ea cylinder Length | [ena (0) solid cylinder M Radius | Tarough centre : Length | penis¥ (10) cylindrical M Tnner radius Ry | Through centre ML? , M(R}+R3) shell, outer radius Ro | Perpendicular to 2 4 H length L eae (11) spherical M Inner radius Ry | Through diameter shell (thick ) outer radius Re (12) solid cone. M Radius R height H | Abou axis shown T= 2 MR? 10 (13) Hollow cone M Radius R- | About axis shown MRE Height H Parallel axes theorem : I= Iem +Md? (d = distance between axis through centre of mass and parallel axis considered ) Perpendicular axis theorem : I, = I +l, (Only for laminar bodies ) Angular momentum : Angular momentum of a particle L = m(Fx¥) Angular Momentum for a system of particles, about a point &,, x9, )+(1,,, .) (&,, istrompointtoc.o.m) a cleration # JG: angular ac In case of pure rolling, use constraint equations carefully =~ a a eg a Here, a1» Fora disc, sphere, ring, cylinder or spherical shell : (Acceleration of body rolling down on inclined plane a=—£509_ I+ (ii) (ii) (iv) ()__TeanslationalK-E,_ MR’ Rotational K.E, 1? > For equilibrium of rigid body (i) Net force in any direction is zero (ii) Net torque about any point is zero, Note: a (2) Work done by Torque= fra (1) While applying definition of e ies should be that of point of impact. (2) Incollisions, involving two rigid bodies, write impulse momentum equations and solve them. Some equations are lost when you simply use conservation laws. > — LA.O.R- (Instantaneous Axis of rotation ) (i) If velocity of two points is given, then draw perpendiculars to velocities & the point of intersection is LA.O.R @wi V2 OSCILLATIONS CONCEPT SUMMARY 1. The motions which repeat themselves are called periodic motions 2. The period T is the time required for one complete oscillation, or cycle. It is related to the frequency vby. tet v The frequency v of periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of oscillations per unit time, In the SI, itis measured in hertz: I hertz =1Hz=1 oscillation per second = Is" 3. _Insimple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x(t) ofa particle from its equilibrium posi given by, x(t) =A cos (ot +6) (displacement) In which A is the amplitude of the displacement, the quantity (et+4) is the phase of the motion, and 6 is the phase constant. The angular frequency o is related to the period and frequency of the motion by, 2nv (angular frequency). 4 is the projection of uniform circular motion on the diameter of the cirele in which the latter motion occurs. 5. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as functions of time are given by v(t) =-@Asin(wt +4) (Velocity) a(t) =-w8A cos(ot+4) -o'x(t) (acceleration). 6. The force acting simple harmonic motion is proportionate to the displacement and is always directed towards the centre of motion,7. A particle executing simple harmonic motion has, at any time, kinetic energy k= Sim? and potential energy fhe If no friction is present the mechanical energy of the system, E = K+ U always remains constant even through K and U change with time. 8. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of a Hooke’s law restoring force given by F° x exhibits simple harmonic motion with (angular frequency) (period) Such a system is also called a linear oscillator: 9. The motion of a simple pendulum swinging through small angles is approximately simple harmonic. The period of oscillation is given by, =2n, 8 10. The mechanical energy in a real oscillating system decreases during oscillations because external forces, such as drag, inhibit the oscillations and transfer mechanical energy to thermal energy. The real oscillator and its motion are then said to be damped. If the damping force is given by F, =-bv, where v is the velocity of the oscillator and b is a damping constant, then the displacement of the oscillator is given by. x(t)=Ae™?" cos('t+4) Where «', the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, is given by kv m 4i If the damping constant is small thene’=« where is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator. The mechanical energy E of the damped oscillator is given by E(t)=pkave™" IL If an external force with angular frequency @, acts on an oscillating system with natural angular frequency © the system oscillates with angular frequency. The amplitude of oscillations is the greatest when oy=0 A condition called resonance. S.H.M. FORMULA SUMMARY (1) x=Asin (wt +) v =wA cos (wt +4) w°Asin(wt+$)=—w?xQ) PE. = Sm? x? Energy in sum = Lmw?A? KE= Smw?(a?-x’) 8) For spr m T. of Ifm,: mass of spring, mass system: For parallel & series combination, apply keg for k. Parallel: keg = kitk+...eg. 1) 2) 3" 3 4. ky ko eg. 1) ki i ‘Two masses m ; & m: connected by spring Forpendulum T= 2! Ve For physical pendulum I T= anol 1: distance of center of mass from point of suspension mel 1: Moment of inertia about point of suspensionIn non — inertial frame, replace ‘g’ by |B. Angular S.H.M. wd ingular acceleration and 0 is angular displacement. U::potential energy For equilibrium au —=0 dx, ‘Types of equilibria : YE <0 = Neutral dx’ Giy2 <0 = Unstable a >0 ~ Stable Basic steps to find time period of S.H.M (i) Ifthe particle undergoes linear motion, use force method (a) locate equilibrium position (6) Atadisplacement x from this position , draw F.B.D. and write Fea =m a (©) solve and get a=-()' x @ 1TH=2% o (ii) Ifparticle undergoes rotational motion also, use torque method (a) locate equilibrium (b) — Atangular displacement 0 from it, draw F.B.D. and write tea = La. (c) solve and get a= - ()* x @ 1-22 o (ii) Energy method ( valid for linear and rotational motion ) (a) locate the equilibrium position (b) at displacement ( x, @ ) write the total energy ( kinetic + potential ) equation dE (©) Go 7 0-solving it leads to either a = (0) or a=-(07)0GRAVITATION CONCEPTS SUMMARY & FORMULA SUMMARY 1. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction between any two particles of masses m, and m, separated by a distance r has the magnitude mm, a F=G where G is the universal gravitational constant, which has the value 6.67210" N mt? kg* 2. If we have to find the resultant gravitational force acting on the particle m due to a number of masses M,,M,,....M,, etc. we use the principle of superposition. Let F,,F,,...F, be the individual forces due to M,,M,,....M, each given by the law of gravitation. From the principle of superposition each, force acts independently and uninfluenced by the other bodies. The resultant force Fy is then found by vector addition gg aja an, = Som Where the symbol “JS,” stands for summation 3. Kepler's laws of planetary motion state that (a) All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points (b) The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time interval. This follows from the fact that the force of gravitation on the planet is central and hence angular momentum is conserved, (©) The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi- major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet The period T and radius R of the circular orbit of a planet about the Sun are related by pi[4t_\p GM, where M,, is the mass of the Sun, Most planets have nearly circular orbits about the Sun. For elliptical orbits, the above equation is valid if R is replaced by the semi ajor axis a 4. The acceleration due to gravity (a) ata height it above the Earth's surface a(n) =O Me (R, +h) ( 2) for h< oo. The total potential energy for a system of particles is the sumof energies for all pairs of particles, with each pair represent by a term of the form given by above equation. This prescription follows from the principle of superposition 6. fan isolated system consists of a particle of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a massive body of mass M, the total mechanical energy of the particle is given by > GMm v r That is, the total mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. The total energy is a constant of motion. 7. fm moves in a circular orbit of radius a about M, where M >> m, the total energy of the System is GMm E=- 2a with the choice of the arbitrary constant In the potential energy given in the point 5., above. The total energy is negative for any bound system, that is, one in which the orbit is closed, such as an elliptical orbit. The kinetic and potential energies are x -oMm 2a __GMm a 1 1 2G M, 8 The escape speed from the surface of the Farth is v= [> # = /2eR, and has a value of 11.2 km st. 9, Ifa particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically symmetric internal mass distribution, the sphere attracts the particle as though the mass of the sphere or shell were concentrated at the centre of the sphere. 10. If'a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitation force on the particle is zero. If a particle is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the particle acts toward the centre of the sphere. This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to the particle. 11. A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane at a approximate distance of 4.22x10* km from the Earth’s centre. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS CONCEPT SUMMARY 1. The basic property of a fluid is that it can flow. The fluid does not have any resistance to change of its shape. Thus, the shape of a fluid is governed by the shape of its container. 2. A liquid is incompressible and has a free surface of its own. A gas is compressible and it expands to occupy all the space available to it. 3. IF F is the normal force exerted by a fluid on an area 4 then the average pressure Pay is defined as the ratio of the force to area P,, = £10. ul 12, The unit of the pressure is the pascal (Pa), It is the same as N-m?. Other common units of pressure are atm V bar 1 torr= 133 Pa=0.133 kPa 1 mm of Hg = | torr= 133 Pa Pascal's law states that: Pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points which are at the same height. ‘A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel. ‘The pressure in a fluid varies with depth h according to the expression P= Pet pgh where p is the density of the fluid, assumed uniform. The volume of an incompressible fluid passing any point every second in a pipe of non uniform crossection is the same in the steady flow. v A= constant (v is the velocity and A is the area of crossection) The equation is due to mass conservation in incompressible fluid flow. Bernoulli's principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (pv’/2) and the potential energy per unit volume (pgy) remains a constant. P+ pv'l2+ pgy= constant The equation is basically the conservation of energy applied to non viscuss fluid motion in steady state. There is no fluid which have zero viscosity, so the above statement is true only approximately. The viscosity is like friction and converts the kinetic energy to heat energy. Though shear strain in a fluid does not require shear stress, when a shear stress is applied to a fluid, the motion is generated which causes a shear strain growing with time. The ratio of the shear stress to the time rate of shearing strain is known as coefficient of viscosity, 1] Where symbols have their usual meaning and are defined in the text. Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with velocity v through a fluid of viscosity is, F=-- 6m Nav. ‘The onset of turbulence in a fluid is determined by a dimensionless parameter is called the Reynolds number given by Re= pvd/) Where d is a typical geometrical length associated with the fluid flow and the other symbols have their usual meaning. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in the plane of interface between the liquid and the bounding surface. It is the extra energy that the molecules at the interface have as compared to the Interior.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, CONCEPT SUMMARY 1. FORMULA SUMMARY > ¥ Stress is the restoring force per unit area and strain is the fractional change in dimension, In general there are three types of stresses (a) tensile stress — longitudinal stress (associated with stretching) or compressive stress (associated with compression), (b) shearing stress, and (c) hydraulic stress. For small deformations, stress is directly proportional to the strain for many materials. This is known as Hooke’s law. The constant of proportionality is called modulus of elasticity. Three elastic moduli viz... Young’s modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus are used to describe the elastic behaviour of objects as they respond to deforming forces that act on them. A class of solids called elastomers does, not obey Hooke’s law. When an object is under tension or compression, the Hookes law takes the form F/A = YAL/L where AL/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object. F is the magnitude of the applied force causing the strain, 4 is the cross-sectional area over which F is applied (perpendicular to 4) and Y is the Young’s modulus for the object. The stress is F/A A pair of forces when applied parallel to the upper and lower faces, the solid deforms so that the upper face moves sideways with respect to the lower. The horizontal displacement AL of the upper face is perpendicular to the vertical height Z. This type of deformation is called shear and the corresponding stress is the shearing stress. This type of stress is possible only in solids. In this kind of deformation the Hooke’s law takes the form F/A=G AL/L whereAL is the displacement of one end of object in the direction of the applied force F, and G is the shear modulus When an object undergoes hytiraulic compression due to a stress exerted by a surrounding fluid, the Hooke’s law takes the form p=B(AV/). Where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid. AV/V (the volume st the absolute fractional change in the object’s volume due to that pressure and B is the bulk modulus of the object. (i) Young's Modulus y= FA AMI (ii) Bulk modulus B Compressibility z oF (ii) Rigidity modulus 8 F/A O ) x Energy per unit volume = Young’s modulus ) ( strain )*YA > string behaves as a spring of Key= => > Poisson's ratio (o)= —S0/8, d:diameter of rod > Thermal stress in a rod ( which is not allowed to expand ) when heated by AT is =Ya(AT) where c.:coefficien tof linear exp ansion Here lis 1, (1+@AT) & Al=1, aAT Al__aAT. oA. saAT(I-aAT)~ (AT To Treat “AT (-aaT)= a(AT) romasisey ET) FLUID STATICS > & pg . for stationary fluid dy > — Tan 0=—"\— for accelerated fluid gta, a, a, are acceleration inx & ydirection 0 =Angleof inclination of fluid surface with horizontal Imp: In the reference frame of the container, the liquid is at rest and cannot withstand shearing force so, net acceleration is always perpendicular to fluid surface in this frame when fluid is rotating with angular velocity @ : Height of liquid , when at rest = Yo > A. Buoyant force = weight of displaced liquid If _p, =densityof solid, p, =densityof liquid & v= volumeof solid, submerged in liquid F=vpog. If is acceleration of fluid , then Buoyant foree= p, v|&2p Px > ——Ifequal masses of two liquids of densities p; and p2 are mixed, mean density is p = Prt Ps > Ifa body weighs w) and w> in air and water then volume of body “ae =F P.2) specific gravity of solid = FLUID DYNAMICS FORMULA SUMMARY > Continuity Equation (PAv,)=(PAv, }=cons tan t > Bernoulli's Theorem Pgh +y* =constant (steady &iotatona low ofa compressible & non-vteous gui) (a) Pressure head = (b) Gravity head = h —(c) Velocity head > Closely placed streamlines indicate larger velocity FORMULA SUMMARY > F=Té > Excess pressure inside : Bubble et (two spherical surfaces ) Drop pat (single spherical surface ) . ae pale - Capillary rise: T= = == amas 2cos6 @: angle of contact riradius of capillary For tube of insufficient length hl & — cos eat [0 changes ] 7 Surface Tension = tage ineneray of surface change in areaof surface W=Tx(aa) Imp : In case of drop splitting in to many, conserve volume. IfR, and Ro be radii of bubbles. Then radius of common surface is FORMULA SUMMARYVolume of liquid flo zpRE 8nL. > — Speed of flow in horizontal tube of length L. 1g per second from pipe (Radius R , length L, pressure difference P ) Iftwo tubes lengths /, fs and radii, rare connected in series across pressure P, then P= Py + Pa aPr Pry 8nf, 876; When connected in parallel va@ln eB alte Meyer's relation for flow of gas through a capillary tube:- Py Pe Where V is volume of gas through a cross section per second, > Stoke's law : F= 6xnrV Terminal velocity v= 2F ©- 9 Velocity at time *t” \ 28-08 five] on For turbulent Flow D Reynold’s Number N= -s D: diameter of tube No is critical value of steady flow N< No => steady flow N=>No => turbulent flow Note :- Consider the shaded layer of liquid. Forces of viscosity are exerted upon it by the layer above (Fi) & layer below it (F:) For steady state, F =F: > FHEAT & THERMODYNAMICS THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER CONCEPT SUMMARY 1 Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its surrounding medium by virtue of temperature difference between them, The degree of hotness of the body is quantitatively represented by temperature, A temperature-measuring device (thermometer) makes use of some measurable property (called thermometric property) that changes with temperature. Different thermometers lead to different temperature scales. To construct a temperature scale, two fixed points are chosen and assigned some arbitrary values of temperature. The two numbers fix the origin of the scale and the size of its unit. The Celsius temperature (tc) and the Farenhelt temperare (tr) are related by te = (9/5)tc+ 32 The Ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T) is: PV = uRT Where itis the number of moles and 2 is the universal gas constant. In the absolute temperature scale, the zero of the scale is the absolute zero of temperature the temperature where every substance in nature has the least possible molecular activity. The Kelvin absolute temperature scale (T) has the same unit size as the Celsius scale (Tc), but differs in the origi Te=T 273.15 The coefficient of linear expansion (a) and volume expansion (a) are defined by the relations al Meat 7 MF saat Vv Where Al and AV denote the change in length / and volume V for a change of temperature AT. The relation between them is: «, =3a, The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by 18g maT Where m is the mass of the substance and 4Q is the heat required to change its temperature by AT: ‘The molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by 14Q war Where tis the number of moles of the substance. The latent heat of fusion (L,) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of vaporisation (Ly) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid to the vapour state without change In the temperature and pressure ‘The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.10. 1, In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring parts of a body through molecular collisions, without any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform cross section 4 with its ends maintained at temperatures Te and Tp. the rate of flow of heat H is: H=KA ih where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the excess temperature of the body over the surroundings: «Q Rok (1-1, a KET) Where T, is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T: is the temperature of the body. KINETIC THEORY CONCEPT SUMMARY The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume (V) and absolute temperature (T) is PV=pRT=k,NT where 41 is the number of moles and N is the number of molecules. R and K,, are universal constants R=8314J mol'K" ky -$-1 38x10 JK" Real gases satisfy the ideal gas equation only approximately, more so at low pressures and high temperatures. Kinetic theory of an ideal gas gives the relation 1s = tam’ 3 Where n is number density of molecules, m the mass of the molecule and V* is the mean of squared speed. Combined with the ideal gas equation it yields a kinetic interpretation of temperature. LiF=3iyt, Va =(e)" = ae 2 2 m cmv This tells us that the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a molecule. Independent of the nature of the gas or molecule. In a mixture of gases at a fixed temperature the heavier molecule has the lower average speed. The translational kinetic energy This leads to a relation pv The law of equipartition of energy states that if a system is in equilibrium at absolute temperature T, the total energy is distributed equally in different energy modes of absorption, the energy in eachmode being equal to dat - Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one energy mode of absorption and has energy Skat T. Each vibrational frequency has two modes of energy (kinetic and potential) with corresponding energy equal to kT =kyT Using the law of equipartition of energy the molar specific heats of gases can be determined and the values are in agreement with the experimental values of specific heats of several gases. The agreement can be improved by improved by including vibrational modes of motion. ‘The mean free path / is the average distance covered by a molecule between two succ collisions: v2nnd? Where n is the number density and d the diameter of the molecule, THERMODYNAMICS CONCEPT SUMMARY ‘The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that ‘tw systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium with each other’. The Zeroth Law leads to the concept of temperature. Internal energy of a system is the sum of kinetic energies and potential energies of the molecular constituents of the system. It does not include the over-all kinetic energy of the system. Heat and work are two modes of energy transfer to the system, Heat is the energy transfer arising due to temperature difference between the system and the surroundings. Work is energy transfer brought about by other means, such as moving the piston of a cylinder containing the gas, by raising or lowering some weight connected to it. The first law of thermodynamics is the general law of conservation of energy applied to any system in which energy transfer from or to the surroundings (through heat and work) is taken into account. It states that AQ= AU + AW where AQ is the heat supplied to the system, AW is the work done by the system and AU és the change in internal energy of the system. ‘The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by s= 228 where m is the mass of the m substance and AQ is the heat required to change its temperature by A7, The molar specific heat 1.0 where is the number of moles of the substance. For na a solid, the law of equipartition of energy gives C = 3R which generally agrees with expe ordinary temperatures. Calorie’is the old unit of heat. | calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C. 1 cal = 4.186 J. capacity of a substance is defined by C went at10. 1, 12, 13. For an ideal gas, the molar specific heat capacities at constant pressure and volume satisfy the relation Gry =R where R is the universal gas constant. Equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system are described by state variables. The value of a state variable depends only on the particular state, not on the path used to arrive at that state. Examples of state variables are pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T) and mass (m). Heat and work are not, state variables. An Equation of State (like the ideal gas equation PY = [1R7) is a relation connecting different state variables. ‘A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that the system remains in thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings throughout. In a quasi-static process, the pressure and temperature of the environment can differ from those of the system only infinitesimally. In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V; to Vat temperature T the heat absorbed (Q equals the work done (17) by the gas, each given by : w=u RT In| = o-w-unrn(¥) In an adiabatic process of an ideal gas V2, Te) is HC Y w Heat engine is a device in which a system undergoes a cyclic process resulting in conversion of heat into work. If Q) is the heat absorbed from the source, Q2is the heat released to the sink, and the work output in one cycle is W. the efficiency Nof the engine is: Wi a2 a Ina refrigerator or a heat pump, the system extracts heat Q» from the cold reservoir and releases Q; amount of heat to the hot reservoir, with work I done on the system. The co-efficient of performance of a refrigerator is given by q The second law of thermodynamics disallows some processes consistent with the First Law of ‘Thermodynamics. It states Kelvin-Planck statement No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and complete conversion of the beat into work. Clausius statement No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object. Put simply, the Second Law implies that no heat engine can have efficiency Tjequal to 1 or no reftigerator can have co-efficient of performance a equal to Infinity. A process is reversible if it can be reversed such that both the system and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe. Spontaneous processes of nature are irreversible. The idealised reversible process is a quasi-static process with no dissipative factors such as friction, viscosity. ete.14. 15, Carnot engine is a reversible engine operating between two temperatures 7; (source) and T> (sink). ‘The Carnot eycle consists of two Isothermal processes connected by two adiabatic processes. The efficiency of a Camot engine is given by tr 7, No engine operating between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of the Carnot, engine. q (Carnot engine) If Q> 0, heat is added to the system If Q <0, heat is removed to the system. If W> 0, Work is done by the system IfW <0, Work is done on the system FORMULA SUMMARY > - ‘Thermal expansion & temperature: L=L, (I+aaT) A=A,(14BAT) where :length; A :area; V :volume; B=2c.,y = 301 V=V, (1+7AT) Po 14+ AT =p, (I-yAT) when yAT << 1 Ifa scale is calibrated at temp Ty then the reading of length ¢ at temperature T, +AT is ti(l+aAT) So, correct length = reading «(I+aAT) Time lost by pendulum when temperature rises by A. 1 At= Lar, per second 2 Calorimeter : For increase in temperature by AO, without changes of state, Heat absorbed = ms AO where s is specific heat of substance. For change of state of substance heat absorbed = m L, L: Latent heat of substance for given phase change.Note: At steady state, H Transfer of heat : (1) Conduetion : AQ__ Kat at x A: Area of Cross -section K: Conductivity of material For a uniform rod of length /, AQ_KA(T =.) at é where T; & T: are the temperature of the hot & cold end of rod respectively. ‘Thermal resistance = KA It is similar to electrical resistance & laws of series and parallel connection apply here also. For radial flow of heat through a cylindrical tube, 4@ =2#4L(Ti =T) log. /n)) where r2 & ry are outer & inner radii respectively hermal current = constant Sdt=cf(x).dx. ¢ = unknown-constan t Now, use “ar ffooax ———., so that the constant is eliminated. Pet of ropa (2) Radiation: (i) Net rate of loss of heat of a body 42. A(T! -T,!) Stephen's constant=5.67%10* W/m? ~k* A Surfaceareaof body T: Temperatureof body T, :Temperature of thesurroundings (in k) AQ =: Rateof lossof heat At exemmissivity of the body i) Newton's law of cooling oT __Kr—tyit(t dt where k is constant 1, <<,_4seAT,* K and ms a Rate of change of temperature T,, :Temperatureof the surrounding m_ :massof the body 8 _:specific heat of the body (iii) Kirchof's law : Emission power of body ee ewer <> _ = coefficient of absorption (a) of body = emissivity (e) of body Emissive power of black body (iv) Wien’s displacement law: degT =cons tan t= 2.88x10 m—k where 2.,, =wavelength correspond ing to max imum spectral int ensity & T=Temperature of the body Area under e , A graph =oT* at temperatureT v a) Q) While solving problems on heat flow , remember the following equations £Q_ xg at &k =orA(T'- Ty Choose the appropriate relation according to problem Kinetic Theory of Gases : ‘Translational K.E. of gases 1 2 = LemassxV2 mn penis =3RT permole, where Ris8.314]/K = 2 per molecule, wherek is1.38x10-25/K.PV: tow: m:massof gas Degrees of freedom (): () Monoatomic gas (3) (3 translational ) (i) Diatomic gas (5) (3 translational + 2 rotational ) (iii) Polyatomic gas (6) (3 translational + 2 rotational + 1 vibrational ) Degree of freedom changes with temperature for diatomic and polyatomic gases as vibrational energy increases. Each degree of freedom contributes RT/2.per mole to the energy of gs. cv=tin:cp=cv+r=f2?2 2 2 cp_f+2 vo F 5 1 for monoatomie= > 1 diatomic Polyatomie = $ > 1 Law Of Thermodynamics : PROCES aU Ww AQ 1. Adiabati Cv Wo fiabatic aCvaT DM soar 0 y-l 2. Isochorie nCvaT 0 nCvaT (const. V) 3. Isobarie (P) nCvaT P(V2 =Vi) =n RAT nCpAT 4. Isothermal (T) 0 aRT In 22 aRT in > Polytropic processes : (Here, n= moles of gas) PV" =const => TV" =const =T'P'* =const = isobaric = adiabatic => isothermalNote: Q) GB) (4) (5) (6) om (8) 0) AU=nC,AT —_(forallprocesse9 AU isa state function = (AU) eyeli deal gas equation PV= RT is always valid aR yl In polytropic processes, bulk modulus = xP. «. For adiabatic process B = yp and for isothermal process, B = P For a mixture of gases, (Cvyeq=Ex, (Cv), (Cp)eq=(Cvyeq+R=Ex, (Cp), (%=mole fraction of i gas ) yu alt (a While solving problem on I law, remember that if piston of a container is in equilibrium, =p, +m Pout tin A Efficiency n=—Wetel Qrejected Qsupplied — Qsupplied Variation of P with h dp Oar a) PRT @ OM ws - P=Pe® &p=preMODERN PHYSICS SEMICONDUCTORS DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER CONCEPTS SUMMARY 1 The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out from a metal surface is called the work function of the metal. Energy (greater than the work function (,) required for electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied by suitably heating or applying strong electric field or Irradiating it by light of suitable frequency. Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons by metals when illuminated by light of suitable frequency. Certain metals respond to ultraviolet light while others are sensitive even to the visible light. Photoelectric effect involves conversion of light energy into electrical energy. It follows the law of conservation of energy. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process and possesses certain special features. Photoelectric current depends on (i) the intensity of incident light, (ii) the potential difference applied between the two electrodes, and (iii) the nature of the emitter material. The stopping potential (Va) depends on the frequency of incident light, and (ii) the nature of the emitter material. For a given frequency of incident light, it is independent of its intensity. The stopping potential directly related to the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted: eV, =(1/2) mV. = Ke Below a certain frequency (threshold frequency) vo, characteristic of the metal, no photoelectric emission takes place, no matter how large the intensity may be. The classical wave theory could not explain the main features of photoelectric effect. Its picture of continuous absorption of energy from radiation could not explain the independence of Kimar On intensity, the existence of vo and the instantaneous nature of the process. Einstein explained these features on the basis of photon picture of light. According to this, light is composed of discrete packets of energy called quanta or photons. Each photon carries an energy £ (= hv) and momentum p (© h/2.), which depend on the frequency (v) of incident light and not on its intensity. Photoelectric emission from the metal surface occurs due to absorption of a photon by an electron. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is in accordance with the energy conservation law as applied to the photon absorption by an electron in the metal. The maximum kinetic energy (1/2) m v2,, is equal to the photon energy (hv) minus the work function 6" (= hv,) of the target metal: 1? sm 2 This photoelectric equation explains all the features of the photoelectric effect. Millikan’s first precise measurements confirmed the Einstein’s photoelectric equation and obtained an accurate value of Planck’s constant h. This led to the acceptance of particle or photon description (nature) of electromagnetic radiation, introduced by Einstein. =v,e=hv-4,=h(v-v,) Radiation has dual nature: wave and particle. The nature of experiment determines whether a wave or particle description is best suited for understanding the experimental result. Reasoning that radiation and matter should be symmetrical in nature, Louis Victor de Broglie attributed a wave-like