International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

Modelling for predicting seam geometry in laser beam welding

of stainless steel
Alessandro Franco a, *, Luca Romoli b, Alessandro Musacchio b
a
Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Constructions Engineering (DESTEC), University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino, 56126 Pisa, Italy
b
Department of Civil and Industrial Engineering (DICI), University of Pisa, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A methodological approach for analytical modelling of deep penetration laser beam welding (LBW) of
Received 11 March 2013 stainless steels and its experimental verification is provided. After an analysis of the problem in general
Received in revised form terms and a review of the modelling activity, a particular double source model is proposed and discussed.
24 November 2013
The model allows the derivation of penetration and width of melting zone caused by moving laser beam.
Accepted 7 January 2014
Available online 18 February 2014
Dependences of penetration length, width of the melting zone and aspect ratio of the zone were derived
as a function of welding speed and laser power. The theoretical results obtained using the particular
model are discussed and analyzed in comparison with experimental data obtained on a typical test case.
Keywords:
Laser beam welding
Optimal conditions for obtaining a preliminary optimization of the process parameters were derived
Modelling based on experimental results. The case study in the present paper, referred to the assembly of fuel
Experimental analysis injectors for automotive industry, demonstrates that when laser welding is performed at high speeds on
Energy density thin wall components the energy released by the laser per unit of surface (energy density, ED) can be
Stainless steels used to describe the heat transfer to the material and to shorten the experimental phase avoiding the
dependencies on each single process parameter.
Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.

1. Introduction
Laser beam welding (LBW) has been increasingly used in all
industrial areas in which high volume of production, high welding
speed and high accuracy are required such as car manufacturing,
aircraft industry, ship building, electronic industry, etc. [1e3].
Nowadays, in automotive industries, manufacturing of modern
fuel injectors for gasoline, diesel, and gaseous fuels e where tubular
parts are joined in butt, fillet or overlap configuration to create a
pressure vessel undergoing to a pulsed stress during service life [4]
e involves laser welding to improve quality and maximize pro-
duction throughput. The weld seam has to be homogeneous over
the 360
to guarantee at the same time tightness to the fuel and
strength to the stresses generated by the functioning.
Nd:YAG laser performs best for welding small and heat sensitive
complex parts of a fuel injector because of its short time cycles and
metallurgy of the stainless steels used for this application. In this
specific application the conduction welding mode hinders to reach
enough resistant length at the interface between the tubes [5]. On
the other hand keyhole welding is not recommended because deep
penetrations can pierce thin wall tubes and beyond certain energy
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 050 2217154; fax: þ39 050 2217160.
E-mail address: alessandro.franco@ing.unipi.it (A. Franco).
input resistant length reaches a limiting value [6]. The weld bead
has then to be parabolic: this shape can be obtained in an inter-
mediate regime between pure conduction and keyhole.
The proper definition of process parameters is a key-factor in
order to achieve high quality junctions with few defects and small
heat-affected zones. Understanding the thermal phenomena
accompanying LBW process is required for an appropriate use and
an optimization of this welding technique.
The shape and size of the melt pool can be derived from either
numerical simulation or from theoretical modelling. Mathematical
modelling of the laser spot welding process can be considered as an
effective and cheaper alternative to experimental studies, allowing
appropriate selection of process parameters used to obtain a
desired shape and width as well as appropriate mechanical prop-
erties of welded joint. A comprehensive analysis of the problem is
provided in Ref. [7].
The review of recent developments shows a preference in nu-
merical simulation since it represents the most complete tool to
incorporate the whole welding phenomena. Computational fluid
dynamic modelling and finite element modelling have been used to
understand the formation of net-shape weld geometry [8]. Nu-
merical approaches are also found to be favourable for compre-
hending how the driving forces affect the flow characteristics of a
molten pool [9].

1290-0729/$ e see front matter Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2014.01.003
 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205 195

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Nomenclature R0 circular radius of the source R0 ¼ x2 þ y2 [m]
Ri internal radius of the valve body [m]
cp Mass specific heat [J/kg K] Re external radius of the valve body [m]
D probing depth [m] s resistance length [m]
ED energy density [J/m2] t time [s]
Ei exponential integral function T temperature [K]
erfc complementary error function T0 room temperature [K]
F0 power density at z ¼ 0 [W/m2] Tm melting point [K]
H heat generation per unit volume [J/m3] v laser beam speed [m/s]
ierfc integral of the complementary error function w weld width [m]
k thermal conductivity [W/m K] x travelled distance in the fixed frame [m]
K0 (x) modified bessel function of second kind and zero order X distance from the source in the moving frame [m]
L wire length [m] y, Y transversal position [m]
p penetration depth [m] z, Z depth [m]
P input power supply furnished with the DC power z2 position of the second source
supply [W] a thermal diffusivity [m2/s]
Q0 heat transfer rate per unit area and unit time [W/m2] g power balance
Ql heat rate per unit length [W/m] r density [kg/m3]
Qp intensity of the point source (released power) [W] fs focal spot diameter (fibre diameter) [m]
Q input energy [J] pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi DT temperature difference [K]
r radial distance from a heat source r ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2 Dz element size [m]
[m] Dt time interval [s]
R reflectivity

Considerable work has been reported in the recent past to
numerically simulate the laser beam welding process using both
finite difference and finite element methods [10]. Its characterizing
features are studied as a function of the type of heat source used to
describe the heat input into the material. Among all, the double
ellipsoid model [11], representing a volumetric heat input gener-
ated by a moving source, can be retained the most comprehensive
one.
Anyhow, though calculation capabilities increase using FEM
methods, various assumptions on the type of meshing net and its
refinement are needed to simplify the complex physical phenom-
ena. Simulation results may then vary as a function of the adopted
mesh scale and the relative nodal interconnection with the
boundary. Moreover uncertainty of material properties such as
effective thermal conductivity and viscosity in the weld pool and
concerning the boundary conditions (mainly heat transfer) also
made difficult a precise heat and mass transfer analysis. This aspect
has a strong influence when welding tubular parts whose thickness
has the same order of magnitude of the spot diameter. In this case
the sensitivity of results to scale effects makes numerical simula-
tion not beneficial respect to a simpler theoretical model based on
approximations derived from experiments.
A simpler and more tractable approach can be to consider
phenomenological laws of heat and mass transfer and to resort to
a theoretical model of the problem. This model makes it possible
to obtain the seam geometry analytically without using numer-
ical analysis methods. Analytical solutions to heat conduction
equation offer a quick assessment of temperature field and its
dependence on process parameters and are still considered in the
recent literature [12]. Among simple theoretical solutions for the
Fourier’s equation, the single moving point source model, firstly
introduced by Rosenthal [13], is commonly used in order to
predict the temperature field in pure conduction welding pro-
cesses. The moving line source model [14] is indicated in case of
deep penetration welding on thin sheets, instead. Therefore,
there is a lack in analytical modelling for an intermediate regime
where the weld seam acquires the typical parabolic shape. It is
possible to follow up the superposition principle as in [15], hence
to develop different theoretical solutions based on the super-
position of moving point and line heat sources in order to cover
this gap.
Extensive literature is available on the modelling, both analyt-
ical and numerical, of the laser welding process. In case of simple-
shaped sources e like point, line or plane sources e it is possible to
find an analytical solution for the Fourier’s second law. Otherwise, if
one uses a source of more complex shape e like, e.g. Gaussian,
conical or conical-cylindrical sources e the solution may be only
found by numerical integration or using FE-method. The classical
heat transfer textbooks by Carslaw and Jaeger [14], Eckert and
Drake [16] and Bejan [17] proposed various solutions based on
stationary heat sources; this type of modelling does not take into
account the beam motion. Lankalapalli et al. [18], Lampa et al. [19]
and Hann et al. [20] proposed few models based on moving conical
and truncated conical shaped sources considering various power
absorption modes. All these models produce excellent results in
case of deep penetration welding but they are not suitable in case of
parabolic shaped weld. Cline and Anthony [21], Davis et al. [22],
Ashby and Shercliff [23] proposed a few solutions for the Fourier’s
equation based on moving sources but these are only able to predict
the penetration depth or the weld width separately. Most of the
analytical models based on the theory of heat flow due to a moving
source of heat are founded on the Rosenthal’s theory. Rosenthal
[13] proposed an analytical solution based on a moving line source
e suitable for the temperature field prediction in case of keyhole
welding on thin sheets e and a moving point source, suitable in
case of pure conduction welding.
The basic theory of heat flow developed by Fourier and applied
to moving heat sources by Rosenthal is surely one of the most
popular analytical method for calculation of thermal history of
welds. Even if such a kind of analysis can be subjected to serious
errors for temperature near the fusion and heat affected zone e the
effect of the various simplification assumptions on the accuracy of
temperature distribution from such a kind of analysis has been
discussed in detail by Myers et al. in Ref. [24]. The use of hybrid-
analytical models joined with experiments, seems to be always
an interesting topic.
196 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205
Considering that:
 laser beam welding in very small geometries is a problem for
which an adequate mathematical description is practically
impossible;
 some simplified assumptions are required making the predic-
tive capability of a complex numerical method not always in
agreement with reality;
 some experimental backup is highly desirable
It appears of topical interest to reconsider some simplified
analytical models. Such an approach is meaningful with respect to a
better understanding of process mechanisms but also of practical
importance, from a preliminary definition of the various process
parameters, since the usable range of welding speed, laser power
and spot diameter permits very different welding regimes. For the
specific case considered it is of practical interest the use of
simplified analytical models that permits to guide the designers
and engineers for structure design and a preliminary process
parameter optimisation. This is considered an important element
for expanding application of LBW [2].
A more refined calibration of the process will be possible only
after an experimental analysis.
In this paper after a brief analysis of the problem and an
essential review of the possible analytical approaches for modelling
of LBW, a particular analytical solution of temperature field caused
by moving heat source (during welding) is presented and discussed
with reference to experimental analysis for a particular laser beam
welding application. A synthetic parameter is identified as key
element for the analysis to understand the transition from heat-
conduction welding to deep penetration (keyhole) welding.
2. A particular use of laser beam welding: the assembly
of fuel injectors
The laser beam welding (LBW) process has been developing
rapidly in recent decades in the automotive industry in particular in
the field of assembly of fuel injector. In addition to lack of defects,
good appearance and ease of manufacture, as a general rule, a weld
seam should guarantee the best possible mechanical resistance.
This may be obtained by wide, deep or both wide and deep joints
depending on the weld configuration. Frequently e in fuel injectors’
parts joining e there are some limitations on the shape of the
Fig. 1. (a) Continental XL3 injector tip and weld profile between inner and outer shell; (b) weld characteristics: w weld width, p penetration depth, s resistance length.
melted region, e.g. depth or width limits due to the geometry of the
components.
Considering the injector in Fig. 1a, three different types of
welding configuration are adopted in the assembly process: over-
lap, fillet and butt one. The melted region, in case of overlap
configuration has to be both wide e to ensure a sufficient shear
stress resistance e and not too deep, in order to avoid the formation
of a hole in the component. On the contrary, in case of butt
configuration, the melted region has to be as deep as possible but
the weld width cannot exceed a certain limit. Finally, in case of fillet
joint configuration the weld seam must be deep and wide. In the
latter case there is an additional variable affecting the joint quality:
the incidence angle.
In this study, the attention is focused on the weld at the tip of
injector which is the most critical one in terms of resistance (due to
load configuration) and crack formation, due to thermal effects and
material characteristics. The weld seam geometry (Fig. 1b) is
characterized by the shape of its cross section, i.e. the three
geometrical parameters penetration depth p, width w and resis-
tance length s. As mentioned before, an index of weld resistance is
the weld width measured at the interface between the two joined
components. In this case the penetration depth (p in Fig. 1b) must
be large enough to ensure a melted region as wide as possible;
nevertheless, the penetration depth is limited by the radial thick-
ness of the drilled seat, and the heat input is bounded by the
threshold of keyhole formation.
The most commonly used materials to build fuel injectors are
stainless steels e frequently martensitic and ferritic grades e
because of their resistance to corrosion and their mechanical
properties. Considering the Fig. 1a, the tip of injector is stressed as a
pressurized shell. When the fuel is not sprayed, the ball (made of
hardened AISI 440C) is pushed on the seat represented by the inner
shell of Fig. 1a.
The fuel pressure varies from 4 to 280 bar and the ball is pushed
on the seat with a force of approximately 40 N. The injector can
spray up to 200 charges per second. Furthermore, this component
is exposed to high temperatures and gets in contact with gasoline,
hot air and exhaust gases. Therefore the seat must be very tough
and resistant against corrosion: this is the reason why AISI 440FSe
stainless steel has been chosen for manufacture this component.
The valve body is slightly less critical than the seat from the
mechanical point of view but not for the corrosion. Moreover, the
valve body is obtained by turning and then has to undergo plastic
 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205 197

deformation, therefore it has to be made of a rather machinable hereinafter) is frequently used as process parameter in energetic
material. This is the reason why the AISI 416 stainless steel has been term and it expresses the energy input per unit area [J/mm2]
chosen. The weld seam geometry is controlled by the technological
parameters such as laser power, welding speed and spot diameter. P
ED ¼ (1)
Each parameter produces a different effect on the weld seam ge- vfs
ometry: the power variation affects directly the shape of the weld
This single parameter provides the effects of three-factor in-
bead, that is, a power increase produces deeper and narrower joints
teractions on geometry and mechanical properties of the weld.
and vice versa; a speed variation affects the weld width especially
Laser power P (W) describes the thermal source capability, welding
at the surface; the spot diameter e directly linked to the fibre
speed v (mm/s) determines the interaction time, and spot diameter
diameter e determines the interaction area between laser beam
fs (mm) defines the area through which energy flows into the
and material and produces a change in power density. So, the
material. ED can be also considered as an index of heat exchange
correct set-up of the abovementioned technological parameters is a
regime, and, in case of low ED values, as a representative parameter
key-factor in order to obtain the required geometry.
of the seam geometry. As a matter of fact, for a limited range of
process parameters within the abovementioned intermediate
regime, a change in laser power or in welding speed e keeping ED
3. Weld profile modelling
constant e does not affect the shape of the molten pool. Welding
configuration is shown in Fig. 2 where the y-axis of the fixed (O, x, y,
A stable LBW process depends on defining and controlling the
z) frame is coaxial with the axis of the injector. The moving frame
processing parameters which influence process stability for high-
(Q, X Y, Z) describes the relative motion between the laser beam and
quality welds in each condition and in particular at high welding
the parts to be welded. Its Z-axis is then coaxial with the laser beam
speeds.
and it is always oriented as the shells’ radius. The moving frame
moves with velocity v ¼ q_ Re along a circular trajectory. Re is the
The laser power, the welding speed, the focal position and speed
diameter have been studied and identified to be the most impor-
external radius of the outer shell; Ri is the internal radius
tant process parameters for the LBW process. They are related to a
(Re  Ri ¼ 500 mm). In this particular application the above-
parameter called energy density which is considered as a key factor
mentioned “central” regime appears when ED is approximately
for the energy process.
between 20 and 35 J/mm2 (power input varies from 500 to 1100 W
Heat transfer in welded joints depends on the amount and
and welding speed varies from 60 to 200 mm/s). For this applica-
distribution of heat energy supplied to the workpiece and the
tion a too deep penetration is not required and the plasma for-
characteristics of material in the welding pool.
mation should be minimized. Nevertheless welding speed is not so
Assumed that a mathematical model enables to evaluate the
elevated as to create a pure conduction regime.
variation of output parameters on the basis of the knowledge on
the related phenomena, its accuracy and precision depend on
4. Mathematical formulation
whether all the appropriate physics have been considered or not.
An extensive literature is available on the modelling, both
The major problem connected with the modelling of a process
analytical and numerical, of the laser welding process: most of
like LBW is that when a highly concentrated heat source melts the
these models are based on the theory of heat flow due to a moving
workpiece two conditions can occur. If the power density is high,
source of heat. In case of simple-shaped sources e like point, line or
this can cause significant evaporation of the material in heat source
plane sources e it is possible to find an analytical solution for the
activity zone and creating a keyhole (Fig. 3). Otherwise if the
Fourier’s second law. Otherwise, the use of a more complex shaped
keyhole is not present the heat transfer mechanism is completely
source e like, e.g. Gaussian, conical or conical-cylindrical sources e
different and based on a conductive process. The transition from
implies that the solution can be only derived by numerical inte-
heat conduction to keyhole and deep-penetration welding is today
gration or by using FE-method. The most common analytical
argument of analysis [25]. This observation makes the authors
models depicted in the literature are reported in the well known
conscious that it is important to reconsider analytical models
book [14] and classified depending on the type of heat sources
allowing for a better comprehension of the phenomenon.
adopted (plane, point, line, volume), on time dependence (instan-
As already discussed in the introduction extensive literature is
taneous, continuous), on heat source motion (steady, moving at
available on the modelling, both analytical and numerical, of the
constant speed).
When using analytical models one of the major issues is to
transpose welding parameters (e.g. laser power, welding speed,
optics adopted) into the input variables: specific strength of the
source (depending of the geometry of heat source adopted) and
irradiation time. This step is crucial for the design of a production
process where only welding variables are continuously monitored.
Main objective of the present research is to overcome the
abovementioned drawbacks by analyzing the effects of the welding
conditions from the perspective of the most important process
parameters. An analytical model based on the solution of the
generic Fourier’s equation in closed form is here developed. The
focus is to bridge the gap between pure conduction and keyhole
regimes on thin wall components, e.g. in case of junction of inner
and outer shells of fuel injectors for automotive applications.
Being the LBW extremely fast (the entire process takes from
230 ms to 630 ms) in the tested range of welding speed v (60e
200 mm/s), it is possible to adopt the concept of energy density as
in many rapid manufacturing techniques [11]. Energy density (ED Fig. 2. Welding configuration: (a) inner shell, (b) outer shell.
198 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205
Fig. 3. Schematic of the two possible welding process: (a) conduction process and (b) keyhole process.
laser welding process. Most of the models are based on the theory
of heat flow due to a moving source of heat. In case of simple-
shaped sources e like point, line or plane sources e it is possible
to find an analytical solution for the Fourier’s second law. Therefore
after a first part which examines the analytical models present in
literature, a further attempt is devoted to fit them with the case
under investigation.
4.1. Governing equations and assumption
In this presentation, the aim of modelling of LBW is to derive the
dependences of penetration length, width of the melting zone and
aspect ratio of the zone, as a function of spot diameter, welding
speed and laser power which contribute to define the parameter
ED. The abovementioned elements can be strictly correlated with
the temperature on the surface. The evaluation of the maximum
temperature range on the laser irradiated surface, for the analytical
models described above, can be obtained by using the expressions
reported in the classical heat transfer literature [14,16]. The differ-
ential governing equations based on continuum formulation, used
for analysis of thermal phenomena in laserebeam welding process
consist in general terms of mass, momentum and energy conser-
vation equations. Starting point for the description of the temper-
ature field in a homogenous and isotropic infinite body is the heat
conduction differential equation based on the conservation of en-
ergy law. Consider the differential element shown in Fig. 4 the
energy balance on the element is:
vT
H ¼ kV2 T þ rcp vVT þ rcp
vt
Fig. 4. Heat flow through a differential element.
Where, apart from the thermophysical properties of the material (r
is the density, k the thermal conductivity and cp the specific heat) H
is the heat generation per unit volume and v the translational speed
of the substrate with respect to the laser beam. In order to
analytically describe the welding process in overlap configuration
and to find an analytical solution for the Fourier’s equation the
following assumptions are made:
 The maximum temperature Tmax, reached at the workpiece
surface, is lower than the vaporization point (around 3000 K).
Keyhole formation is not considered. This hypothesis is
confirmed by the experimental investigation: the formation of a
plume by the evolving metal vapours has been observed only in
case of high-energy (ED > 47 J/mm2) welding tests.
 Heat transfer is governed by conduction. Convection and radi-
ation are neglected due to extremely small exchange area.
 The internal heat generation term in Fourier’s equation is ab-
sent: all the heat is transferred into the material from the free
surface. This leads to define the strength of heat sources in terms
of boundary conditions.
 Energy absorption by the material is considered complete
because of the multiple reflections in the deepening of the
molten pool once it reaches the steady state.
The differential equation for the conduction of heat in a sta-
tionary medium, assuming no convection or radiation, becomes
v2 T v2 T v2 T 1 vT
þ þ ¼ $ (3)
(2) vx2 vy2 vz2 a vt
in which a is the thermal diffusivity of the material. Eq. (3) allows
multiple possible solutions depending on the type of heat flows
(laser input power) and on the simplification assumed. The typical
analytical solution of the problem is the one referred to the case in
which the heat flows is in only one direction and there is no con-
vection or heat generation. In this case the basic equation becomes:
v2 T 1 vT
¼ $ (4)
vz2 a vt
If it is assumed that there is a constant extended surface heat
input and constant thermal properties, with no radiant heat loss or
melting, then the boundary conditions are as follows. At z ¼ 0 the
surface power density (heat flux per unit area, per unit time) is:

vT  Pð1  RÞ
k  ¼ F0 ¼ (5)
vz z¼0 A
 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205 199

where P is the incident power, R is the reflectivity and A is the the type of the heat source and the corresponding temperature
incident area of the energy input (e.g. the laser beam). Considering field relative to steady heat sources. The energy sources can be
a wall thickness of the shells much higher than the spot diameter calculated by opportune combination of the values of input power,
(assumption of semi-infinite solid), the other boundary and initial spot laser diameter and laser beam velocity.
conditions are: For the case of moving heat sources the general equation for
 three-dimensional heat transfer is still given by Eq. (3) even though
vT  a switch to a moving frame has to be considered to include the
¼ 0 (60 Þ
vz z/N effect of speed. Referring to a moving frame allows for an easier
calculation of the heat flow generated by a moving point, linear, or
Tðt ¼ 0Þ ¼ T0 (600 Þ plane sources of heat in semi-infinite solids since the problem
becomes quasi-stationary. Considering a heat source moving along
In this case, the analytical solution of this problem in terms is the x-axis at constant speed v, when the effects of the initial tran-
simply given by [17] sient condition are over, the physical phenomenon is quasi-
   stationary for an observer located over the moving frame. Refer-
2F0 pffiffiffiffiffi z ring to the moving frame, the distance of a generic point (X) from
Tðz; tÞ ¼ To þ $ at $ierfc pffiffiffiffiffi t ¼ ½t0  t1  (7)
k 2 at the heat source located in the origin can be calculated as:
"   X ¼ x  vt (9)
2F0 pffiffiffiffiffi z
Tðz; tÞ ¼ To þ $ at $ierfc pffiffiffiffiffi
k 2 at where vt is the distance travelled by the heat source at a given
!# (8)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi z instant. Table 2 summarizes the various moving heat source
 aðt  t1 Þ$ierfc pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi t > t1 models.
2 aðt  t1 Þ

where t0 is the time at which the source is on and t1 the one in
which the source is off.
This model gives an idea of the importance of the conductive
process when the flow is in one direction. This hypothesis is
reasonably correct when the heat source is large compared with the
depth considered or when the flow is in a rod or in a similar ge-
ometry. However, this model does not allow any variation or
concept of beam size or mode structure, speed is only simulated by
means of the t0 value and no allowance is made for workpiece
thickness. For this reason the model is not good for describing the
process under analysis.
Considering other models, they can be roughly grouped in two
homogeneous categories depending on the type of the source:
steady heat sources and moving heat sources. Table 1 contains the
main elements for understanding the particular model analyzed:
4.2. Preliminary analysis
A preliminary study on the scheme of Fig. 2 has been conducted
by the authors by comparing the results of analytical modelling
with experimental results calculating the temperature on the ma-
terial surface (Z ¼ 0) at a given distance from the selected source
equal to the spot radius (150 mm for the laser set-up used) where the
transversal energy distribution of the laser drops to zero. This
choice is motivated by the need of estimating the maximum tem-
perature close to the irradiated area but excluding the real geometry
of the heat source in which the temperature theoretically rises to
infinite. The results of the calculation can be pinpointed as follows.
 A simple instantaneous model greatly overestimates the
maximum temperature at the surface like the continuous

Table 1
Models for steady heat sources.

Model Temperature field

Instantaneous point source

r 2
Q
Tðr; tÞ ¼ To þ $e 4at
8rcp ðpatÞ3=2

Continuous point source

 
Qp r
Tðr; tÞ ¼ To þ $erfc pffiffiffiffiffi
4pkr 2 at

Continuous line source (perpendicular to the material surface)

 
Ql r2
Tðx; y; tÞ ¼ To  $Ei 
4parcp 4at

Continuous plane source: Jaeger model

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi z2  
Q0 t  Q0 r
Tðz; tÞ ¼ To þ $ $e 4at  $z$erfc pffiffiffiffiffi
rcp pa 2k 2 at

Continuous circular source (heat is released at constant

8 2 0qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi139
rate Q0 per unit time per unit area over a circle with radius R0)  
Q 0 <pffiffiffiffiffi 4 z z2 þ R20 =
Tðz; tÞ ¼ To þ 2 $ at $ ierfc pffiffiffiffiffi  ierfc@ pffiffiffiffiffi A5
k : 2 at 2 at ;

Hot-wire source (laying on the material surface)

r2
Ql 
Tðr; tÞ ¼ To þ e 4at
2p k
200 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205

Table 2 principle of proper solvable analytic solutions. Taking into account

Moving heat sources models. equations in Table 2 for the temperature field generated by a single
Model Temperature field moving point source and a single line source and e since the
Moving plane
temperature can be added e applying the superposition principle,
source (1 D) v it is possible to find the analytical solution for a moving double
Q0  X
TðX; vÞ ¼ T0 þ $e a X0 point-line source, a triple moving point source and a double mov-
rcp v
ing point source. The experimental investigation underlined that
the most suitable model for predicting weld seam geometry from
Q0
TðX; vÞ ¼ T0 þ X<0 process parameters and material properties is the double moving
rcp v
point source depicted in Fig. 5.
Moving line The idea of the double geometry is not new. For example it was
v
source (2 D) Ql  X  vr proposed and discussed by Goldak et al. in Ref. [26] for arc welding
TðX; vÞ ¼ T0 þ $e 2a K0
2p k 2a process. In particular in Ref. [26] the authors proposed a double
Moving point ellipsoidal geometry so that the size and shape of the heat source
source v
Qp  ðrþXÞ can be easily changed to model both the shallow penetration arc
(3 D) Tðr; X; vÞ ¼ T0 þ $e 2a
4pkr welding process and the deeper penetration laser and electron
Moving beam processes. The idea appears to be interesting for application
point-line v v pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi! to LBW too mainly because the double source could better repre-
Qp  ðrþXÞ Q  X v X2 þ Y 2
source TðX; Y; Z; vÞ ¼ T0 þ $e 2a þ l $e 2a K0 sent the two distinctly different modes of LBW which are
4pkr 2pk 2a
commonly referred to as conduction mode welding and keyhole
mode welding.
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the fixed frame (O, x, y, z)
circular source model. This happens mainly because these and the moving frame (O0 , X, Y, Z) centred in the moving point
models are one-dimensional and neglect the heat conduction in source at the workpiece surface and carrying another point source,
X- and Y-direction. located at (0, 0, z2). The moving frame shifts along x-axis at constant
 The continuous cylindrical and the hot-wire models underesti- speed v. The powers generated by the sources are Qp1 and Qp2 (W).
mate the maximum temperature. In the first case, it happens The first source spreads heat only in the semi-infinite solid below,
because input power is spread on a high volume: much higher the other one, conversely, produces heat which flows in all di-
than the real laserematerial interaction region. In the latter case, rections. Hence, the first source can be considered acting on a semi-
the expected temperature is too low because the input power is infinite solid, the other one in an infinite one.
distributed on a relatively long line laying on the material surface. The temperature under the workpiece surface can be found
 The moving plane source model shows a different behaviour using the following equation:
depending on the way to calculate the strength (power density)
of the source representing the thermal front. Three possible Qp1 v ðr1 þXÞ Qp2 v ðr2 þXÞ
Tðr1 ; r2 ; X; vÞ ¼ T0 þ e2a þ e2a (10)
alternatives can be considered: in case of input power spread on 2pkr1 4pkr2
a semi-cylindrical surface, the temperature is heavily under-
estimated. In case of rectangular surface (defined by the spot It is possible to define the power balance g ¼ Qp1/P, so consid-
diameter and material thickness) the temperature is still ering the latter simplifying assumption, the laser power P input is
underestimated even if the error is lower than the previous case. equal to (Qp1 þ Qp2), then, in Eq. (10) Qp1 can be rewritten as gP and
The spherical surface of radius equal to the spot radius, on the Qp2 as (1  g)P.
other hand, overestimates the temperature. This happens According to the already mentioned symbols, a ¼ k/r cp (m2/s) is
because in this model, the strength of the source is calculated the thermal diffusivity, r is the material density (kg/m3), cp the heat
spreading the input power on surfaces which are gradually capacity of the material (J/kg K) and k is the thermal conductivity
smaller. Moreover the aforestated models are all one- (W/m K), v is the welding speed (m/s) and r1 and r2 are the dis-
dimensional and not able to correctly describe the tempera- tances (m) from the first and the second point source respectively
ture field and the shape of the melted region. and they are defined as:
 The moving line source model underestimates the temperature qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
furthermore it considers heat conduction in X- and Y-direction r1 ¼ X 2 þ y02 þ z02 and r2 ¼ X 2 þ y002 þ z002 (11)
only.

Calculations suggest the moving point source as the most

appropriate model. As a matter of fact, it takes into account the heat
conduction in all directions (this is a three-dimensional model), it
predicts a maximum temperature on the surface slightly above the
vaporization point at the selected referring distance of 150 mm.
Moreover the temperature field in the moving frame exhibits a
semispherical shape which is not far from the expected one.
However, considering transversal section of the moving frame (Y-Z
plane in Fig. 2), isotherms are circular because the conduction rate
in Y and Z directions is the same.

4.3. The improved model

Starting from these considerations a more detailed description

of the weld bead profile is achievable by using the superposition Fig. 5. Schematic of a double moving point source in a semi-infinite medium.
 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205 201

As general rule for the application of the model the second Table 3
source has to be preliminary set at the interface between the two Process parameters (P, v, ED) and experimental results (p, w, s) related to the first test
campaign.
shells (500 mm in the present case). This is motivated by the need of
a simple calculation which took into account thermal exchanges at N P [W] v [m/s] ED [J/mm2] p [mm] w [mm] s [mm]
the interface by simply inserting a thermal source whose power 1 1100 0.075 49 1010 475 465
increases by increasing the energy density supply on the surface of 2 950 0.075 42 850 495 445
the material. Power balance has then to be studied as first model- 3 800 0.075 36 630 430 375
4 1100 0.100 37 685 525 415
ling parameter and the so generated results have to be further
5 950 0.100 32 765 590 435
refined by adjusting the position of the second source in order to 6 800 0.100 27 555 470 265
better define the shape of the weld profile as in a common trial and 7 1100 0.125 29 695 520 400
error procedure. 8 950 0.125 25 535 560 255
9 800 0.125 21 430 440 e
10 1100 0.160 23 515 510 200
5. Experimental analysis 11 950 0.160 20 415 510 e
12 800 0.160 17 305 390 e
In order to set-up the model, welding tests are performed in a 13 1100 0.200 18 375 385 e
simplified configuration on a typical AISI 416 martensitic stainless 14 950 0.200 16 305 330 e
15 800 0.200 13 255 330 e
steel solid bar which is commonly used in automotive industries to
fabricate some parts of fuel injectors thanks to its high mechanical
properties and good resistance to corrosion. The material is melted
by the laser beam and then cooled down naturally. Afterwards, Taking into account data measured after welding experiments,
each weld bead is cut and measured using a specific software (Leica Table 3 shows a continuous increase in penetration depth and,
IM1000) incorporated in a stereomicroscope (Leica MZ-6, 40 more weakly, in weld resistance length when ED increases.
magnification). The experimental data are finally compared with Nevertheless from Table 3 weld width appears to be not closely
the results of calculation. correlated with ED parameter. This behaviour can be explained
A second test campaign is performed using the real production considering the variation of width with welding speed (keeping P
line configuration with the aim of evaluating the behaviour of the and fs constant) as in authors’ previous experience in Ref. [28]. The
model within and outside of the planned range of energy density more the welding speed increases, the more width increases as
and of validating the model and justifying the adopted hypotheses. well. This happens because, being the laserematerial interaction a
The welding configuration is shown in Fig. 2: the inside diam- surface phenomenon, at higher welding speeds the reduced inter-
eter of outer shell and the outside diameter of inner shell are action time reduces the ED input and favours heat conduction in Y
machined to Ø 7.5  0.025 mm and Ø 7.556  0.015 mm while direction. The conduction along Z direction for ED close to the
thicknesses are 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm, respectively. Tubular parts threshold value of the selected material [6] is limited by the Beere
thus fabricated are forced together to ensure close contact (zero Lambert absorption law. As a matter of fact (at fixed P and fs) for
clearance) in the interface surfaces during welding. Specimens are higher welding speeds weld seams are wider and less deep. The
welded circularly in an overlap joint configuration using a 2.0 kW opposite happens when welding speed decreases up to the keyhole
continuous wave Nd:YAG laser: the same machine used for the formation which produces extremely narrow and deep joints. In the
simplified configuration. Radiation conveyed in a 300 mm fibre is present case study weld width is nearly constant (approximately
recollimated by a 200 mm lens and focused by a second lens of the twice the spot diameter) for ED > 23 J/mm2 which ensures resistant
same focal length, to a minimum spot diameter of about 300 mm length higher than the design value of 100 mm.
with a top flat energy distribution. The beam is focused normally Fig. 6 shows the trend of the w/p and s/w ratios. Since pene-
onto the outer shell surface and no shielding gas is used to avoid tration size factor (w/p) has a hyperbolic trend and w remains
cooling phenomena not reproducible by theoretical modelling, approximately constant it follows that p increases almost linearly.
Table 3 shows the process parameters (P, v, ED) and the experi- As a matter of fact penetration depth is directly linked with energy
mental measured responses (p, w, s).
During experimentation, energy density inputs on the focused
area are derived from process parameters (P, v and fs) and varied in
the range of 13e49 J/mm2. The latter test campaign has the aim to
evaluate the mutual effect of laser power (P) and welding speed (v)
on the weld geometry. In this case welding tests have been per-
formed keeping ED constant and varying proportionately P and v. A
standard washing procedure e based on an ethanol ultrasound
cleaning e practiced in the automotive industries is followed to
clean, cool and dry the specimens.

6. Results and discussion

The theoretical model described above can be applied in the

considered overlap joint by defining the two degrees of freedom
represented by power balance g and position of the second point
source z2. Penetration depth, weld width and weld resistance
length of the melt pool can be derived imposing the melting tem-
perature in Eq. (2). The temperature dependent thermo-physical
properties of the selected metal along with their dependence Fig. 6. Weld characteristics w/p (blue circles) and s/w red squares vs. ED and trend
with temperature can be derived using some empirical relation- lines. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
ships like those reported in Ref. [27]. referred to the web version of this article.)
202 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205

input and weld width is limited by the radial extension of the laser Table 4
beam. The reinforcement form factor (s/w) tends to 1 for high ED g vs. ED and z2 vs. ED as a result of a trial and error process: pure conduction regime,
intermediate regime, keyhole regime.
values: being w nearly constant for ED beyond 23 J/mm2, this
means that weld resistance length reaches an asymptotic value. N P [W] V [mm/s] ED [J/mm2] g [mm] z2 [mm]
Fig. 7 also shows how the shape of the molten pool changes from 1 1100 75 49 0.25 700
circular (case n. 1) to parabolic (case n. 2, 3 and 4) and then to cy- 2 950 75 42 0.40 600
lindrical (case n. 5). For low values of ED heat is conducted in 3 800 75 36 0.35 570
4 1100 100 37 0.40 620
isotropic way giving a semicircular weld profile. In the intermediate
5 950 100 32 0.50 560
regime a deeper penetration is reached due to the motion of melt 6 800 100 27 0.60 510
inside the pool, giving a parabolic profile which ensures a required 7 1100 125 29 0.40 500
resistance length. An increase in ED input results in the classic deep 8 950 125 25 0.70 450
9 800 125 21 0.85 350
and narrow shape which characterizes the formation of keyhole.
10 1100 160 23 0.92 450
11 950 160 20 0.99 400
6.1. Model set-up 12 800 160 17 0.95 250
13 1100 200 18 0.95 320
14 950 200 16 0.99 280
Taking into account the aforestated phenomena, the model 15 800 200 13 0.99 180
cannot make use of a single point source to describe the whole
shape variation of the melt pool but needs for a second point
source, preliminary set at the shells interface, whose power be-
comes higher with the increase of energy density supply on the resistance length increase. Finally, for ED beyond 30e33 J/mm2 the
outer shell surface. In detail, the power balance (g) should be in power balance decreases weakly because the weld reaches his
favour of the superficial point source during the initial interaction steady parallel-walled shape. The internal point source assumes a
with the material in order to model the preferential heat transfer to predominant value to simulate deeper profiles generated by
the surroundings of the irradiated surface (Y direction) respect to keyhole formation.
the conduction in Z direction. Finally as further refinement, the dependence of z2 from ED can
Increasing ED the power balance is gradually shifted toward the be also considered with the aim of better modelling also the tran-
second source in order to model the increasing of penetration sition from parabolic shape to keyhole. Using the same procedure
depth and weld resistance length. adopted before, z2 is gradually shifted down into the material (with
In the first step of the model in which the second source is g values adopted before). The criterion to define z2 is to find the
placed at the material interface, the criterion to set up the model is matching value with the experimental data of p in the largest range
to select the correct power balance g for which resistance length is of ED used.
matching the best with experimental data. The power balance g For ED values below 20 O 23 J/mm2 z2 grows rather fast due to
resulting from this trial and error process is then an optimization of the transition between the pure conduction regime and the inter-
g to predict resistance length since it determines the real me- mediate one. In the intermediate regime (23e35 J/mm2) the change
chanical strength of the weld under shear stresses. Penetration in depth z2 is slight and the average value of this range (z2 ¼ 500 mm)
depth is here used as a further control parameter to check the represents the interface of the tubular parts thus representing the
profile of the weld and identify the type of heat exchange. importance of heat exchange between the two components in this
Using the least square method with respect to the values of regime. Finally, for ED beyond 30e33 J/mm2, the position of the
power balance derived with the criterion above, it is possible to second source increases weakly. Again, using the least square
define a triple linear function, g(ED), which again testifies the method with respect to the experimental data collected in Table 3, it
occurrence of different heat transfer regimes. As shown in Table 4, is possible to define a triple linear function, z2(ED), for each heat
for ED values below 20 O 23 J/mm2 the power balance g weakly transfer regime: pure conduction, intermediate and keyhole regime.
decreases and remains above 0.90: in this region the heat exchange The validation of the model is carried out comparing theoretical
regime is purely conductive and the shape of the weld is rounded so results with data from the production line. Penetration depth p, weld
it is necessary to neglect the effect of the second source. From 23 to width w and weld resistance length s are calculated using the model
30 J/mm2, increasing ED, the power balance is strongly shifted to- with real production parameters (already studied in Ref. [28]) and
ward the second source. In this intermediate region the shape of then compared with measurements obtained by cross sectioning the
the weld becomes parabolic and both the penetration depth and laser weld of the injector tip.

Fig. 7. Composite photograph of weld profiles at different ED: 1) ED ¼ 20 J/mm2, 2) ED ¼ 25 J/mm2, 3) ED ¼ 30 J/mm2, 4) ED ¼ 35 J/mm2, 5) ED ¼ 40 J/mm2 6) ED ¼ 50 J/mm2.
 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205
6.2. Validation
Fig. 8 shows the trend of error towards the energy density for p,
w and s. Penetration depth is almost always well predicted by the
model: percent error is always less than 10%. Weld resistance
length is better predicted than weld width and the error is almost
always less than 5%. Even better results can be obtained by
considering also the dependence of z2 from ED. Conversely weld
width is always underestimated and the error is quite large (up to
20%). This is due to the fact that in practice the region surrounding
the optical axis has a temperature slightly above the vaporization
point and facilitates the conduction on the XeY plane by melt flow,
especially on the surface. This cannot be taken into account in the
simplified model where the temperature is infinite on the point
source and drops down to room temperature about 100 mm before
(in Y direction from the optical axis) respect to the real case, making
the melt pool less wide. The error introduced in weld width pre-
diction is acceptable considering that the tuning procedure for the
definition of g and z2 involved resistance length and penetration
depth respectively. This is justified from a technological point of
view since a reliable evaluation of p and s enables the determina-
tion of the mechanical strength of the joint while w only defines the
aspect ratio of the melt pool.
This model is therefore able to predict the shape of weld bead
from the process parameters and the material properties after a
simple set-up allowing for a fast calculation of the penetration
depth and the resistance length.
The intermediate regime characterized by parabolic weld profile
is well represented by the second point source whose power and
position can vary as a function of the energy density input on the
material. As a consequence of the fine matching between experi-
mental data and simulation results in terms of geometrical features,
the model can be profitably used to predict the temperature field
around the molten pool. Fig. 9 shows a contour plot of the tem-
perature field corresponding to 1100 W input power and 0.125 m/s
welding speed (ED ¼ 29.0 J/mm2). It is possible to notice the strong
gradient in X direction due to the low thermal conductivity and
diffusivity of material and the extremely concentrated heat input in
the characteristic irradiation time. The temperature field in XeZ
plane shows an extremely strong gradient in the heating process
along X-axis, much stronger than the gradient during the cooling
process (negative x-axis).
Fig. 8. Percent error vs. ED for penetration depth (blue circles), weld width (red
squares) and weld resistance width (green diamonds) calculated using double moving
point source model and trend lines for p (continuous), w (dashed) and s (dashed-
dotted). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)
203
A similar strong gradient appears in Y direction. In front of the
laser beam temperature rises from room temperature T0 to melting
point Tm in less than 280 mm. Considering the welding speed it is
possible to calculate the time tm required to reach Tm. In this case tm
is equal to 2.2 ms.
It is also possible to evaluate the extension of the melted region
considering the region where material surface reaches the melting
point. Behind the laser beam, along feed direction, the melted re-
gion has an extension of 2.6 mm and the temperature decreases
much more weakly than as it grows in front of it.
Therefore, the extension of melted region in front of the beam is
approximately 1/100 compared to the one at the back. Similarly,
time required to reach Tm is extremely smaller than time required
for going back to room temperature. Starting from the temperature
contour plot it is possible to calculate the temperature trend vs.
time for each point, both for heating and cooling phase, in order to
perform a microstructural analysis. In this way it is possible to
predict the material properties of the weld seam.
In Fig. 9, the temperature surface has been cut at Tm, so it is
possible to measure the melted area at zero-depth. Conversely the
evaluation of the vaporized area by cutting the surface temperature
at Tv is not accurate since the intensity of the point sources is fitted
only to the solid/liquid boundary. Similarly, considering the contour
plot of the temperature calculated on the moving YeZ plane it will
be possible to predict the extension of melted region in depth.
Fig. 10 shows the temperature field in a YeZ plane (perpendic-
ular to welding speed direction). In particular it shows a necking
between the two heat sources: this phenomenon is due to the
presence of two separated point heat sources and it is not repre-
sentative of the actual temperature field. In order to retrace the
weld bead real cross section it is possible to approximate its shape
using two lines tangent to the bulges edges (white dashed in
Figure).
6.3. Operative limits of the energy density parameter
The use of energy density as a single parameter to include at the
same time the effects of power, welding speed and focal spot
diameter has obviously some operative limits. In the intermediate
regime between pure conduction and keyhole welding (ED ¼ 20e
30 J/mm2) the effect of power and speed variation is nearly the
same being the shape of the weld, for each ED value, almost in-
dependent from how process parameters are varied singularly. This
phenomenon is clearly visible in Fig. 11 which shows some weld
profiles realized with a constant ED value of 29 J/mm2: to obtain
this value P and v are varied proportionally.
Measured values of the geometrical features of the welds ob-
tained with different combinations of power and welding speed at
the same ED are reported in Fig. 12 for 25 J/mm2 and 35 J/mm2. It is
possible to notice that when welding is conduction dominated
weld profile does not change. This means that an increase in laser
input power is balanced by an increase of welding speed (also
decrease of interaction time over the irradiated area).
The concept described above is valid up to the limiting value of
35 J/mm2 for which deeper welding is formed and more complex
phenomena are involved in the determination of the weld profile
respect to the pure conduction considered in the developed model.
As reported in the graph in Fig. 12(b), an increase in power input
combined to a proportional increase in welding speed does not give
a uniform weld profile. All the geometrical features increase and the
weld profile changes almost in homothetic way since the penetra-
tion size factor varies from 0.96 (for 500 W and 48 mm/s) to 0.91 (for
1100 W and 105 mm/s). This threshold value imposes a limit to the
applicability of energy density to describe the changes in weld bead
profile. In case of deep penetration welding (ED > 35 J/mm2) the
204 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205

Fig. 9. Contour plot of the temperature field (cut at melting point) on a XeY moving plane passing throw the origin point for 1100 W input power and 0.125 m/s feed rate
(ED ¼ 29.0 J/mm2).

exchange phenomena before keyhole formation. Therefore in the

range 20e30 J/mm2, ED can be considered not only as an index of
heat transfer regime but also a representative parameter of the weld
bead geometry. Further consideration on this specific point have
been developed by the authors in Ref. [30].

7. Conclusions

A theoretical model based on a double moving point source

Fig. 10. Contour plot of the temperature field in a YeZ moving plane passing throw the
origin point for 800 W input power and 6.50 m/min feed rate (ED ¼ 20.0 J/mm2). The
necking is due to the presence of two heat sources.
influence of power and welding speed on the weld profile has to be
studied separately as already reported in the literature starting from
the contribute of Swift-Hook and Gick in Ref. [29]. This subject is
beyond the purpose of the present study which concerns the heat
aimed at predicting the weld penetration depth, weld width and
resistance length in overlap configuration was developed and
analyzed. It is obvious that the knowledge of the thermo-physical
properties of the selected steel, as well as their dependence on
temperature, is mandatory for a correct interpretation of the
physics involved and to implement more realistic calculations on
the experimental set-up.
After a preliminary modelling phase in which a further point
source is located inside the material at the shells interface, for a
reliable application of the model it is necessary to define the linear
functions for the z2(ED) position of the second source and the power
balance g(ED). Being the model variables functions of energy density
e in order to adjust the model depending on the welding regime e
they are directly linked to process parameters: laser power (P),

Fig. 11. Composite photograph of weld profiles at constant ED ¼ 29 J/mm2 for different couple of P and v. 1) P ¼ 1100 W, v ¼ 0.125 m/s, 2) P ¼ 880 W, v ¼ 0.100 m/s 3) P ¼ 800 W,
v ¼ 0.091 m/s, 4) P ¼ 640 W, v ¼ 0.043 m/s, 5) P ¼ 550 W, v ¼ 0.063 m/s.
 A. Franco et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 194e205
Fig. 12. Experimental measured responses for the campaign 2: penetration depth p
(blue circles), weld width w (red squares) and weld resistance length s (green di-
amonds) for (a) ED ¼ 25 J/mm2 and (b) ED ¼ 35 J/mm2. Trend lines for p (continuous,
blue), w (dashed, red) and s (dashed-dotted, green). (For interpretation of the refer-
ences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
welding speed (v) and focal spot diameter (fs). More in detail, the
comparison with real production data demonstrates that especially
the intermediate regime with parabolic shape is well represented by
the thermal field generated by a double point source.
The accordance of calculated geometrical data with experi-
mental ones makes it possible to obtain further information
regarding the thermal transient to which the material is exposed
during welding process. The experimental investigation also
showed that energy density has some operative limits to properly
describe the variation of the weld profile: beyond the threshold
value of 35 J/mm2 the welding speed increase is not able to balance
the power increase and e for the same ED value e the melted re-
gion grows. Though, this effect is stronger for high ED, in case of
intermediate regime, ED can be considered an index of the welding
regime and a representative parameter of the link between the
process variables and the weld seam geometry.
At last, temperature field contours show that heating rate is
not only faster than cooling but also of higher value. As a result
the model can help in linking the formation of microstructures in
the weld bead with process variables such as input power,
welding speed and material properties via the thermal field
generated by proper modulation and position of the two point
sources.
As concluding remark authors point out that the model analyzed
and discussed cannot be universally used for every welding con-
dition (e.g. joint configuration, geometry of weld material, param-
eters selected). However the case study analyzed in the present
paper demonstrates that when laser welding is performed at high
speeds on thin wall components energy density (ED) can be
adopted as an index of the heat transfer phenomenon. This allows
the determination of the ED ranges in which the single point, the
205
double-point or the line moving sources can be profitably adopted
to model heat transfer and the transition phase between pure
conduction and keyhole formation that is extremely important for
the case study presented in the paper.
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