REDUCTION FORULAE

Integral Calculus : Basics

Fundamental Formulae
𝑥 𝑛 +1
1. 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 +1

2. sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥
3. cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥
4. sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥
5. cosec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥
6. sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥
7. cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cosec 𝑥
8. 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑎𝑥
9. 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log
𝑒 𝑎
1
10. 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑥
𝑥
1
11. 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥
1−𝑥 2
1
12. 𝑑𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥
1+𝑥 2
1
13. 𝑑𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 2 −1

14. sinh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝑥

15. cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sinh 𝑥
16. sech2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tanh 𝑥
17. cosech2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −coth 𝑥
18. sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − sech 𝑥
19. cosech 𝑥 coth 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cosech 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
20. = sinh−1 = log 𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
𝑎 2 +𝑥 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
21. = sin−1
𝑎 2 +𝑥 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
22. = cosh−1 = log 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑥 2 −𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎2
23. 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + sinh−1 = 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + log 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
2 𝑎 2

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑎2
24. 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 = 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + log 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
2 𝑎 2
𝑥 𝑎2
25. 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − log 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
2

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 REDUCTION FORULAE

Hyperbolic Functions

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
1. sinh 𝑥 = 2
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
2. cosh 𝑥 = 2
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
3. tanh 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥

4. cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
5. coth2 𝑥 − cosech2 𝑥 = 1
6. tanh2 𝑥 + sech2 𝑥 = 1
7. sinh 2𝑥 = 2sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
8. cosh 2𝑥 = cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥 = 1 + 2sinh2 𝑥 = 2 cosh2 𝑥 − 1

Reduction Formulae

sin n −1 𝑥.cos 𝑥 𝑛 −1
1. sinn 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − + sinn−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
cos n −1 𝑥.sin 𝑥 𝑛 −1
2. cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + cos n−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 𝑛
tan n −1 𝑥
3. tann 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − tann−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 −1
cot n −1 𝑥
4. cot n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − − cot n−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 −1
cosec n −2 𝑥.cot 𝑥 𝑛 −2
5. cosec n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − + 𝑛 −1 cosec n −2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 −1
sec n −2 𝑥.tan 𝑥 𝑛−2
6. sec n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑛−1 sec n−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 −1
sin m −1 𝑥.cos n +1 𝑥 𝑚 −1
7. sinm 𝑥 cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − + 𝑚 +𝑛 sinm −2 𝑥 cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 +𝑛

or
sin m +1 𝑥.cos n −1 𝑥 𝑛 −1
8. sinm 𝑥 cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑚 +𝑛 sinm 𝑥 cos n−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 +𝑛

Walli’s Formula

𝜋 𝜋
To evaluate 2
0
sinn 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 0
2 cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .

𝜋 𝜋
𝑛−1 𝑛−3 …4.2
Case I: When n is odd then 0
2 sinn 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
0
cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = .1
𝑛 𝑛−2 …3.1

𝜋 𝜋
𝑛−1 𝑛−3 …3.1 𝜋
Case II: When n is even then 2
0
sinn 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
0
cos n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = .2
𝑛 𝑛−2 …4.2

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 REDUCTION FORULAE

N.B. Proof of the reduction formulae and Walli’s formulae will be discussed in the class.

Exercise

1. Evaluate
𝜋
a. sin6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and find the value of 2
0
sin6 𝑥 𝑑.
𝜋
b. cos 7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and find the value of 2
0
cos7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
c. 0
4 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
d. 0
2 sin3 𝜃 cos 4 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝑥 𝑥
e. 0
sin6 2 cos 8 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
f. 0
2 cos 5 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑥4 3𝑎 4 𝜋
2. Show that 𝑑𝑥 = .
0 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 16
9
2𝑎 𝑥 2
3. Evaluate 0
𝑑𝑥.
2𝑎 −𝑥
𝜋 1 1
4
4. Prove that 0
tan5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 log 2 − 2
𝜋 1
4
5. If 𝐼𝑛 = 0
tann 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , then show that 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝑛 −2 = 𝑛−1 and deduce the value of 𝐼5 .

6. Evaluate
𝑥+𝑎
a. 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

3
b. 1 + 𝑥2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 5
c. 0
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥
1 2 3
d. 0
𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 2 𝑑𝑥

1 4 3
e. 0
𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑎 1
f. 0
𝑥 4 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥

*** Note last updated on Sept 11, 2023.

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