|Math 231-Fall 2019|Section 4.

1|Page 1

Chapter 4: General Vector Spaces

• Section 4.1: Real Vector Spaces.

• Section 4.2: Subspaces.
• Section 4.3: Linear Independence.
• Section 4.4: Coordinates and Basis.
• Section 4.5: Dimension.
• Section 4.6: Change of Basis.
• Section 4.7: Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space.
• Section 4.8: Rank, Nullity, and the Fundamental Matrix Spaces.
• Section 4.9: Matrix Transformations from ℝ𝑛𝑛 to ℝ𝑚𝑚 .
 |Math 231-Fall 2019|Section 4.1|Page 2

Section 4.1: Real Vector Spaces1

Concepts:
• Vector space.
• Closure under addition.
• Closure under scalar multiplication.
• Examples of vector spaces.

Learning Outcomes.
After completing this section, you should be able to:
• Determine whether a given set with two operations is a vector space.
• Know that a set with two operations is not a vector space if at least one of the vector
space axioms fails.

1
The materials of these lecture notes are based on the textbook of the course.
 |Math 231-Fall 2019|Section 4.1|Page 3
In this section we will extend the concept of a vector by using the basic properties of
vectors in ℝ𝑛𝑛 as axioms, which if satisfied by a set of objects, guarantee that those objects
behave like familiar vectors.

Vector Space Axioms

Let 𝑉𝑉 be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which two operations are defined:
addition, and multiplication by numbers called scalars.

a) By addition we mean a rule for associating with each pair of objects 𝐮𝐮 and 𝐯𝐯 in 𝑉𝑉 an
object 𝐮𝐮 + 𝐯𝐯, called the sum of 𝐮𝐮 and 𝐯𝐯.

b) By scalar multiplication we mean a rule for associating with each scalar 𝑘𝑘 and each
object 𝐮𝐮 in 𝑉𝑉 an object 𝑘𝑘𝐮𝐮, called the scalar multiple of 𝐮𝐮 by 𝑘𝑘.

If the following axioms are satisfied by all objects 𝐮𝐮, 𝐯𝐯, 𝐰𝐰 in 𝑉𝑉 and all scalars 𝑘𝑘 and
𝑚𝑚, then we call 𝑉𝑉 a vector space and we call the objects in 𝑉𝑉 vectors.
1. If 𝐮𝐮 and 𝐯𝐯 are objects in 𝑉𝑉, then 𝐮𝐮 + 𝐯𝐯 is in 𝑉𝑉.
2. 𝐮𝐮 + 𝐯𝐯 = 𝐯𝐯 + 𝐮𝐮
3. 𝐮𝐮 + (𝐯𝐯 + 𝐰𝐰) = (𝐮𝐮 + 𝐯𝐯) + 𝐰𝐰
4. There is an object 𝟎𝟎 in 𝑉𝑉, called a zero vector for 𝑉𝑉, such that
𝟎𝟎 + 𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮 + 𝟎𝟎 = 𝐮𝐮
for all 𝐮𝐮 in 𝑉𝑉.
5. For each 𝐮𝐮 in 𝑉𝑉, there is an object −𝐮𝐮 in 𝑉𝑉, called a negative of u, such that
𝐮𝐮 + (−𝐮𝐮) = (−𝐮𝐮) + 𝐮𝐮 = 𝟎𝟎.
6. If 𝑘𝑘 is any scalar and 𝐮𝐮 is any object in 𝑉𝑉, then 𝑘𝑘𝐮𝐮 is in 𝑉𝑉.
7. 𝑘𝑘 (𝐮𝐮 + 𝐯𝐯) = 𝑘𝑘𝐮𝐮 + 𝑘𝑘𝐯𝐯.
8. (𝑘𝑘 + 𝑚𝑚)𝐮𝐮 = 𝑘𝑘𝐮𝐮 + 𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮.
9. 𝑘𝑘 (𝑚𝑚𝐮𝐮) = (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)𝐮𝐮.
10. 1𝐮𝐮 = 𝐮𝐮.
 |Math 231-Fall 2019|Section 4.1|Page 4

Remark.
Observe that the definition of a vector space does not specify the nature of the vectors or
the operations. Any kind of object can be a vector, and the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication does not have any relationship to those on ℝ𝑛𝑛 . The only requirement is that
the ten vector space axioms be satisfied.

Theorem.
Let 𝑉𝑉 be a vector space, 𝐮𝐮 a vector in 𝑉𝑉, and 𝑘𝑘 a scalar; then:
(a) 0𝐮𝐮 = 𝟎𝟎.
(b) 𝑘𝑘𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎𝟎.
(c) (−1)𝐮𝐮 = −𝐮𝐮.
(d) If 𝑘𝑘𝐮𝐮 = 𝟎𝟎, then 𝑘𝑘 = 0 or 𝐮𝐮 = 𝟎𝟎.

To Show That a Set with Two Operations Is a Vector Space

Step 1. Identify the set 𝑉𝑉 of objects that will become vectors.

Step 2. Identify the addition and scalar multiplication operations on 𝑉𝑉.
Step 3. Verify Axioms 1 and 6; that is, adding two vectors in 𝑉𝑉 produces a vector in 𝑉𝑉, and
multiplying a vector in 𝑉𝑉 by a scalar also produces a vector in 𝑉𝑉. Axiom 1 is called
closure under addition, and Axiom 6 is called closure under scalar multiplication.
Step 4. Confirm that Axioms 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold.

Example. Let 𝑉𝑉 = ℝ2 = {(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) | 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ}. If, 𝐱𝐱, 𝐲𝐲 ∈ 𝑉𝑉, that is if, 𝐱𝐱 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) and 𝐲𝐲 =
(𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑦𝑦2 ), define the vector space operations on 𝑉𝑉 by:
𝐱𝐱 ⊕ 𝐲𝐲 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) ⊕ (𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦2 )
𝑘𝑘 ⊙ 𝐱𝐱 = 𝑘𝑘 ⊙ (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) = (𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥2 )
Show that 𝑉𝑉 with the operations ⊕ and ⊙ is a vector space.
 |Math 231-Fall 2019|Section 4.1|Page 5

Example. Let 𝑉𝑉 = ℝ2 = {(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) | 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ}. If, 𝐱𝐱, 𝐲𝐲 ∈ 𝑉𝑉, that is if, 𝐱𝐱 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) and 𝐲𝐲 =
(𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑦𝑦2 ), define the vector space operations on 𝑉𝑉 by:
𝐱𝐱 ⊕ 𝐲𝐲 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) ⊕ (𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦2 )
𝑘𝑘 ⊙ 𝐱𝐱 = 𝑘𝑘 ⊙ (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) = (𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥1 , 0)
Show that 𝑉𝑉 with the operations ⊕ and ⊙ is not a vector space.
 |Math 231-Fall 2019|Section 4.1|Page 6

Example. Let 𝑉𝑉 = ℝ2 = {(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) | 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ}. If, 𝐱𝐱, 𝐲𝐲 ∈ 𝑉𝑉, that is if, 𝐱𝐱 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) and 𝐲𝐲 =
(𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑦𝑦2 ), define the vector space operations on 𝑉𝑉 by:
𝐱𝐱 ⊕ 𝐲𝐲 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) ⊕ (𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 , 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦2 )
𝑘𝑘 ⊙ 𝐱𝐱 = 𝑘𝑘 ⊙ (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) = (𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 )
Show that 𝑉𝑉 with the operations ⊕ and ⊙ is not a vector space.

Example. Let 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐹𝐹(−∞, ∞) be the set of all real-valued functions that are defined at
each 𝑥𝑥 in the interval (−∞, ∞). If 𝐟𝐟 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) and 𝐠𝐠 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥 ) are two functions in 𝑉𝑉 and if 𝑘𝑘 is
any scalar, then define the vector space operations on 𝑉𝑉 by:
(𝐟𝐟 ⊕ 𝐠𝐠)(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
(𝑘𝑘 ⊙ 𝐟𝐟)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥)
Show that 𝑉𝑉 with the operations ⊕ and ⊙ is a vector space.
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