Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92

https://doi.org/10.1007/s41403-021-00264-5

REVIEW ARTICLE

A Critical Review on Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics

of Synthetic Jet
Pawan Sharma1 · Pushpanjay K. Singh1 · Santosh K. Sahu1 · Harekrishna Yadav1

Received: 9 June 2021 / Accepted: 5 September 2021 / Published online: 9 October 2021
© Indian National Academy of Engineering 2021

Abstract
Extensive research has been carried out to meet the cooling demand of high heat flux electrical and electronic devices.
Among the emerging cooling technologies, synthetic jet (SJ) cooling has proved to be an efficient and compact candidate.
This paper presents a comprehensive review on the effect of numerous geometrical and actuation parameters on the flow
dynamics and heat transfer behaviour of synthetic jet cooling. The parameters studied include orifice to surface spacing,
stroke length, frequency of excitation, orifice shape, orifice plate thickness, cavity shape, jet vectoring, and the acoustic
aspect. The present studies also extended the discussion on a novel dual synthetic jet (DSJ) and SJ embedded heat sink.
Furthermore, the flow and heat transfer characteristics of the SJ are compared with the baseline case of the continuous jet.
Among the studied parameters, it is found that orifice geometry, excitation frequency, amplitude, etc. play a vital role in SJ's
thermal performance. Also, careful selection of the multi-orifice jet parameters can be employed for mitigating the recir-
culation effects of a single orifice SJ. New research areas have been identified to enable the effective implementation of SJ
for high heat flux electronics cooling.

Keywords Synthetic jet · Electronics cooling · SJ parameters · ZNMF device

List of Symbols Nuavg Average Nusselt number (h d/kf)
a Radius of the diaphragm (mm) Pr Prandtl number
Ao Orifice area, ­mm2 Prms Root-mean-square electrical power (W)
b Slot width (mm) r Radial distance away from stagnation point (mm)
d Orifice hydraulic diameter (mm) R Half-length of test surface (mm)
E Elastic modulus of the diaphragm Re Reynolds number
f Actuation frequency (Hz) Rc Curvature radius of orifice (mm)
fd Diaphragm resonance frequency (Hz) s Spacing between two adjacent jets (mm)
fh Helmholtz resonance frequency (Hz) S Stokes number
havg Average heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) Sr Strouhal number
hmax Maximum heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) t Thickness of orifice plate (mm)
H Cavity depth (mm) T Time period of the actuation cycle (s)
k Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Ta Ambient temperature (°C)
kf Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/m K) Tw Surface temperature (°C)
K Jet formation constant u(t) Instantaneous time-averaged centerline velocity
L0 Stroke length (mm) (m/s)
L Dimensionless stroke length (L0/d) Um Spatial time-averaged exit velocity (m/s)
Lop Length of orifice plate (mm) U0 Time-averaged centerline velocity (m/s)
Nu0 Stagnation Nusselt number (h d/kf) V Volume of the cavity ­(mm3)
Vpp Peak to peak amplitude (V)
Vrms Root-mean-square amplitude (V)
* Harekrishna Yadav z Orifice to surface spacing (mm)
krishnpme@iiti.ac.in
z/d Dimensionless orifice to surface spacing
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute θ Jet inclination angle (°)
of Technology Indore, Simrol 453552, India ϕ Phase difference between the two jet actuators

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Vol.:(0123456789)
62
𝜔 Radian frequency of oscillation (= 2πf)
Ωv Strength of shed vortex
ƞ Synthetic jet actuator efficiency
μ Dynamic viscosity of jet fluid (kg/m s)
𝜌 Density of fluid (kg/m3)
ν Kinematic viscosity of jet fluid ­(m2/s)
Ah Area of heater surface ­(mm2)
Subscript
AR Aspect ratio
avg Average
BL Boundary layer
CJ Continuous jet
COP Coefficient of performance
DSJ Dual synthetic jet
EF Enhancement factor
HWA Hot Wire Anemometry
PCR Pitch circle radius (mm)
SJ Synthetic jet
SPL Sound pressure level (dB)
TL Transmission loss (dB)
TBL Thermal boundary layer
TM Thermal management
ZNMF Zero-net-mass-flux
Introduction
With the miniaturization of electronic components, there is
a need for novel cooling solutions for electronic components
to achieve high performance at reduced dimensions (Moore
1998). In recent times, the development of compact elec-
tronic devices such as portable computers, mobile phones,
etc. has motivated researchers to find novel solutions for their
thermal management (TM) (Tilak et al. 2011). The advent of
VLSI technology and a significant increase in chip density
have led to higher power requirements. This has resulted
in higher heat generation that causes thermal overstressing
of the electronic components. It has been observed that the
heat flux and peak power dissipation of high-performance
microprocessor chips are exceeding the projected limits
(Garimella 2006). For high heat flux electronic devices, the
designer needs to develop a strong and dependable cooling
system. In view of this, various active and passive cooling
technologies for the TM of electronics have been proposed
(Anandan and Ramalingam 2008; E CJSR 2012). Emerg-
ing cooling technologies comprises of thermosyphons (Pal
et al. 2002), heat pipes (Maydanik et al. 2004), spray cool-
ing (Sehmbey et al. 1995; Cole and Scaringe 2002; Kim
2007; Mudawar et al. 2009), free cooling (Zhang et al. 2014;
Capozzoli and Primiceri 2015), micro/mini-channel embed-
ded cooling (Wei and Joshi 2004; Garimella et al. 2006),
impinging jet cooling (Modak et al. 2017; Sharma and Sahu
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2019), phase change materials (PCM)-based cooling (Nayak
et al. 2006; Sabbah et al. 2008; Yang and Wang 2012; Sahoo
et al. 2016; Ali et al. 2018; Kothari et al. 2019a, b), ther-
moelectric coolers (TEC) (Russel et al. 2013; Rowe 2018;
Cai et al. 2019), and synthetic jet (SJ) cooling (Glezer and
Amitay 2002; Krishan et al. 2019; Arshad et al. 2020; Hong
et al. 2020). Particularly, SJ cooling is found to be poten-
tially useful to meet the cooling demand for future elec-
tronics. The advantages of using SJ cooling are its simple
structure, low weight, less power consumption, and its high
reliability in operations. Also, it does not require complex
plumbing system, because an SJ can be synthesized directly
from the ambient fluid (Glezer and Amitay 2002). Numer-
ous experimental and computational analyses have been
reported that analyze the performance of synthetic Jet (SJ)
for impingement cooling. These studies include the effect of
various geometrical and actuation parameters on the thermal
performance of SJ. In addition to this, the recent comprehen-
sive review on the thermal characteristics of SJ has also been
reported (Krishan et al. 2019; Arshad et al. 2020). The cited
review papers on the synthetic jet mainly focus on the heat
transfer characteristics of the synthetic jet for different geo-
metrical and operation parameters. These include a varied
range of jet-to-surface axial distance, dimensionless stroke
length, shape of the jet orifice, aspect ratio, and excitation
frequency. The mechanism of heat transfer in the synthetic
jet is complex because of different fluid flow configurations
both in axial and transverse directions. It is argued that the
variation of various parameters such as geometric, actuation,
and fluidic parameters alters the flow dynamics and plays
a crucial role in the thermal performance of SJ. Although,
the fluid flow dynamics and thermal performance of con-
ventional jets have been explored by most of researchers,
these parameters have not been explored in detail for the SJ.
In addition, the comparison of fluid flow and heat transfer
behavior of conventional jet and SJ has not been analyzed
extensively in the literature. The effect of various crucial
parameters such as orifice plate thickness, dual synthetic
jet (novel approach for boundary-layer separation control
in aircraft and higher thermal dissipation in electronic sys-
tems), jet vectoring, jet orientation, and its effect on the flow
morphology of the synthetic jets has not been reported in the
literature. In this review article, efforts have been made to
address the above-mentioned aspects and their effect on flow
dynamics and thermal performance. The critical aspects of
the present review article are summarized below.
• The SJ flow physics is compared with the conventional
jet in a detailed manner.
• The effect of various parameters such as orifice plate
thickness, jet vectoring, cavity shape, and synthetic jet
orientation on flow dynamics and thermal performance
is discussed comprehensively in this study.
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
• To enable the synthetic jet implementation in noiseless
operations, the acoustic aspect of the synthetic jet is pre-
sented for the first time in review article.
• For the first time, the flow and thermal characteristics
of a novel dual synthetic jet are addressed in the present
review article, showing futuristic performance in the case
of synthetic jet.
• A wide variety of research gaps (new and innovative) and
challenges are suggested that can be explored for future
research in cooling of electrical and electronics devices
and thermal management of batteries and solar panels.
This review is structured as follows: Section two
explains the working principle and the jet formation crite-
ria of SJ. Section three explains the flow and heat transfer
characteristics of SJ based on operational, geometrical,
and fluidic parameters. Sections three also discusses DSJ
and the potential integration of SJ with a heat-sink for
high cooling performance. Section four highlights the
potential future research areas and challenges in the field
of SJ. Finally, Section five provides concluding remarks
on the SJ. In each section, a specific focus has been pro-
vided to explain the effect of various geometric, opera-
tion, and fluidic parameters on flow dynamics and sub-
sequent effect on the thermal performance of SJ. This
review article includes the relevant flow visualization
studies, figures, and correlations for a better explanation
of flow dynamics and thermal performance.
Fig. 1  Parameters governing the SJ flow field
63
Synthetic Jet
An SJ is a novel zero-net-mass-flux (ZNMF) device that
functions similar to the Helmholtz resonator (Sharma
2007b). A typical SJ assembly includes three primary
components: actuator (oscillating diaphragm), cavity, and
orifice plate. An actuator mainly comprises an oscillating
membrane and a cavity that is connected with an orifice
plate. The oscillating membrane/driver can be designed
by using any one of the techniques such as piezoelectric
actuator (Gallas et al. 2002; Tan and Zhang 2013), piston-
driven actuator (Gao et al. 2012; Lyu et al. 2020), electro-
magnetic actuator (Kumar et al. 2019), the acoustic actuator
(Gil 2018; Gil and Wilk 2020), or plasma actuator (Zong
et al. 2018; Huang et al. 2020). The movement of the dia-
phragm periodically changes the volume of the cavity. As
the diaphragm is excited, it moves outwards, and negative
pressure gradient is created, which sucks the ambient fluid
into the cavity (ingestion stroke). During another half cycle
of inward motion of the diaphragm, fluid is expelled out
through the orifice (expulsion stroke). The SJ is termed as
a ZNMF device, because the net mass-flow rate across the
narrow opening for an actuation cycle equals zero (Cater and
Soria 2002; Gallas 2005). Nevertheless, it generates a defi-
nite amount of momentum transfer to the surrounding fluid.
During expulsion (ejection) stroke, the boundary layer (BL)
detaches from the wall, and, due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz
instability, the fluid rolls up to produce vortex rings (Fig. 1).
The ejected vortex rings move sufficiently far away from
the orifice under its momentum, and during the subsequent
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64 Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92

ingestion stroke, it does not get sucked back into the cavity the actuation cycle. The time-averaged centerline exit veloc-
(Gil and Strzelczyk 2016). A new vortex ring is generated ity is determined by integrating the instantaneous stream-
in the next expulsion stroke, and the cycle continues, devel- wise velocity at nozzle exit over the ejection cycle (half of
oping a series of vortical structures. The vortical structure one complete cycle), and it is written as
induced from the SJ has various beneficial applications such
T∕2
as turbulence mixing enhancement (Chen et al. 1999; Glezer
T∫
1
and Wiltse 2000; Al-Atabi 2011), flow separation control U0 = u(t) dt (2)
(Amitay et al. 2001, 2002; Amitay and Cannelle 2006; Jab- 0
bal and Zhong 2010; Elimelech et al. 2011; Vasile and Ami-
Dimensionless Stroke length (L)
tay 2014; Zhang and Samtaney 2015; Taylor and Amitay
2015; Van Buren et al. 2016a,b; Xu et al. 2019), jet vectoring L0 U T U0
L= = 0 = (3)
(Pack and Seifert 1999; Smith and Glezer 2002; Ibrahim d d d×f
and Skote 2012), thermal management (Glezer et al. 2003,
2009; Schwickert 2009; Grimm 2013), batteries thermal where d, f, and U0 denote the orifice hydraulic diameter,
management (Mahalingam and Glezer 2011), aero optics actuation frequency, and time-averaged centerline velocity
(Vukasinovic et al. 2009a, b), shock wave boundary layer of jet, respectively. Equivalent Reynolds number (Re) can
(Narayanaswamy et al. 2012), and underwater jet propulsion be calculated as
(Krieg and Mohseni 2008). U0 × d
The governing parameters of the SJ, which affects the Re = (4)
𝜈
flow and its thermal characteristics, can be classified into
three different categories: actuation parameters, fluid param- Here, ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
eters, and geometrical parameters, as expressed in Fig. 1. Smith and Swift (2001) asserted that the spatial velocity
To quantify these parameters, one can express their effect profile varies notably from the presumed slug shape. Conse-
in various dimensionless parameters such as dimensionless quently, the centerline velocity profile u(t) is broadly defined
stroke length (L), Reynolds number (Re), Stokes number (S), as spatial time-averaged exit velocity (Um )
and Strouhal number (Sr). These dimensionless parameters
T∕2
can also be further correlated to Re and Sr using Bucking-
TA∫ ∫
21
ham pi-theorem (Buckingham 1914). The influence of these Um = u(t, y) dt dA (5)
parameters on the SJ flow field and its thermal behavior is A 0
explored in third section.
where A is the exit area of the orifice and y is the cross-
stream coordinate. The two velocity scales (U0) and (Um)
SJ Formation Criterion depicted in Eqs. (2) and (5) are related as

It is argued that the formation of the SJ occurs when the

Um = 2U0 (6)
strength of the self-induced vortices (a function of circula- In addition to this, Utturkar et al. (2003) and Holman
tion strength) originates from the orifice exit, is larger than et al. (2005) proposed that Stokes number (S) and Strouhal
the magnitude of average jet suction velocity. Smith and number (Sr) are two critical dimensionless parameters that
Glezer (1998) were the first to propose the SJ formation are associated with the formation criterion of SJ. The Sr is
criterion based on the slug model. It was argued that the described as the ratio of the inertial forces due to the flow
vortex development and jet growth are primarily affected unsteadiness to the inertial forces due to the difference in
by both the L0 and Re. velocity from one point to another in the flow field. It is
The stroke length ( L0 ) is interpreted as the distance by interpreted as
which a “slug” of fluid moves away from the orifice plate
during the expulsion cycle of the SJ, and it is estimated as 𝜔×d
Sr = (7)
(Smith and Glezer 1998) U0

T∕2 where 𝜔 = 2𝜋f is the angular frequency of oscillation. Fur-

∫
thermore, the non-dimensional stroke length ( L = d0 = f 0 )
L U
L0 = u(t) dt (1) d

0 is intimately related to the inverse of Sr and described as

follows:
where u(t) denotes instantaneous centerline velocity at the
exit of the orifice which is not constant and varying with Based on a linear frequency
time (Sallet and Widmayer 1974) and T is the time period of

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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92 65

f ×d d d
Sr = = = (8)
Um T × 2U0 2L0

Based on angular frequency

𝜔×d 2𝜋f × d d
Sr = = =𝜋 (9)
Um 2U0 L0

and since

1 U U d∕𝜈 Re
= m = m / = 2 (10)
Sr 𝜔 d 2
𝜔d 𝜈 S

where S is stokes number and it can be calculated as (Jab-

bal and Zhong 2008):
√
𝜔 d2
S= (11)
𝜈

Smith and Swift (2001) and Mittal et al. (2001) argued

that jet formation occurs beyond a certain threshold stroke Fig. 2  Schematic of SJ formation criterion (Holman et al. 2005)
length L0/d . Rampunggoon (2001) reported that the ratio of
Re to the square of S must be larger than some constant to
establish the evolution of jet. Holman et al. (2005) extended the investigation of Uttur-
Didden (1979) argued that the strength of each formed kar et al. (2003) proposed the evolution criterion for SJ as
vortex (Ωv ) can be associated with the vorticity flux through reported in Eq. (15)
a plane (x, y) during the expulsion phase of the cycle, and 1 Re
it is evaluated as = 2 > K, (15)
Sr S
T∕2 b∕2
where jet formation constant (K) is written as
∫ ∫
Ωv = 𝜉z (y, t) u(y, t) dy dt (12)
32c2 (1 + 𝜀)p
0 0 K= (16)
k 𝜋2
where ξz(y, t) is the span-wise component of vorticity at the
where c = U0 u(t), 𝜀 = 2R∕d (proportion of the curvature
/
exit for 2D and axisymmetric cases, while u (y, t) depicts the
jet exit velocity in the x-plane. δs denotes the extent of the radius to orifice diameter), and p and k are variables depend-
region of shear-flow identified by non-zero vorticity (Fig. 2). ing on the orifice and the vortex geometry. It was proposed
The actuated velocity of the dipole VI is thus analogous that K = 1 and K = 0.16 a requisite condition for the forma-
to Ωv/d and b (width of the slot). Consequently, Eq. (12) tion of 2D and axisymmetric jet, respectively. From the
capitulates above discussion, it can be clearly understood that in the
case of SJ, a jet is formed when the Sr is below a critical
value of 1 and 0.16 for a 2D jet and an axisymmetric jet,
/
Ωv ≈ (U0 𝛿s )U0 𝛿s (1∕𝜔)
(13) respectively. It suggests that the lower value of excitation
≈ U02 𝜔
/
frequency and higher value of exit velocity is needed for the
jet formation. In other words, the evolution of SJ will only
For the formation of the SJ, VI is found to be larger com- take place when the ejected jet vortex overcomes the suction
pared to the average jet suction velocity Vs ∼ U0 (Holman velocity during the ingestion phase.
et al. 2005). The proportion of the VI is thus expressed as
V
Furthermore, to determine the heat transfer performance of
/ / / /
s
SJ, The ­Nuavg is calculated as follows:
VI VS ≈ (Ωv d) U0 ≈ U0 𝜔 d ≈ 1∕Sr
(14) havg × d
≈ (U0 d 𝜈) (𝜔 d2 𝜈) = Re∕S2 > K
/ / /
Nuavg = (17)
kf

where kf is the thermal conductivity of fluid.

The heat transfer coefficient (havg) can be calculated as

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q
havg = ( conv ) (18)
Tw − Ta
here, Tw signify the surface temperature of the heated test
specimen and Ta is the ambient temperature, while qconv is
the net heat supplied to the test specimen
qconv = qj − qloss (19)
here, qj signify the heat flux supplied to the test foil and qloss
denotes the heat loss to the atmosphere. The heat supplied
to the test foil, qj, can be estimated from the voltage drop (V)
across the test foil, by measuring current (I) and the cooling
surface area of test specimen as discussed below
V ×I
qj = (20)
A et al. 2018)
The heat loss computed depends on temperature difference
between the heated surface test foil (Tw) and the ambient tem-
perature (Ta).
Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics
of Synthetic Jet
Comparative Analysis Between Continuous
and Synthetic Jet
In this section, the flow and thermal behavior of the SJ are
compared with the continuous (steady) jet (CJ). The flow
and heat transfer characteristics are discussed separately.
(a) Flow Characteristics
The elementary difference between the SJ and the CJ flow
field is time-averaged velocity across the orifice. In the SJ
case, the time-averaged velocity is zero, in contrast to the
conventional CJ.
In case of CJ, flow field is comprising of free jet region,
stagnation flow region, and wall jet region (Fig. 3). In the
free jet region, jet’s flow field is not affected by the target
surface. The free jet region can be distinguished into two
regions namely: developing region (A) (which comprises of
potential core region) and fully developed region (B). The
length of the potential core is determined as the distance
from orifice (or nozzle) along the axial direction, where the
average centerline velocity of jet reaches to 95% of its orifice
exit velocity. As the fluid flow reaches on the target surface,
there is sudden change in direction of fluid flow by deple-
tion of axial velocity component. This region is called as the
stagnation region. However, in the wall jet region (D), fluid
exits the stagnation region and a parallel flow is observed
along the target surface. while flowing in wall jet region, a
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Fig. 3  Schematic of different flow regions of continuous jet (Modak
transition occurs from laminar to turbulent boundary layer,
for which a secondary peak may occur for z/d < 10 (Yadav
and Agrawal 2018a).
However, in case of axisymmetric SJ, flow field can be
divided into four different regions. In the near field, the ori-
fice is characterized by the presence of discrete coherent
vortex rings under a cyclic reverse-flow condition. Further
in the downstream, the vortex rings start to interact and
break down. As the jet directed normal to the wall, a tran-
sition occurs toward a free turbulent jet by the dilution in
their coherence. As the jet approaches the wall, the SJ axial
velocity decreases rapidly along with the rise in static pres-
sure due to the omnipresence of a stagnation point at the
wall. Then, the jet is directed radially outward along the
wall due to local pressure gradient. On moving away from
the immediate region of impingement, flow develops into
fully developed wall jet, as shown in Fig. 4 (Krishnan and
Mohseni 2010).
The spreading and decay rate of SJ and CJ are found to
depend on the initial flow conditions. In the near field, SJ
is dominated by vortex pairs entraining more fluid than the
steady jet and the centerline mean velocity of SJ is generally
lies below that of steady jet. This indicates that SJ grows
more rapidly (in terms of jet width and volume flux) than
the continuous jet at same Reynolds number (Fig. 5) (Cater
and Soria 2002). However, in the far field, SJ bears much
resemblance to the continuous jet having identical velocity
profiles.
Smith and Swift (2003a) carried out an experimental
investigation (using the Schlieren imaging technique)
to analyze the flow dynamics of SJ and CJ at Re = 2000.
The SJ exhibits more resemblance to CJ in the far-field
region. However, the near field is dominated by vortex
rings and entrains more surrounding fluid than CJ. It can
be argued that the SJ develops more rapidly as compared
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
Fig. 4  Schematic evolution of the synthetic jet flow with different
regions (Krishnan and Mohseni 2010)
Fig. 5  Digitized flow visualization of fluorescent dye marker for a a
SJ, and b the equivalent CJ at Re =104, Sr = 0.0015 (Cater and Soria
2002)
to CJ in terms of both the jet width and volume flux. It was
deduced that for the same Reynolds number (Re = 2200),
CJ is laminar, while SJ is turbulent. For a various combi-
nation of Re and L0 in the case of SJ, vortex pairs always
appear to be turbulent in contrast to the earlier findings
(Béra et al. 2001) in which vortex pairs were initially
laminar and then transition to turbulence takes place.
67
Therefore, the oscillating flow transits to turbulence at low
Re compared to the CJ.
(b) Heat Transfer Characteristics
The impinging jet is widely used in various industrial
applications because of its better thermal performance.
The higher heat transfer rate may be due to multiple rea-
sons such as high momentum transfer, small- and large-
scale turbulent mixing, and the involvement of strong
normal and shear stresses. The earlier studies reported
that SJ enhances the local heat transfer by up to 15 times
compared to natural air convection (Minichiello et al.
1997; Garg et al. 2005a; Utturkar et al. 2006). Dancova
et al. (2017) compared the heat transfer characteristics of
SJ with CJ at constant boundary conditions (Re = 4563).
It was argued that the radial variation of time-averaged
heat transfer for SJ was found to be 35% better than CJ. A
similar observation has been made by other researchers as
well (Arik et al. 2007; He et al. 2015). Arik et al. (2013)
reported 40% higher heat dissipation of SJ as compared
to the CJ for similar boundary conditions (at Re = 1800
and z/d = 5), as depicted in Fig. 6. The enhancement in
SJ’s thermal performance is because of the formation of
the vortex structure in the SJ flow field. At low Re, vortex
formation in the CJ case is not significant; hence, cooling
is allied with the streamlines impinging on the surface,
thereby removing heat. However, SJ exhibits higher ther-
mal performance at a smaller z/d, which may be due to the
direct impingement of the vortical structure and higher
turbulence compared to the CJ. At a larger z/d, the SJ heat
transfer declines slightly; for example, at z/d = 15, and the
CJ performance increases. For the same region, Jagan-
natha et al. (2009) argued that SJ's thermal behavior was
30% higher than CJ at Re = 685.
Fig. 6  Nusselt number versus Reynolds number characteristic for SJ
and steady jet (z/d = 5) (Arik et al. 2013)
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Effect of the Orifice‑to‑Surface Spacing
The non-dimensional axial distance (z/d) between the ori-
fice and the heated target surface plays a crucial role in the
thermal characteristics of SJ. It may be noted that, with the
change in z/d, the flow behavior changes, which leads to
altering the heat exchange behavior. Earlier studies reveal
that the thermal performance of SJ is found to be maxi-
mum at a certain optimum z/d based on different conditions.
Gillespie et al. (2006) reported that in the near-jet region
(z/d < 7), the entrainment of the surrounding air is less due
to confinement of the orifice and surface. On the contrary, in
the far-field region (z/d > 18), the decrease in jet momentum
results in decreased fluid mixing and thermal dissipation.
Fig. 7  Variation of the average Nusselt number with orifice to plate
separation (Re = 108, 254, 309, 367 and 396) (Gillespie et al. 2006)
Fig. 8  Streamline plot of the
time-averaged velocity at
Re = 3700 and L0 ∕d = 17 for
a z/d = 1, b z/d = 2, c z/d = 4
(McGuinn et al. 2008)
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The optimal cooling enhancement was attained in the inter-
mediate region (7 < z/d < 18) (Fig. 7). It is believed that the
higher heat dissipation takes place due to improved mixing
of cold ambient fluid with the ejected jet from the orifice.
In addition to this, the high jet centerline velocity in the
intermediate region assists in penetrating intensely into the
thermal boundary layer (TBL) on the heated surface.
McGuinn et al. (2008) reported that at the lower z/d
(z/d = 1), the formed vortices fail to escape, and they recir-
culate in the working fluid. The recirculation zones are found
to extend up to r/d = 2.2, which corresponds to vortex re-
entrainment, causing a reduction in the heat dissipation at
the radial locations (Fig. 8). While at z/d = 2, the formation
of the vortex ring takes place at radial distance r/d ∼ 1. At
this spacing, high-velocity flow occurred at r/d = 0.7 on the
surface, which affects the mean and fluctuating heat transfer.
It was argued that the mean heat transfer has a local mini-
mum at the stagnation point and shows a local maximum at
r/d = 0.7. The local maxima occur due to the interaction of
the vortex structure with the surface. Lytle and Webb (1994)
and Hoogendoorn (1977) also observed the secondary peak
of heat transfer for steady impinging jets. There are two dif-
ferent opinions on the formation of the secondary peak in
heat transfer. Some researchers anticipated the existence of
the secondary peak due to the transition of the laminar to the
turbulent wall jet (Lytle and Webb 1994; Katti and Prabhu
2008). On the other hand, some researchers found that the
presence of primary vortices in the vicinity of the wall jet
boundary layer causes flow separation and reattachment,
consequently secondary peak in the heat transfer (Ho 1985;
Yadav and Agrawal 2018a). However, for higher normalized
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
axial distance (z/d > 2), local maximum heat transfer is found
to occur in the stagnation region and decreases radially as
opposite to case of z/d = 2, as discussed earlier. Bhapkar
et al. (2019) in their PIV study stated that strong vortices
dominate the fluid flow at low z/d (z/d = 1). The recirculation
due to confinement is the main cause of the degradation in
heat transfer at lower axial distance.
Ghaffari et al. (2015) reported that heat transfer degrada-
tion occurs up to 40% when the SJ jets are operated close to
the test surface (z/d = 2–4). In general, the vortex pairs need
some span-wise region to develop, and subsequently, these
rings/pair come in contact with the hot surface for effec-
tive removal of heat. When the plate is maintained close to
the orifice, the heat transfer degradation occurs because of
various reasons such as inadequate growth of the formed
vortices and warm air recirculation in the following suction
stages of SJ. The authors (Ghaffari et al. 2015) proposed a
correlation (Eqs. 21–22) to predict Nu in case of a semi-
confined circular SJ for a varied range of Re (500 ≤ Re ≤
1150), z/d (z/d = 2, 4), and L (1.75 ≤ L0/d ≤ 4.75 and L0
/z < 2.5). With further increasing the spacing from z/d = 4
to z/d = 6, the peak heat transfer decreases gradually at the
stagnation point (McGuinn et al. 2008). This may be due to
the interaction and consequent disintegration of the coher-
ent vortical structures as they reached the surface, which
in turn enhances mixing and subsequently disseminates the
heat transfer at the stagnation point
Nu L (
z
)
= −0.056 0 + 0.056 =2
0.5 z d
Re
Nu L z
( )
= −0.113 0 + 0.177 =4
Re 0.5 z d
The effect of z/d on a 3D SJ impingement was numeri-
cally studied by Hatami et al. (2018). At a lower value of
z/d (z/d = 3), the vortex pairs are attached to the impinging
surface. However, for larger z/d, vortex pairs have sufficient
time and form a train of vortex rings that move toward the
target surface. Also, at higher impingement distance, the
recirculation zone weakens and leads to an improvement in
air ventilation. Utturkar et al. (2008) reported that the overall
thermal performance decreases at the lower z/d. This may be
because, at a lower value of z/d, the local area being cooled
by impinging jet is much smaller, leading to high local con-
vective heat transfer but a lower value of heat transfer in the
surrounding region. Another important aspect is the tem-
perature of injected air during suction stroke. At a lower
value of z/d, the temperature of the exit air jet (from orifice
during expulsion stroke) is higher compared to the ambi-
ent fluid due to the heat generated within the jet itself. At
low spacing, the ambient fluid entrainment is minimal, and
therefore, the exit air jets usually have higher temperature.
69
On the contrary, at a higher value of z/d, the entrainment
of ambient air increases, resulting in a decrease in the air
jet's temperature and, therefore, enhances the heat removal
rate from the surface (Garg et al. 2005b). Silva-Llanca and
Ortega (2017) reported that the degradation of SJ cooling
behavior is due to the fusing of secondary vortices before
reaching the heated surface. The vortex fusing phenomenon
has been investigated by dividing it into three phases: vortex
induction during the expulsion phase, the start of interaction
with the earlier vortex generated in the previous cycle, and
subsequent coalesces of vortices. The depletion of second-
ary vortices in wall jet region are some of the responsible
factors in the decrease in convective heat transfer (Silva and
Ortega 2011a).
From the above study, it may be inferred that the optimum
distance between orifice and the heated plate can be achieved
in the intermediate field for maximum cooling performance.
In the intermediate field, flow is dominated by coherent vor-
tices that grow to full strength before detachment or impact
with the wall. In addition to the strength of vortices, having
space for air ventilation affects the optimum distance from
the heated surface. At lower z/d (z/d = 2–4), the entrainment
of the cold ambient fluid reduces and results in degradation
of heat transfer. While in the far fields, due to diffusion, the
jet momentum decreases and results in a decrease in mixing
and heat dissipation rate.
Effect of Dimensionless Stroke Length/Strouhal
(21) Number
Stroke length ( L0 ) is the distance by which a slug of fluid
moves away from the orifice during the ejection phase of
(22)
the SJ. The L0 is inversely proportional to the excitation
frequency of SJ as described in “SJ formation criterion”
section. A dimensionless term inverse of the stroke length
is termed as Strouhal number (Sr), and it demonstrates the
basic criteria of SJ formation.
The strength of vortex roll-up and its relation to stokes
number in the formation of SJ is explained by Zhou et al.
(2009). It was observed that for the SJ actuator employed
in their study, a minimum Stoke number (S) of 8.5 is nec-
essary to assure the development of an appreciable vortex
roll-up at L > 4. Figure 9 shows that even for very high stroke
length, SJ's formation cannot be guaranteed for lower values
of S. The threshold value of S increases with the decrease
in stroke length for the SJ formation. A best-fit boundary
between no jet to jet formation without vortex roll-up is
depicted as S ∝ L−0.62 (Zhou et al. 2009). At a lower value
of stokes number, the viscous effect is higher; therefore, the
jet formation does not occur in SJ. For L < 4, the threshold
value of S increases with the decrease in L and S ∝ L−0.79 is
found to be the best fit as a transitional boundary for vortex
roll-up. However, the deviation from the above-mentioned
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70
Fig. 9  Different regimes’ parametric map showing the dependence of
stokes number over stroke length (Zhou et al. 2009)
value is expected for actuators having different orifice geom-
etry and orifice depth-to-diameter ratio.
Furthermore, to find critical stroke length for a small ori-
fice to heated plate spacing (z/d = 2), Valiorgue et al. (2009)
found that for higher L0 ( L0/d > 5), the time-averaged recir-
culation vortex strength is found to be stronger close to the
heated surface. However, for lower stroke lengths (L0/d < 5),
this type of vortex behavior is not observed, which indicates
the presence of two different flow regimes, relay on the value
of the L0. As the L0 varies from lower to higher values, the
thermal characteristics in terms of Nu0/Ren first increase
quasi-linearly up to L0/z ≅ 2.5; thereafter, a saturation value
is reached. In Fig. 10, a vertical dotted line indicates this
critical L0 at L0/z ≅ 2.5 (or L0/d ≅ 5), separating two heat
transfer regimes for low and high L0. At low L0/z, the stroke
length mostly influences the thermal behavior at the stagna-
tion point, while at high L0/z, this influence reduces, and the
SJ inclines more toward a CJ. Persoons et al. (2011) further
extended the work of Valiorgue et al. (2009) and proposed
four different heat transfer regimes based on stagnation point
Nusselt number (­ Nuo), considering a wide range of dimen-
sionless L0 (2 ≤ L0/d ≤ 40) and jet wall spacing (2 ≤ z/d ≤
16). At lower L0, the strength of the developed vortices starts
to decay before it impinges on the surface. The local mini-
mum heat transfer is observed in the intermediate regimes
for z/d ≥ 3. However, at high L0, vortices are unable to fully
develop because of their presence in free jet flow conditions,
and therefore, the heat transfer performance does not depend
on L0 but only depends on Re and z/d.
The flow morphology of SJ with varied range of L0 is
reported by McGuinn et al. (2013) considering varied
range of L (3 < L0/d < 32) and z/d (2 < z/d < 16) at fixed
Re = 1500. Here, four distinct impinging flow regimes are
recognized based on L0/d. With the increase in L0/d up to
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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
Fig. 10  Stagnation Nusselt number (Nu0 ) as a function of stroke
length (L0/z) for a single circular impinging SJ at z/d = 2 (1 <
L0 ∕d < 22, 1000 < Re < 4300, Pr 1∕4 = 0.71), where n = 0.32 ± 0.06
and Nu0/Ren = 1.52 ± 0.04 ( L0 > 2.5z) (Valiorgue et al. 2009)
4, a free SJ reveals an increase in vortex strength, and it
ceases at L0/d = 8. In addition to this, for higher stroke length
(4 ≤ L0/d < 8), a trailing jet is formed after the vortex ring's
ejection and results in the widening of the vortex ring. For
8 ≤ L0/d < 16, the trailing jet creates turbulence and leads to
enhanced mixing, while for subsequent higher stroke length
(L0/d > 16), the fluid flow overtakes the vortex ring resulting
in a highly turbulent intermittent jet flow (McGuinn et al.
2013). In addition to this, Gharib et al. (1998) argued that
with an increase in L0, the circulation of generated vortices
increases proportionally. Flow field study through PIV sug-
gests that at larger stroke length ( L0/d ≈ 8), the formation
of the leading vortex ring is followed by a trailing jet. On
the other hand, at a small stroke length L0/d ≈ 2, all the dis-
charged fluid entrains into a single vortex ring without any
trailing jet. The transition between these two flow regimes
occurs when the value of L ≈ 4 approximately. Effect of L0
on flow morphology of SJ was further added by Greco et al.
(2017, 2018) where the authors found that at high L0, SJ
flow field consists of the primary vortex ring followed by
a trailing jet (Fig. 11, left). The trailing jet is characterized
by a region of low turbulence intensity (TI) with a potential
core surrounded by a shear layer region (Greco et al. 2013).
Along with this shear layer, multiple vortex rings are gener-
ated due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. Such multiple
vortex rings reach the impingement surface after the primary
vortex ring, which is formed at the start of SJ’s ejection
stroke. This primary ring, followed by Kelvin–Helmholtz
vortex rings, causes the formation of counter-rotating sec-
ondary vortex rings near the impingement surface. However,
at low stroke length (L0/d = 5), flow field is characterized
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92 71

Fig. 11  Flow field morphology

of an impinging SJ, character-
ized by high (left) and low
(right) stroke lengths (Greco
et al. 2018)

by multiple primary vortex rings without any trailing jet resonance frequency of the speaker is reliant upon its dia-
(Fig. 11, right) (McGuinn et al. 2013). From the results, phragm size. The reduction in the size of the speaker leads
it was also concluded that at low L0, the existence of vor- to an increase in the rigidity of the speaker, which brings
tex rings leads to greater jet width and low jet centerline about a subsequent rise in the resonance frequency of the
velocity, while opposite behavior is observed for a higher speaker ( fd ) (Blevins 1979; Ikhlaq et al. 2016). The struc-
value of L0 (Greco et al. 2017). It is also noticed that with tural resonance frequency relies on the diaphragm proper-
the decrease in L0, the separation between the vortex rings ties, but it is independent of the volume of the cavity and
decreases (Greco et al. 2013). other operating parameters. However, the fh has a strong
Subsequently, the authors (Greco et al. 2018) reported dependence on cavity parameters. It may be noted that the
that for L0/d = 20, the ­Nuo increases between z/d = 4–6, and maximum velocity of SJ is obtained at diaphragm structural
then, it starts decreasing further. As the L0 decreases, the resonance, and therefore, fd is more crucial than fh from a
location of the maximum value of ­Nuo shifts to the lower practical point of view. The structural and Helmholtz reso-
z/d. It can be argued that for higher L0/d, the stagnation Nu is nance frequency can be obtained by the following equations
achieved at higher z/d because of the existence of the poten- (Chaudhari et al. 2009):
tial core like zone in the SJ flow field (Greco et al. 2013). [ ( ) )]−0.5
Indeed, the existence of trailing jet in SJ with higher L0/d
(
1
( ) (
m
) a6 1 − a2
causes the presence of a triangular zone of low turbulence fd = 𝜋× (23)
2𝜋 6𝜋 2 a4 16Eh3
intensity in the vicinity of the centerline similar to CJ (Abra-
movich 2020). The axial range of this zone decides the z/d ]−0.5
at which the maximum value of N ­ uo can be achieved (Jam- )[{( 4𝜌 × t ) ( )}
(
1 8𝜌 V
fh = × a20 +
bunathan et al. 1992). However, the length of the potential 2𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 2 a0 𝜌 c2
core decreases with the decrease in the value of L0/d, which (24)
leads to shifting of N­ uo at lower z/d for L0/d = 5–10 (Greco where a, E, 𝛼 , h, m, c, ρ , t, a0 , and V denotes the dia-
et al. 2013). As reported by McGuinn et al. (2013), for lower phragm radius, modulus of elasticity of the membrane,
L0/d, SJ’s flow field is mainly distinguished by the train of Poisson ratio, thickness of the membrane, diaphragm mass,
convection vortex rings, and the absence of strong trailing speed of sound, density of air, orifice thickness, radius of
jet results in the absence of prominent N ­ uo peak for all z/d the orifice, and cavity volume, respectively. Chaudhari et al.
(McGuinn et al. 2013; Yadav and Agrawal 2018a). (2010a) reported that the flow velocity and cooling charac-
teristics of the SJ attain the maximum value at fd . For all
Effect of Frequency of Actuation frequencies, the value of havg increases swiftly up to some
axial distance ( Zmax = 48–50 mm) and then declines gradu-
In SJ, there are two different frequencies: one related to ally with further increase in z. It is also observed that the
diaphragm deflection (known as structural resonance fre- havg is found to be maximum at the resonance frequency
quency, fd ) and the other one is related to the orifice cav- (250 Hz). Kercher et al. (2003) reported that maximum air
ity (known as Helmholtz resonance frequency, fh ) which velocity is attained by increasing the resonant frequency
are found to affect the performance (Alster 1972; Chanaud of the diaphragm which depends on the driving power.
1994; Mallinson et al. 1999; Sharma 2007a). The structural

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72
Similar observations had been made by various research-
ers (Liu et al. 2015; Gil and Strzelczyk 2016; Singh et al.
2020b) and it was reported that the value of Nuavg is found
to increase with the frequency up to resonance frequency
and then reduces with further increase in frequency for all
the orifice geometries (circular, square, and rectangular).
Recently, Firdaus et al. (2019) explored the effect of excita-
tion frequency (f = 300–700 Hz) and diaphragm amplitude
on SJ thermal performance and found that hmax occurs at
500 Hz in their computational study.
Silva et al. (2012), Silva-Llanca et al. (2015) reported the
effect of excitation frequency (f = 11–33 Hz) on the ther-
mal characteristics of SJ at different Re (Re = 305–508) and
z/d (z/d = 5–20). In the near-field region (z/d ≤ 7.5), Nu is
strongly affected by frequency, because a high-frequency
jet produces a more dynamic velocity field that improves
the heat transfer. However, for higher z/d, the heat transfer
does not depend on the frequency. Furthermore, the authors
(Silva and Ortega 2011b, 2013) in their studies stated that
with the increase in f and z/d, merging of consecutive vor-
tices takes place and results in a lower value of thermal
performance. The frequency response of slot and circular
orifice SJ was compared by Ghaffari et al. (2016a) for a
wide range of Re (200–1200) and z/d (2–4) for a given value
of hydraulic diameter (d = 2 mm). It was observed that the
coefficient of performance (COP) of circular SJ is found to
be better at a frequency higher than the structural resonance.
While, the slot SJ consumes more input power at a higher
frequency with a reduction in the Reynolds number (Ghaf-
fari et al. 2016a). Ghaffari et al. (2016b) performed experi-
ments to analyze the flow (using PIV) and thermal perfor-
mance of ultrasonic (f > 25 kHz) micro-SJ. They observed
that with the increase in the frequency, the thermal behavior
improves, while the value of COP decreases as calculated
using Eq. (25). The value of COP decreases from 14 to 2 for
ultrasonic micro-SJ compared to the slot SJ under analogous
operating conditions, as indicated in the earlier work (Ghaf-
fari et al. 2015)
( )
hAs Tw − Ta
COP = (25)
Input power
Pavlova and Amitay (2006) studied the effect of vari-
ous operating frequencies (f = 420 and 1200 Hz) of the
SJ on the cooling effectiveness. The authors reported that
for smaller surface spacing (z/d < 10), higher frequency
(f = 1200 Hz) SJ removes more heat compared to a lower
frequency (f = 420 Hz) SJ, as shown in Fig. 12. However,
the low-frequency SJ has a profound cooling effect at
larger z/d. Using the PIV technique, it was depicted that
the high-frequency SJ is associated with disintegration
and fusion of vortices before impingement on the heated
surface. While for the low-frequency SJ, the wavelength
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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
Fig. 12  The change in stagnation Nusselt number (with respect to
free Convection) as a function of the normalized distance, z/d, for
Re = 445 (Pavlova and Amitay 2006)
between coherent structures is larger, such that vortex
rings impinge separately on the surface. For f = 420 Hz,
the ­Nuo obtained by SJ is found to be 78% higher than the
­Nuo for natural convection between z/d = 6–18 for all Re.
It was also argued that at a higher operating frequency
(f = 1200 Hz), the ­Nuo increases by 113% for z/d varying
between 3 and 11; beyond this, the cooling effectiveness
decreases.
Recently, Zhang et al. (2018) performed a numeri-
cal simulation for slot SJ with different waveform shapes
(triangular, sinusoidal, and rectangular) for a varied range
of excitation frequency (10–400 Hz), z/d (2–8), and Re
(1553–7766). It was observed that at low Re, the low-fre-
quency jet provides higher thermal performance, while the
high-frequency SJ is found to be more effective at higher Re.
Also, a low-frequency jet provides higher heat transfer at a
large value of z/d. From the results, it can be inferred that
with the increase in jet frequency, the length of the potential
core of the jet reduces, which substantially enhances the tur-
bulence intensity and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) near
the heated wall and consequently increases the heat transfer
effect. When the frequency increases beyond a critical value,
the increased TKE is unable to enhance the thermal perfor-
mance due to the lower value of jet velocity. Therefore, it
can be concluded that there exists a critical Sr (0.24–0.48)
for higher heat transfer in the case of SJ. When Sr < 0.06,
the thermal behavior of rectangular waveform jet is found to
be optimum. However, at close to critical Sr, the heat trans-
fer performance of triangular jets (T) is higher compared to
sinusoidal jets (S), which is higher compared to rectangular
jets (R). Yadav et al. (2016) and Yadav and Agrawal (2018b)
also found that pulsating jet operating in a certain range of
Sr (0.32–0.8) provides more entrainment and mixing. The
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
authors observed the highest entrainment and mixing for the
pulsation jet near Sr = 0.44.
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that struc-
tural resonant frequency is more important from a practi-
cal application viewpoint as this frequency determines the
maximum velocity of the jet. It is also observed that the havg
increases with an increase in frequency up to diaphragm
resonance, after which it reduces. The high-frequency jet
removes more heat from the heated surface at the small
jet-to-surface spacing, because high-frequency jets are
associated with the breakdown and coalescence of vortices
before they impinge on the heated surface. However, low-
frequency jet provides more effective cooling at larger dis-
tances, because, for the lower frequency jets, the wavelength
between coherent structures is larger, such that vortex rings
impinge on the surface separately.
Effect of Orifice Shape
The SJ orifice shape plays a crucial role in the behavior of
the extracted fluid from the orifice. The thermal perfor-
mance of the SJ is found to depend on the orifice geometry.
Various experimental and computational analyses have been
made to examine SJ’s thermal characteristics by employ-
ing various orifice geometry and configurations. Most of
the researchers (Chaudhari et al. 2010a; Singh et al. 2020b)
studied the circular, rectangular, and square shape orifice
configurations in their investigation. In addition to this, few
studies have also been conducted with other configurations
such as triangular, slotted, diamond, and oval shapes for the
investigation (Zhang and Tan 2007; Bhapkar et al. 2014;
Fig. 13  Variation of aver-
age Nusselt number with the
normalized axial distance for
different shapes of orifice hav-
ing the same hydraulic diameter
at constant frequency = 200 Hz
(Re = 2300–3950) (Chaudhari
et al. 2010b)
73
Mangate and Chaudhari 2015). In this section, the com-
parative analyses between circular and other orifice shapes
are exercised, emphasizing the influence of orifice shapes
on jet velocity characteristics, vortex formation, and heat
transfer characteristics. Chaudhari et al. (2010a) reported a
comprehensive study on the effect of orifice sizes (d = 5, 8,
14 mm) and geometry (circular, square, and rectangular) on
the thermal behavior of SJ. It was observed that a circular
orifice with an 8 mm diameter has a higher heat transfer
coefficient than the other two diameters (5 and 14 mm) for
the 50 mm-diameter acoustic diaphragm under the same
operating conditions. Subsequently, the authors (Chaudhari
et al. 2010b) studied the thermal characteristics of the dif-
ferent orifice shapes and found that at a smaller axial dis-
tance (z/d < 5), a rectangular-shaped orifice with an aspect
ratio of 2.75–5.25 outperforms the other shapes. While, at
a larger axial distance (z/d > 5), the thermal performance of
square orifice is better compared to rectangular and circular
shapes, as shown in Fig. 13. The SJ with rectangular orifice
display a higher value of Nuavg because of the better mixing,
jet spreading, and more entrainment of ambient air. Zhong
et al. (2004) in their PIV study demonstrated that in case
of rectangular orifice, high AR results in an initial higher
axial velocity at the orifice exit. However, due to 2D jet,
exit velocity is highly unstable due to subsequent axis swap-
ping which results in decreasing peak axial velocity rapidly
and vortex rings dissipated more quickly in the downstream.
However, on comparing the square and circular orifice SJ
(Zhong et al. 2004), it is found that in case of Square orifice,
strong secondary vortices are produced which interact with
the primary vortices and enhance the momentum transport
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ability of the SJ. This may be the reason for higher thermal and square orifices (Fig. 14). In case of elliptical orifices,
performance of square orifice at z/d > 5 as mentioned earlier. the axis switching of SJ takes place at a lower axial distance
It was also found that in the case of the rectangular orifice, (z/d = 3). In such a case, the elliptical orifice SJ entrains
the vortices spread swiftly in the minor axis plane (Zhang more fluid along x-axis and ejects along y-axis, which
and Tan 2007; Mangate and Chaudhari 2015; Kumar et al. leads to early switching of axes. This results in enhanced
2019). Therefore, the SJ flow in the direction of the minor mixing, and consequently, higher thermal performance is
axis outreaches compared to the flow in the major axis direc- achieved at lower z/d. Further deviating from the regular
tion, and the phenomenon of axis switching occurs. Due to orifice shapes, a diffusion-shaped orifice in SJ impingement
the axis switching, the entrainment of more ambient fresh is investigated by Liu et al. (2016) using piezoelectric actua-
fluid and the mixing rate gets improved, which results in tor. Here, the effect of orifice opening angle (60° and 90°)
enhanced thermal performance. However, there is a delay in of diffuser-shaped outlet is studied for the driven frequency
axis switching in the square orifice, which led to in-efficient of 400–800 Hz for a varied range of orifice diameters (d = 3,
mixing and degraded thermal performance than the rectan- 5 mm). It was reported that diffusion-shaped nozzle with
gular SJ (Bhapkar et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2019). In addi- an opening angle of 60° exhibits 30% higher thermal per-
tion to this, the square orifice has a higher entrainment rate formance than the circular SJ at the lower nozzle to surface
than the circular orifice SJ for similar z/d (Grinstein 1996). spacing (z/d = 2). With the increase in opening angle to 90◦ ,
It was argued that the square orifice exhibits better perfor- the cooling performance decreases because of the reduction
mance at a larger z/d, while rectangular orifice SJ is found in ejected flow velocity, which leads to the flow separation
more efficient at lower z/d. Among circular, square, and and formation of recirculation close to the surface, as indi-
rectangular orifice shapes, rectangular orifice SJ is suitable cated by Yang et al. (2006).
for space-constrained applications. Later on, Mangate and The effect of radius of curvature at the inner edge of the
Chaudhari (2015) studied the thermal characteristics of oval- orifice outlet (facing the speaker) is studied by Nani and
and diamond-shaped orifice, and it was noted that diamond
and oval orifice outperforms the circular SJ at lower z/d. Due
to axis switching in diamond and oval-shaped orifice, there
is a rapid breakdown of the jet primary coherent structure,
which led to enhanced heat transfer rate. Furthermore, for
slot orifice SJ, Zhang and Tan (2007) noticed the generation
of pairs of vortices, breaking down and merging in a periodi-
cal manner at the jet orifice exit. The SJ is found to spread
swiftly along the minor axis direction of the rectangular ori-
fice and along the major axis; first, it contracts and afterward
spreads gradually with progress of time. The elliptic orifice
SJ is investigated by Bhapkar et al. (2014) for two different
aspect ratios (E-2-1: AR = 1.4 and E-2-2: AR = 2.4) with
orifice thickness 2 and 5 mm (Table 1). The results are com-
pared with rectangular- (R-2-1 and R-2-2), circular- (CR-2,
CR-5), and square (S-2, S-5)-shaped orifices with equivalent
diameter, d = 12 mm. It is found that elliptical orifice with
low AR (E-2–1: AR = 1.4) have higher havg than other ori-
fice shapes at low axial distance (z/d < 6). However, at the
higher jet to heated surface spacing (z/d ≥ 6), the thermal
Fig. 14  Comparison of average Nusselt number for different orifice
shapes, i.e., elliptical (E-2-1), circular (CR-2-12), rectangular (R-2-1),
behavior of elliptical SJ is found to be lower than circular and square (S-2) with normalized axial distance (Bhapkar et al. 2014)

Table 1  Specifications of Orifice Shape Aspect ratio Dimensions Thickness

different orifice plates employed
in experiments (Bhapkar et al. E-2-1 and E-5-1 Elliptic 1.4 a = 14.5 mm, b = 10 mm 2 and 5 mm
2014)
E-2-2 and E-5-2 Elliptic 2.4 a = 18 mm, b = 8 mm 2 and 5 mm
R-2-1 and R-5-1 Rectangular 2 l = 15.05 mm, w = 7.53 mm 2 and 5 mm
R-2-2 and R-5-2 Rectangular 6 l = 26.07 mm, w = 4.35 mm 2 and 5 mm
CR-2 and CR-5 Circular 1 d = 12 mm 2 and 5 mm
S-2 and S-5 Square 1 l = 10.64 mm 2 and 5 mm

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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
Smith (2012). For a given output (momentum flux), the
orifice lip with Rc/d = 0.5 and Rc/d = 1 (most rounded case)
exhibits the best and least efficient case, respectively, based
on the ‘fluidic efficiency’ that denotes the ratio of momen-
tum flux with electrical power input as defined by Persoons
(2012). In the case of orifice lip with Rc/d = 1, the vorticity
ring separates from the exit plane. In contrast, in the case
of Rc/d = 0.5, the vortex core remains attached to the exit
level and expands to a diameter greater than d due to the
reduced lip at orifice. This behavior results in a decrease in
minor losses and acoustic power dissipation as described
by various researchers (Smith and Swift 2003b; Fugal et al.
2005). The effect of orifice/cavity shapes and various cavity
parameters on the thermal performance of SJ are explored
by Jain et al. (2011) through numerical investigation. The
orifice geometric parameters are found to affect more than
the cavity parameters, and the most significant is the orifice
radii and orifice length. To study the result of smooth edge
orifice, edge corners are curved with 0.5 mm arc by provid-
ing rounding at: inner edge, outer edge, and both edges. It
is found that in case of both round edges, the peak velocity
reduces by 25% compared to both sharp edges case. Lee
and Goldstein (2002) reported 20% reduction in veloc-
ity for round edge orifice compared to the normal orifice.
Careful study reveals that smooth edge orifices lessen the
vortex generation and permits more fluid to get inside the
orifice. It is also found that mass-flow rate increases by 10%
in the case of both round edges and by 5% with only the
outer rounded edge. Therefore, it is recommended to use of
smooth edge orifice at outer side which provides a higher
mass-flow rate with slight decrease in peak velocity. Jain
et al. (2011) studied bevel-shaped orifice with varying angles
(0–30◦ ) for a fixed orifice diameter of 3 mm (at the center
of the converging section). During suction, stroke-induced
velocity gets reduced (further reduces the mass-flow rate)
due to divergence for air inlet in the cavity. The maximum
velocity of jet is found to decrease up to 5 ◦ nozzle angle, and
beyond this, it increases up to 30◦ nozzle angle. A summary
of some important correlations for average Nu for SJ cooling
on heated surface is presented in Table 2.
Single Cavity Multiple Orifices Heat Transfer
The tendency of using single cavity multiple orifices SJ has
increased over the years due to higher thermal performance
as compared to single orifice SJ without a considerable
increase in the input power. Various configurations of cen-
tral orifice surrounded by a number of satellite orifices with
different pitch circle radius (PCR) are studied in multiple-
orifice SJ.
Chaudhari et al. (2011) studied the thermal behavior of
a single cavity circular multiple orifices SJ with various
75
Fig. 15  Variation of average Nusselt number with dimensionless jet-
to-surface spacing for a central orifice surrounded by varied satellite
orifices (Chaudhari et al. 2011)
satellite orifice configurations and different pitch circle
radius (PCR = 6, 8, 10 mm). The authors reported 30%
enhanced thermal performance than single orifice SJ
(Fig. 15). It was argued that the addition of satellite ori-
fices enhances the entrainment of fresh ambient fluid and a
single stronger jet is formed (based on PCR) that impinges
on the heated surface results in higher heat transfer. Also,
it was observed that increasing the number of satellite
orifice counts beyond eight orifices impedes the entrain-
ment of ambient air and hence leads to a reduction in heat
transfer rate (Chaudhari et al. 2011). Later, Mangate et al.
(2019) studied the oval and diamond multiple orifices
SJ. It was argued that diamond shape multiple-orifice SJ
exhibits higher thermal performance compared to circu-
lar- and oval-shaped multiple-orifice SJ. The maximum
value of ­Nu avg for circular, oval, and diamond multiple
orifices SJ was found to be 75%, 66%, and 54% higher
compared to single SJ. The maximum value of Nuavg in
multiple orifices is obtained at slightly lower distances
(z/d = 5 instead of z/d = 6). However, at large z/d, both
single SJ and multiple-orifice SJ exhibits similar thermal
behavior. The PIV study reveals that in case of multiple
orifices, the interaction of the adjacent SJs takes place to
form a combined strong SJ with better mixing properties.
At this situation, the jet forms a single stronger potential
core region with wider range, and higher momentum flux
that exhibits better thermal behavior than single orifice
SJ (Fig. 16) (Mangate et al. 2019). Recently, Singh et al.
(2020a) found that N ­ uavg for circular, square, and rectan-
gular multiple-orifice (8 ×3 × 8) SJ is found to be 57.4%,
60.2%, and 47.1% higher in comparison with single orifice
SJ. A unified correlation for multiple orifice (8 ×3 × 8) for
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76 Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92

Fig. 16  Time-averaged velocity vector field of SJ with multiple-ori- Fig. 17  Variation of average heat transfer coefficient with axial
fice configurations a 8 × 3 × 4 and b N × 3 × 4 of circular-shape orifice distance for different orifice thickness (d = 14 mm, L = 110 mm,
at z/d = 6 and S = 71.78 (Mangate et al. 2019) H = 6.3 mm, f = 250 Hz) (Chaudhari et al. 2010a)

flow recirculation, and a large amount of fresh fluid is

drawn toward the orifice causing high heat transfer from
different orifice shapes (circular, square, and rectangular) the surface (Yadav et al. 2019).
is also proposed as below
( )0.05 ( )−0.17 Effect of Orifice Plate Thickness
z Ah
Nuavg = 0.126(Re) 0.876
(26)
dh Ao The effect of orifice plate thickness (t) on SJ’s thermal and
flow is discussed in this segment. Chaudhari et al. (2010a)
reported the deviation of havg with z/d at different orifice
Furthermore, the flow characteristics of multiple SJ
thickness (t = 1.6–5 mm) for circular orifice SJ. It was
were studied by Yadav et al. (2019) using PIV technique
observed that the orifice plate thickness has a profound effect
for two adjacent orifices (d = 5 mm each), which are
on the havg . The ­Nuavg increases with the decrease in the
20 mm apart. It was observed that in the downstream
orifice thickness from 5 to 1.6 mm. In addition, the location
direction, outer shear layer of the individual jet deceler-
of the peak value of havg shifts toward (right side) higher
ates due to the quiescent ambient condition. In contrast,
z/d, as shown in Fig. 17. The maximum value of havg for
the inner shear layer's fluid accelerates due to the counter-
t = 1.6 mm was found to be 82.35% higher compared to the
rotation of two jets' vortex pairs. Beyond z/d > 12, multi
maximum value of havg for t = 5 mm. A similar behavior was
orifices jet transforms into a single combined jet coin-
noticed by Singh et al. (2020b) in their experimental analy-
ciding with identical behavior of free jets in downstream
sis. It was argued that with the reduction in orifice thickness
direction (Mallinson et al. 2001; Yadav et al. 2016). Fur-
from 5 to 1.6 mm, there is a rise in the U0 for all the ori-
thermore, when the distance among the orifice reduces
fice shapes (circular, square, and rectangular) (Singh et al.
to 12 mm, the inner shear layers of two jets interact with
2020b). The increase in the mean velocity is mainly because
each other at a lower downstream location and result in an
of the reduced frictional flow resistance. It is also argued
emerging single jet. The smoke wire visualization study
that for lower t, the separation loss is higher compared to the
also shows a similar jet interaction phenomenon for mul-
frictional loss. However, with the increase t, the frictional
tiple SJs (Watson et al. 2003). Effect of impingement dis-
loss dominates the separation loss. Higher jet exit velocity
tance in multiple orifices shows that as the z/d decreases
results in higher circulation in the vortices and plays a lead-
to 5, the recirculation of air increases. With a subsequent
ing role in separating the BL. This may be the argument for
decrease in the z/d from 4–2.5, the motion of fresh fluid
the enhancement in thermal behavior for the lower thick-
becomes negligible and decreases the size of recircula-
ness of orifice. Also, it was observed that the reduction in t
tion structures. Further reduction in z/d below 1.5, despite
tends to rise in the value of N
­ uavg. Gil and Strzelczyk (2016)

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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
reported the impact of variable orifice thickness (2–20 mm)
on the SJ momentum velocity, Re, input power supplied to
the generator, and the efficiency of SJ actuator for constant
orifice diameter (d = 15 mm) and cavity depth (H = 40 mm).
It was argued that the variation in orifice thickness has a
significant impact on fh of the actuator. With the reduction
in t, fh increases, on the contrary, the fh decreases with an
increase in the orifice diameter (Gil and Strzelczyk 2016).
At fd , the SJ with higher orifice thickness (t = 20 mm), the
maximum momentum velocity is found to be 7% higher
compared to the lower value of orifice thickness (2 and
5 mm) illustrated in Fig. 18a. This contradicts the results
presented by Chaudhari et al. (2010a) and Singh et al.
(2020b). However, at fh the momentum velocity decreases
by 30% for t = 20 mm as compared to 2 and 5 mm thickness.
At fd , the root mean electrical power ( Prms ) is found to be
1 W for all the orifice thickness, while little deviation in Prms
is obtained for the Helmholtz resonance frequency. At Helm-
holtz resonance, the root-mean-square power consumption
( Prms) is found to be 0.58, 0.96, and 0.94 W for t = 20 mm,
t = 5 mm, and t = 2 mm, respectively (Fig. 18b). However,
at the structural resonance, the Reynolds number remains
the same (Re = 15,000) for all the orifice thickness, while
Fig. 18  Variation in: a momentum velocity U0, b root-mean-square electrical power Prms, c Reynolds number Re, and d SJA efficiency ƞ with
excitation frequency for different orifice thickness. Case 2 (d = 15 mm, t = 2–20 mm, H = 40 mm, Vrms = 3 V) (Gil and Strzelczyk 2016)
77
at Helmholtz resonance, the maximum value of Re is found
to be 16,750 at t = 2 mm (Fig. 18c). Similarly, the actuator
efficiency is highest for t = 20 mm, but it drops by 2.65% at
fh for the same orifice plate thickness (Fig. 18d).
Effect of Confinement (Cavity Shape)
To analyze the significance of confinement, different cavity
shapes are reviewed to improve SJ’s thermal behavior at
lower z/d. The effect of orifice cavity shape on the thermal
behavior of SJ at the small z/d is explored by Bhapkar et al.
(2015). In their experimental investigation, different cavity
shapes (CR-2-12, C1, C2, C3, and C4) are taken by decreas-
ing the confinement between orifice and surface as shown
in Fig. 19 along with details in Table 3. Based on cavity
and ambient air temperature measurement, it is found that at
the lower z/d (z/d < 2), the maximum rise of temperature is
observed for CR-2-12 which has the maximum confinement.
The hot air, trapped between the orifice and the hot surface,
is ingested back into the cavity during its suction stroke and
leads to the rise in temperature (Fig. 19). However, for ori-
fice cavity C1 (least confinement), the temperature of cav-
ity air is reduced because of the escape of hot air to the
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78 Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92

Table 2  An overview of Nusselt number correlation for synthetic jet impingement
Source Orifice Instrumenta- Re z/d Others Error Correlation
tion (±%)

Chaudhari Circular Heater average 1150– 3–25 Lop/d = 7.86–22 20

( )−0.632 ( L )−2.186 ( )2.258
z R
Nu = 7.624Re0.792 Pr0.333 op

et al. 4180 R/d = 1.5–4 d d d

(2010a)
Chaudhari Rectangular, Heater average 600– 3–25 Lop/d = 7.86–22 20
( )−0.607 ( L )1.514 ( )−1.725
z R
Nu = 0.014Re0.841 Pr0.333 op

et al. circular, 4180 R/d = 1.5–4 d d d

(2010c) square, slit

Persoons Circular Const. temp 500– 2–16 L0/d = 2–40 15 ) 2}
{ (
z∕d
1+1.108 5.21
et al. hot film 1500 Nu = 0.168Re 0.686
Pr 0.4
(
z∕d
)2.487
(2011) 1+ 5.21

Ikhlaq Circular Heater average 0– 10–50 f < 200 Hz (i) 25

( )−0.194 ( )−0.002 ( )−0.214
Nu = 1.007Re0.485 z f
( )−0.17 ( )0 (AAh )−0.381
et al. 1200 200 Hz < f < 23 kHz Nu = 1.003Re
d
0.694 z f n f oAh

(2016) (ii) d fn Ao

f/fn = 0.15–1
Arik and Circular Heater average 0– 5–20 Ah/A0 = 220–310 25 ( )0.055 ( )0.003 (
z f Ah
)−0.74
Nu = 0.364Re0.802
Icoz 2900 f/fn = 0.16–1 d fn Ao
(2012)
Liu et al. Circular Heater average 500– 2–25 Ah/A0 = 354 20 ( )0.427
z
Nu = 0.086Re0.492
(2015) 1300 L0/d = 1.67–5 d

Tan et al. Circular, IR thermogra- 950– 2–14 Ah/A0 = 9–64 10

{ ( )2 }
z∕d−b
(2015) square, rec- phy 5265 Nu = cRe0.32 Pr0.4 1−a b
tangular
Singh Circular, IR thermogra- 2857– 3–30 Ah/A0 = 66–168 20
( )−0.17 ( )−0.207 ( )0.487
z Ah t
Nuavg = 1.7047Re0.675
et al. square, rec- phy 5448 t/d = 0.2–0.3 d A0 d

(2020b) tangular L0/d = 13.75

ambient. At higher z/d (z/d > 2), the confinement effect is at the lower z/d (z/d < 2), the value of ­Nuavg is minimum for
negligible and, therefore, the temperature of all orifice cavi- orifice cavity CR-2-12 because of the suction of hot air due
ties is approximately the same. Also, it was observed that to large confinement. As the confinement reduces from C1
Fig. 19  Illustrative diagram
showing the flow of air along
different orifice cavities (Bhap-
kar et al. 2015)

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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92 79

Table 3  Specification of different cavity shapes (Bhapkar et al. 2015) the thermal behavior of the jet reduces up to 14% in the
Orifice d (mm) Cavity vol- Lop/d Sr = fd
( )
Re stagnation zone and up to 8% on an area-averaged basis
cavity ume × ­10–5 Uavg =U0 d∕ν at compared to the unconfined case. While, Chaudhari et al.
­(m3) f = 100 Hz (2010a) reported that as decrease in the length of the ori-
fice plate from Lop ∕d = 13.75–7.86, the maximum Nusselt
CR-2-12 12 0.023 7.83 0.155 5952
number is found to increase by 108%. This implies the strong
C1 12 3.8 4.17 0.155 5950
relation of confinement on the thermal performance of SJ.
C2 12 7.2 3.33 0.148 6244
To improve the performance of impinging SJ in a confined
C3 12 8.4 2.67 0.153 6042
situation, a duct is attached to the base of jet with a clearance
C4 12 7.1 1.33 0.164 5642
of 1.5 mm. In such a case, the ambient air is entrained from
some remote location during the suction phase of cycle and
avoids the interactions between the expelled jet and incom-
ing air. The stagnation region heat removal of SJ with ducts
for three configurations (1.2D, 1.6D, and 2D ducting) is
compared with the unducted jet, as shown in Fig. 21. For
different z/d (0.5–3), all the ducting configurations outper-
formed the unducted jet where the maximum Nu is obtained
at z/d = 1 (for all ducted configuration). This signifies that
ducting successfully negates the effect of confinement due
to low z/d. The addition of ducting increases the peaks of
havg as explained by O’Donovan and Murray (2007a,b) due
to the breakdown of vortices in the wall jet region.
From the above study, it can be concluded that in case
of the cavity with maximum confinement, hot air is trapped
between orifice and the target surface at lower z/d, and the
same air is sucked during its suction stroke-causing high
temperature of the air being sucked. However, at higher
spacing (z/d > 2), the confinement effect is negligible, and
therefore, the temperature of all orifice cavities is approxi-
mately the same.
Fig. 20  Variation of average Nu number with jet-to-surface spacing
for various orifice cavity based on cavity air temperature (Bhapkar
et al. 2015)

to C3 orifice cavity, thermal enhancement increases propor-

tionally. On the contrary, at lower z/d, cavity C4 exhibits the
maximum value of average Nu number among all the cases,
due to suction of relatively fresh air during suction stroke.
It was concluded that heat transfer enhancement in case of
least-confined cavity (C4) is three times more compared to
the orifice cavity (CR-2-12) with maximum confinement
(Fig. 20).
Rylatt and O’Donovan (2013) reported the thermal per-
formance of confined, unducted, and ducted impinging SJ
for a small z/d (z/d = 0.5–3) with different length of confining
plate (90–200 mm). It can be inferred that with the increase
in the length of the orifice plate ( Lop ∕d = 40), the magnitude
of ­Nuo is reduced for the entire z/d compared to the uncon-
fined orifice plate (Lop ∕d = 18). Nevertheless, the maximum
­Nuo is obtained at z/d = 1.5 for both unconfined and confined
plates. Also, at larger z/d, heat transfer for confined plate
Lop ∕d = 40 reduces more significantly compared to Lop ∕d Fig. 21  Unducted and ducted configurations stagnation heat transfer
= 18. It was reported that with the increase in confinement, coefficient at Re = 3000 Lop/d = 15 (Rylatt and O’Donovan 2013)

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80
Fig. 22  Effect of jet inclination angle on average heat transfer coef-
ficient for 4 ≤ z/d ≤ 8 (Bhapkar et al. 2013)
Effect of Orientation and Jet Vectoring
of the Synthetic Jet
Based on the space requirement and nature of the cool-
ing, inclined jets are preferred over the normal impinge-
ment. Bhapkar et al. (2013) studied the effect of inclination
on the thermal behavior of SJ. It was found that for all the
values of the nozzle-to-plate distance (z/d = 3–15), maxi-
mum value of Nu was achieved for normal impingement
( θ = 90◦ ). For small z/d (4≤ z∕d ≤ 8), the authors found
that the havg decreases as the jet inclination angle change
from normal impingement ( hmax = 192 W∕m2 K ) to angu-
lar impingement, θ = 55◦ (hmax = 178 W∕m2 K ) for z/d = 4.
Furthermore, the ratio of hθ/h90 seems to depend weakly on
the z/d and up to jet inclination angle of θ = 55◦ , and the
flow can be considered approximately as normal impinge-
ment with a maximum reduction of 7% in the havg (Fig. 22).
However, for large spacing (9≤ z∕d ≤ 15), jet inclination
angle is varied from θ = 90◦ to θ = 0◦(crossflow). The heat
transfer rate in normal impingement is found to be 1.5 times
higher compared to cross-flow mode, and the ratio of hθ/h90
changes from 1 to 0.62. It was noted that up to θ = 40◦, the
ratio of hθ/h90 is found to be 0.9 (i.e., up to 10% reduction in
Nu). In such a case, the flow is considered approx. to normal
impingement (up to θ = 40◦) for the larger z/d. The point of
hmax moves away from the geometrical impingement point
toward the compression side of the wall jet on the axis of
symmetry. This shift is more evident for higher jet inclina-
tion angle at the low z/d (Yan and Saniei 1997; Beitelmal
et al. 2000). The impact of jet inclination is less compelling
at higher z/d because of the more uniform momentum of
the airflow (which is well mixed with ambient air) before it
reaches the test surface. However, this phenomenon is not
predominant at lower z/d, and the impact of jet inclination
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Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
Fig. 23  Schematic of location of jet for optimal spacing (z/d) and jet
inclination angle (θ) (Bhapkar et al. 2013)
is more evident. It can be inferred that for z/d = 4–8, when
the jet is located anywhere up to θ = 50◦ w.r.t. to a normal
jet axis, the corresponding reduction in Nu is limited up to
10% (Fig. 23).
The existence of more than one SJ at a time dominates
the flow field as reported by Smith and Glezer (2005) and
Persoons et al. (2009). Also, a phase difference in adjacent
SJ plays an important role in the relative timing of suction
and ejection stroke of the adjacent SJs (Smith and Glezer
2005). The discrepancy in the phase variation has a pro-
found effect on the vortex dynamics. The formation, evolu-
tion, and dynamics of the interactions of pair of adjacent
SJs are studied by Smith and Glezer (2005). The PIV inves-
tigation of high AR rectangular SJ (width, b = 0.51 mm)
with the distance between the jet centerlines (s = 3.3b) is
carried out at Re = 300, dimensionless stroke length L0 ∕b =
29, and f = 600 Hz. When the two adjacent jets are ejected
in phase, the volume flow rate of entrained fluid is more
than twofold than that of a single SJ with the same cen-
terline velocity. With the variation in phase angle between
two excitation waveforms of the two adjacent jets, the delay
between suction and ejection cycles of the adjacent actua-
tors aggregate in the merging of jets and the combined jet
is vectored toward the jet which is in leading phase (Smith
and Glezer 1997; Smith et al. 1999). The extent of vector-
ing increases with the phase angle until the merged jet flows
along the exit surface. Depending upon the relative phase
angle between the two actuation waveforms, the vectored
flow is classified into three prime domains, namely free
vectoring ( ϕ < 70◦), vectored flow with recirculating flow
domain (80◦ < ϕ < 100◦), and the attached flow (ϕ > 110◦),
where the recirculating flow is limited to the vicinity of the
orifice. At relatively low phase angles, each vortex of the
vortex pair has similar circulation and the inner vortices
within the two pairs are effectively counteract by the outer
vortices. With the rise in phase angle, leading phase vor-
tex pairs are affected by the adverse pressure gradient that
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
is influenced by the suction cycle of the adjacent jet. As a
result, the movement of vortices of each pair leads to mixed
interactions that tilt comparative to jet axis until the jet
becomes attached to the surface of leaving plane. However,
when the phase angle between adjacent jets exceeds 120◦ ,
successive vortex pairs do not combine, and the vortex pair
that is lagging in phase begins to be affected by the suction
cycle of the adjacent jet. Fanning et al. (2012) carried out
tests to optimize z/d and s during interaction between two
adjacent SJ originating from two different actuated cavities
for ϕ = 0◦ − 180◦ . It was observed that at the low jet-to-
surface spacing (z/d = 6), high-strength vortices are gener-
ated that impinge the surface individually having balance
amid the mixing mechanisms of coherent vortex pairs (Tan
and Zhang 2005; Ghaffari et al. 2015). These high-strength
vortices result in large heat removal from the stagnant region
and leads to higher hmax . In the case of two adjacent jets, ϕ
plays an important role. At low z/d, significant enhancement
in heat transfer takes place for large ϕ (120° < ϕ < 180°)
between the two jets, having a peak at ϕ = 165° and the
corresponding value of hmax is found to be 343 W/m2 K . It
is possible that larger ϕ is beneficial to induce cross flow in
a confined space and this cross flow leads to attain the peak
havg to be 24% higher compared to the corresponding value
at z/d = 24. For intermediate regions (z/d = 12), jet lies in
a transitional stage where mixing of the coherent vortices
and turbulence takes place and substantial hmax occurs in
the region of midway ϕ (75°<ϕ < 135°) having peak at ϕ
= 135° to a value of hmax = 290 W/m2 K. For higher jet-
to-surface spacing (z/d = 24), the vortex spreading, merging
and turbulent mixing take place and the vortex pairs tend
to fully develop into a single wider jet. A high heat transfer
enhancement for z/d = 24 occurs (hmax = 262 W/m2 K) at ϕ =
75°. Figure 24 depicts that the phase difference at which hmax
Fig. 24  Local maximum convective heat transfer hmax as a function of
phase difference for Re = 600, L0/d = 29, for z/d = 6, 12, 24 at s/d = 3,
and for a single jet at z/d = 6 (Fanning et al. 2012)
81
occurs seems to vary inversely with z/d (ϕmax = 165°, 135°,
75°, respectively, for z/d = 6, 12, 24). Increasing ϕ between
the jets from ϕ = 0° to ϕ = 180° enhances the impingement
cooling due to the suction of fresh air during cross-flow con-
dition, particularly at the lowest value of z/d = 6.
In continuation to the above study, the heat transfer and
flow field of twin circular SJ is explored by Greco et al.
(2013, 2014) for s = 1.1, 3 and 5 and z/d = 2–10 at Re = 5100
and constant Sr = 0.024. Two pipes (length 210 mm each) are
attached to sub cavities at s = 1.1 forming twin configuration
of two separated SJ at z/d = 2, while at z/d > 4, it tends to act
as a single SJ. Phase average measurements signify that at
the low nozzle to surface distance (z/d < 4), thermal behavior
is governed by unsteady impinging flow. This is caused by
ring vortex that sweeps the wall and results in the formation
of inner and outer shaped regions. Furthermore, the effect
of two adjacent SJs with slot orifices for given value of slot
width (b = 1.65) and AR = 27 is studied by Persoons et al.
(2009) at a fixed Re = 600 and L (L0/d = 29) for z/d = 6, 12,
24. A phase difference between the adjacent jets varies at ϕ=
0 ◦ , 60◦ , 120◦ , 180◦ . Their results show that at ϕ = 0 ◦ , two
jets resemble into a single jet at sufficiently high normalized
axial distance z/d > 12. At small ϕ (60◦ < ϕ < 120◦), vec-
toring effect enhances the cooling characteristics, because
fresh air gets in due to induced crossflow. While at large ϕ
(120◦ < ϕ < 180◦), heat transfer decreases as vortical struc-
tures disperse before impingement. An optimal phase dif-
ference (ϕ ≅ 120◦) at z/d = 12 is identified for best local and
average heat transfer and two slot orifices interacting jets
yield around 90% enhancement in havg compared to single
SJ, which was further verified numerically (Alimohammadi
et al. 2016). Lasance and Aarts (2008) conducted a similar
analysis with dual-circular SJ (called as dipole cooler) which
is found to be useful because of noise reduction (Russell
et al. 1999) and enhancement in heat removal rate (Lasance
et al. 2008).
Fig. 25  Configuration of dual synthetic jet (DSJ) (Deng et al. 2017)
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82 Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92

Dual Synthetic Jet
A dual synthetic jet (DSJ) actuator is a new kind of SJ actua-
tor (SJA) that includes two cavities, two orifices, and a single
vibrating diaphragm (Deng et al. 2017). The oscillation of
the diaphragm causes the opposite transformation in two-
cavity volumes. Therefore, two SJs are alternately generated
from two slots and combine into a dual SJ (Fig. 25). Com-
pared with the conventional SJ, the energy consumption and
the jet ejection frequency of DSJ are folded two times due to
the alternate formation of two SJs.
The evolution criterion of DSJ was proposed by Liu et al.
(2019). Two-dimensional numerical simulations followed by
PIV experimental verification have been made to study the
jet formation criteria of a DSJ. A dimensionless parameter
Stk (Eq. 27) is proposed that characterize the unsteady flow
for both the single cavity and near field which is found to
have a relation with jet formation constant. Here, Srd refers
to the Strouhal number of DSJ, b = width of slot, s = distance
between two slots, K = 32 πc2 ∕k is a dimensionless parame-
U
ter, c = Uavg , and k = (d+r
b
(r = radius of vortex)
) v
cl v
Stk > 420, no jet formation takes place (stage IV), as shown
in Fig. 26. In this work, the constant K is found out as 420.
An experimental study has been performed to understand
the flow regime and heat transfer of DSJ by Deng et al.
(2019). In the experiment, two-cavity slots (AR = 5, 10, 15)
with 5 mm apart are tested for z/d = 1.5–22 at Re = 2320 and
L = 4.3. Based on PIV, it was found that apart from three
regions covered in the conventional SJ, the DSJ flow field
consists of four regions, namely, formation region, merg-
ing region, development region, and decay region. The
downstream vorticity-concentrated partitions of DSJ and SJ
spread outward at about 26.6° and 22.5◦ , respectively. In the
formation region (i.e., region of 0 ≤ z/d ≤ 1.8 for DSJ and 0
≤ z/d ≤ 0.55 for SJ), a string of counter-rotating vortex pairs
are generated across the edges of each slot below the saddle
point. Toward further downstream, the two alternating SJs
start to come together and merge into a single jet termed
as merging region (1.8 ≤ z/d ≤ 3). Furthermore, the fluid
enters into the development region (3 ≤ z/d ≤ 7.6 for DSJ

U2 avg Uavg Uavg 1 1

Stk = = × = × (27)
f2 ×b×s f ×b f ×s Sr Srd

The 2D jet formation criteria of DSJ is defined as

b
π4 < Stk < K (28)
s
After analyzing the variation of the L with Stk the DSJ
is categorized into four stages (Tang and Zhong 2005; Luo
et al. 2006). Stage I is characterized by no jet formation for
the corresponding value of Stk < 50. When 50 < Stk < 115,
jet can be formed easily, and a large L0 of the jet is possible,
this is known as stage II. However, in stage III with the
further increase in Stk , i.e., 115 < Stk < 420 , it gradually
Fig. 27  Variations of Nuavg with error bars of impinging SJ and DSJ
jets weaken due to self-support phenomenon, and finally at with z/d (Deng et al. 2019)

Fig. 26  Trend of normal-

ized stroke length with Uavg=
16.86 m/s and detecting velocity
of 1.0 m/s signifying the four
stages of DSJ (Liu et al. 2019)

123
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
and 0.55 ≤ z/d ≤ 5.9 for SJ) where jet centerline velocity
increases and due to this high self-induced velocity, vortex
pairs spread peripherally. Beyond the development region,
vortex pairs become weak, loss their unity, and merge with
surrounding fluid, and this region is termed as decay region.
On comparing the thermal characteristics of DSJ with SJ, it
is found that local Nu reaches the maximum value at z/d =
5.5 for both SJ as well as DSJ and the local Numax of imping-
ing DSJ is 11.4% higher compared to SJ (Fig. 27). The area-
averaged Numax of impinging DSJ is 8.6% higher than SJ at
half of axial distance (z/d = 5) which is more advantageous
in space-constrained electronics cooling.
A pioneering vectoring-based DSJ cooling technol-
ogy is suggested by Luo et al. (2016). Based on vector-
ing DSJ, an adjustable slider is developed to control the
vectoring deflection of DSJ (He et al. 2020; Zhao et al.
2021). Here, the flow field and thermal characteristics are
experimentally investigated, and results show that stagna-
tion region increases from 16d (normal impingement of
conventional DSJ) to 32d (16 d to − 16d ) due to vectoring
of DSJ. Based on careful PIV study, the vectoring DSJ
can be segregated into three main regions namely, normal
impingement region, transitional region, and the cross-
flow region as distinguished by vectoring angle (Fig. 28).
Fig. 28  Phase-locked average velocity vectors and contour maps of impingement vectoring DSJ at different dimensionless displacements of the
adjustable slider (Luo et al. 2016)
83
From the above study, it can be concluded that energy
utilization efficiency of DSJA is increased two times due
to the alternate formation of two SJs. The downstream
vorticity-concentrated partitions of DSJ and SJ spreads
outward at about 26.6◦ and 22.5◦ , respectively, and local
Numax of impinging DSJ is found to be 11.4% higher than
SJ. This cooling technology is expected to have important
practical implications in space-constrained and large-area
electronic cooling.
Effect of Acoustic Aspect
The thermal characteristics and acoustic feature of a
meso-scale rectangular SJ (d = 1 mm) was investigated
by Arik (2007) for a varied range of operating frequency
(f = 3600–5200 Hz). It was observed that jet noise reaches
as large as 73 dB but with the use of possible abatement
methods, the noise level can be controlled up to 30 dB. To
decrease the noise, a muffler was used as a passive abate-
ment technique (Chang et al. 2004) and the reduction of jet
noise is measured in terms of transmission loss [TL] (Jab-
bal and Kykkotis 2014). It may be noted that TL signifies
the difference of acoustic measure between the incident and
transmitted waves of an anechoically terminated silencer.
With the increase in the muffler diameter, the TL is found
123
84
Fig. 29  Variation of the transmission loss (TL) with muffler diameter
(Arik 2007)
to increase. It is found that for a muffler (diameter = 20 mm,
length = 10 mm), there occurs an optimum TL of 40 dB
(Fig. 29).
The effect of orifice dimension and operating variables
on the acoustic aspect of SJ is explored by Bhapkar et al.
(2013). It was observed that minimum sound level occurs
with 8 mm orifice, while maximum noise occurs with
14 mm circular orifice for all range of frequencies consid-
ered. Chaudhari et al. (2010a) stated that hmax occurs with
a large orifice diameter, but jet noise level also increases
proportionally. Therefore, to meet the contradictory require-
ments of both heat transfer and acoustic effects, an orifice
with 12 mm diameter is found to be the optimal choice that
can fulfill both the requirements. Furthermore, with the
increase in excitation voltage, the noise level increases pro-
portionally from 53 dB (2 V) to a maximum 59 dB (10 V).
When the SJ operates at its resonance frequency (100 Hz
in their study), it generates the minimum noise level with
maximum Re. The reason for the above finding states that
at fd , maximum amount of supplied energy to the actuator
is utilized in altering the air momentum and a smaller frac-
tion is thus available for noise dissipation. Subsequently,
the authors (Bhapkar et al. 2014) found that for elliptical
orifice SJ with AR = 1.4 and 2.4, local minimum in sound
pressure level (SPL) occurs at the resonance frequency
(100 Hz). However, on moving away from the resonant
frequency, the SPL increases to 20% (at 120 Hz) and 15%
(at 80 Hz), respectively. For all the orifice shapes (circular,
rectangular, square, and elliptical) considered in the study,
an elliptical orifice with AR = 1.4 creates a minimum SPL.
It is also noted that SPL increases with orifice thickness
and a small orifice thickness of 2 mm can reduce the noise
by 10% as compared with 5 mm orifice plate thickness. In
their study, Jabbal and Kykkotis (2014) compared the single-
chamber SJ actuator with a double-chamber SJ actuator. It
was argued that the double-chamber SJ actuator reduces
noise by 8% at resonance frequency compared to the single
123
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
Fig. 30  Variation in SPL of SJ using circular, diamond, and oval
shape of orifice (d = 8 mm) at different acoustic (Mangate and
Chaudhari 2015)
SJ. At resonance frequency, the overall sound pressure is
found to reduce by 26% with a dual-chamber, lobed ori-
fice SJ actuator in comparison with single-chamber round
orifice. Later, Mangate and Chaudhari (2015) explored the
noise measurements of circular-, oval-, and diamond-shaped
orifices ( d = 8 mm) in an anechoic enclosure by means of
a SJ actuator. For the diamond- and oval-shaped orifices,
SPL varies in range of 33–64 dB (for f = 100–400 Hz), as
depicted in Fig. 30. The SPL for diamond- and oval-shaped
orifices is found to be approximately the same (48 dB), while
for circular orifice; it goes to 55 dB at same excitation fre-
quency of 200 Hz. Therefore, from both heat transfer and
acoustic point of view, both diamond and oval shape orifices
are better compared to circular-shaped orifice SJ. However,
at 100 Hz, all the three orifices produce an SPL below 40 dB
which is acceptable as per USEPA standards.
Kanase et al. (2018) investigated the effect of ratio of
orifice thickness to diameter (t/d) on SPL. They found that
with the increase in orifice plate thickness, SPL decreases
(SPL ∝ 1/(t/d)). It is explained that there is spreading of
sound wave with the increase in orifice thickness. Recently,
Smyk and Markowicz (2021) demonstrated that with respect
to noise reduction, chevron orifices have lower impact on
SPL as compared to circular orifice. Also, with the increase
in input power to the actuator, acoustic aspect of chevron
orifices further deteriorates. Gil et al. (2021) suggested that
by the reduction in momentum velocity of SJ is a viable
option to reduce the noise. It can be achieved by actuating
the SJA at lower input power, or by incorporating multiple
or larger number of orifices in SJ actuation especially of
larger diameter.
It is clear that with the increase in the orifice diameter and
excitation voltage, the noise level increases proportionally.
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
It is also found that at the resonance frequency, SJ gener-
ates minimum noise as the maximum supplied energy to
the actuator is utilized in altering the air momentum and a
smaller fraction is thus available for noise dissipation.
Integration of Synthetic Jet with Heat Sink
Heat transfer behavior of SJ on the heat sink is experimen-
tally explored by Chaudhari et al. (2012). A standard rec-
tangular pin fin heat sink is rooted on a heated copper block
with an input supply maintained at constant heat flux of 65.6
W/m2 K . In the case of the heat sink, the overall surface area
increases by 16-fold than the bare heated surface. Results
of heat transfer show that havg increases up to z ≈ 80 mm
and then decreases with further increase in z/d. In the case
of a heat sink, the hmax reaches to 640 W/m2 k at 200 Hz
( fd ) which is 3.6 times higher than that attained from bare
surface (Fig. 31). It is suggested that thermal performance
with heat sink can further be increased with help of multi-
ple-orifice SJ. Furthermore, Brignoni and Garimella (1999)
investigated the effect of a confined impinging air jet on a
pin–fin heat sink for four nozzle diameters (d = 1.59, 3.18,
6.35, 12.7 mm) at Re = 5000–20,000 for the fixed nozzle to
surface spacing, z = 21.8 mm. The cooling performance of
a large diameter (12.7 mm) nozzle with pin–fin heat sink
was found to be better than a smaller diameter nozzle jet
impinging on a bare surface in absence of a heat sink. The
EF (henhanced ∕hbare ) was recorded in the range of 2.8–9.7 for
given pin–fin heat sink than the bare surface where the larg-
est value is obtained for a larger d = 12.7 mm. In their study,
El-Sheikh and Garimella (2000) explored the thermal per-
formance of different pin–fin heat sinks with confined air jet
impingement at Re = 8000–45,000 for square-shaped orifice
Fig. 31  Variation of heat transfer coefficient with axial distance in
case of heat sink for different excitation frequencies using a square
orifice (Chaudhari et al. 2012)
85
Fig. 32  Schematic of the critical components of SJ embedded heat
sink (Arik et al. 2009)
diameters d = 12.7, 25.4, 38.1 mm. The total fin effectiveness
( hbase,pinned ∕hbase,unpinned ) for pinned heat sinks compared to
unpinned base was found to vary in the scope of 2.4–9.2,
where a higher value is achieved for tall pins (25.4 mm) heat
sink with largest nozzle diameter (38.1 mm). Compared to
the bare surface, the pinned heat sink increases the cooling
performance by a factor of 7.5–72 (for unpinned small heat
sink to large heat sink with tall pins) (Fig. 32).
The design and cooling behavior of SJ-based heat sink
for high flux electronics was explored by Mahalingam
and Glezer (2005). They found that the SJ-based heat sink
throw away 20–40% extra heat compared to ducted fan
spreading air through the heat sink. Furthermore, they
observed that the efficiency of SJ heat sink is to be 0.61
compared to ≈ 0.25 for the conventional fan heat sink. The
heat transfer coefficients of SJ within channels of the heat
sink ( ∼ 60 W∕m2 K ) are found to be 150% higher com-
pared with steady duct flows, resulting in superior ther-
mal effectiveness of SJ-based heat sink. Arik et al. (2009)
found that the cooling performance of SJ embedded heat
sink is 2.2 times higher than the baseline natural convec-
tion heat sink.
It is apparent that the SJ integrated heat sink exhibits
a higher surface area for convection. The value of h max
increases up to four times compared to the SJ impingement
without heat sink. The performance of large diameter orifice
is found to be better than a smaller orifice and a tall pins
heat sink provides better cooling compared to a short pin
heat sink.
123
86
Research Gaps and Challenges
The application of the synthetic jet for heat dissipation offers
huge potential in multiple applications such as cooling of
high-power LEDs, miniature electronic devices, batteries
thermal management, etc. Though synthetic jet performs
comparable and even better than continuous jet at some
of the operating conditions, it seems that the usefulness of
synthetic jet is less explored compared to continuous jet
Therefore, there is a need to explore into the existing gaps
and challenges in the context of the synthetic jet for thermal
enhancement. The following is a non-exhaustive list of pro-
spective areas of synthetic jet for future research.
1. Thermal behavior of hot moving surfaces under syn-
thetic jet impingement is one of the area which need to
be focused for future research as hot moving surfaces
find its vast applications in various industrial systems.
2. At low Reynold number, synthetic jet exhibits some
deviation from steady jet in terms of centerline velocity
decay rate not showing x−1/2 trend along with non-linear
growth of the jet width. However, at higher Reynolds
number, synthetic jet exhibits similar behavior of veloc-
ity decay rate and jet spreading with respect to steady jet.
Therefore, efforts need to be given to find the threshold
values of Reynolds number for a given Strouhal number
after which synthetic jet starts behaving similar to that
of continuous jet.
3. From the past investigations, it is found that orifice
geometry plays a crucial role in the thermal performance
of synthetic jet. It is observed that most of the studies
have used normal orifices (circular, square, rectangular,
elliptical, etc.). In view of this, further investigations
should be carried out using various hybrid shape orifices
which can transfer high momentum to the ejected fluid
at a high mass-flow rate.
4. A detailed theoretical model for the zero-net-mass-flux
devices needs to be developed for corelating the input
driving parameters with geometry of orifice and actuator
for predicting the external characteristics of the emerg-
ing jet. To design and optimize the synthetic jet actua-
tors, low-order model such as lumped element modeling
by incorporating the various optimization approaches
should be used for efficient theoretical modeling.
5. The dual synthetic jet is a potential candidate to double
the performance without any increase in input power.
Efforts should be made to investigate electromagnetic
actuated dual synthetic jet. Flow visualization of dual
synthetic jet is an area on which focus needs to be given
for better understanding the lateral jet ejection from
adjacent orifices for optimizing the amplitude and fre-
quency of diaphragm actuation.
123
Transactions of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (2022) 7:61–92
6. More studies need to be carried out for synthetic jet
embedded with the structured surface for cooling of
high-power electronic components. Thermal perfor-
mance of multiple orifices and dual synthetic jet in com-
bination with heat sink is to be explored for possible,
encouraging results.
7. The acoustic aspect of synthetic jet is a very crucial area
and needs to be explored for more noise abatement tech-
niques. Investigations need to be carried out by consid-
ering mufflers and small size orifices operating near to
resonance frequency for noise dissipation. Based on this
information, synthetic jet can be made an ideal candidate
for noiseless electronics cooling.
8. Apart from the mentioned applications, synthetic jet
must be aggressively explored in thermal management
of electrical batteries, cooling of solar panels, and elec-
trical equipments, which can add momentum in the
direction of future clean energy.
Conclusions
Synthetic jet is found to be potentially useful to meet the
cooling demand of future electrical and electronic compo-
nents. The advantages of using SJ are its simple structure,
lightweight, lower power consumption, and reliability in
operations. Also, it does not require any additional complex
plumbing system, because these jets work on ZNMF phe-
nomenon and can be synthesized directly from the ambient
fluid. The cooling performance of SJ depends on actuator,
geometrical, and fluidic parameters, as stated in second sec-
tion. Efforts have been made to describe the effects of each
of these parameters such as orifice to surface spacing (z/d),
stroke length (L0), frequency (f), orifice shape, jet vectoring,
orifice plate thickness, cavity shape, acoustic aspect on the
flow, and thermal characteristics of SJ (third section). In
addition to this, the novel dual synthetic jet (DSJ) and SJ
embedded heat sink is also discussed for high cooling effi-
ciency. Efforts have been made to list the gaps, challenges,
and prospective areas for future research for the effective
implementation of SJ for high heat flux electronics cooling.
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