CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL PHYSICS: PRACTICAL TEACHER’S GUIDE

2 Limitations and
improvements
CHAPTER OUTLINE
This chapter relates to Chapter 4: Forces: vectors and moments and Chapter 7: Matter and
materials, in the Coursebook.
In this chapter learners will complete investigations on:
• 2.1 Thermal energy loss from water in a polystyrene cup
• 2.2 Loaded rubber band
• 2.3 Balanced metre rule.

Practical investigation 2.1: Thermal energy loss from

water in a polystyrene cup
Skills focus
See the Skills grids for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The practical work will take about 30 minutes; the analysis and evaluation questions will take about 30 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

• Learners will investigate how the rate of temperature decrease of hot water depends on the mass of the
water.
• Learners will be taking measurements using a thermometer and a stopwatch.
• Learners will consider limitations of the procedure and suggest improvements.
• This practical can be conducted at the start of a course and does not have to coincide with the teaching of
the theory.

You will need

Equipment Access to
• long-stem thermometer: −10 °C to 110 °C × 1 °C • electric kettle or other means to heat water to
• 200 cm3 polystyrene cup boiling safely
• stopwatch • top-pan balance
• stirrer • jug of cold water
• paper towel. • waterproof pen.

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Safety considerations
• Students should take care when using hot water.
• When the thermometer is not in use it should be placed on a paper towel so that it does not fall onto
the floor.

Carrying out the investigation

When discussing limitations and improvements, explain why the improvements listed in Table 2.1 are not
relevant or appropriate.

Limitation Inappropriate improvement (and reason)

The lines on the cup are not equally spaced. Provide a ruler.
(It is not necessary for the lines to be evenly spaced
to conduct this investigation.)
Heat was lost from the surface of the water. Provide a lid for the cup.
(The investigation is about heat loss from the
surface of the liquid.)
Table 2.1

• Explain that some limitations cannot be addressed by an improvement. But it is still justifiable to mention
them, giving a reason. For example, ‘It was difficult to draw the bottom line as a straight line because I
could not see what I was doing from above the cup.’

Sample results
The learners’ results should be similar to the data below.
Mass of cup = 2.2 g

t / s for starting temperature

Mark on cup Mass of cup and water / g m/g 85 °C 80 °C
Bottom 33.1 30.9 39.63 45.03
Middle 75.4 73.2 59.94 75.84
Top 118.8 116.6 82.28 101.00
Table 2.2

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

a See the values in the completed table of results, Table 2.1.
b t increases as m increases.
c The same starting temperature and temperature change were used because heat loss depends on the difference
between the temperature of the object and room temperature.
d See Table 2.1. If the starting temperature is lower, the times will be greater because the excess temperature is
lower and the rate of heat loss will be less. The times will be in the same order.
e There are many possible answers. Table 2.2 provides one possible limitation and improvement.
Limitation Improvement
E The lines drawn on the cup are not straight / too thick. Use a finer pen.
Table 2.2

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Practical investigation 2.2: Loaded rubber band

Skills focus
See the Skills grids for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The practical work will take 30 minutes; the analysis and evaluation questions will take 30 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

• In Part 1, learners will suspend a rubber band from two rods. They will attach a mass to the bottom of
the rubber band. They will investigate how the extension of the rubber band varies with the separation
of the rods.
• In Part 2, learners will suspend the same loaded rubber band from one rod. They will compare the extension
of the rubber band with that in Part 1.
• Learners will consider limitations of the procedure and suggest improvements.
• This practical can be conducted at the start of a course and does not have to coincide with the teaching of
the theory.

You will need

Equipment
• two stands • four 100 g slotted masses
• two bosses • protractor
• two clamps • metre rule
• G-clamp • rubber band with approximate cross-section
• 100 g mass hanger 2 mm × 1 mm and approximate circumference
20 cm.

Safety considerations
• Learners should take care when moving the stand. It may topple when the separation of the stands is large.
• Learners should not extend the rubber band too much. This could fracture the rubber band, causing the
masses to fall to the bench or the floor.

Carrying out the investigation

When discussing limitations and improvements, explain that the improvement given in Table 2.4 is not
appropriate because it could have been achieved with the existing apparatus.

Limitation Improvement
The bottom of the mass rested on the bench. Raise the height of the bosses and clamps.
Table 2.4

Sample results
The learners’ results should be similar to the data below.

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Part 1: Suspending the rubber band from two rods

Unextended length of rubber band C = 20.0 cm

x / cm θ/° (θ / 2) / ° sin (θ / 2) L / cm e / cm
10.0 42 21.0 0.358 37.9 17.9
13.1 46 23.0 0.391 46.6 26.6
16.9 56 28.0 0.469 52.9 32.9
20.4 71 35.5 0.580 55.5 35.5
Table 2.5

Part 2: Suspending the rubber band from one rod

When the rubber band is suspended from one clamp, R = 21.6 cm

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

Part 1: Suspending the rubber band from two rods
a See the completed Table 2.3.
b L increases as x increases.
c See Table 2.3.

Part 2: Suspending the rubber band from one rod

a e = 2R − C = (21.6 × 2) − 20 = 23.2 cm
b x ≈ 12 cm
Learners could answer this at different levels.
Looking at the data in Table 2.3 suggests that because 23.2 cm is between 17.9 cm and 26.6 cm the value of
x is between 10.0 cm and 13.1 cm.
If learners assume there is a linear relationship, they could use the following calculation:
26.6 − 17.9 = 8.7
(23.2 − 17.9 = 5.3)
5.3
Take × (13.1 − 10) and add it to 10.0
8.7
This equals 11.89, which is approximately 12 cm.
Learners could plot a graph of e against x as shown in Figure 2.1, and extrapolate for an extension
of 23.2 cm.
40

35

30
e / cm
25

20

15
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
x / cm

Figure 2.1

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c Possible limitations and improvements are shown in Table 2.4.

Limitation Improvement
The properties of the rubber band could change as a result Measure C before the experiment.
of loading. It could be permanently deformed.
The moveable stand toppled over for large values of x. Use another G-clamp.
It was awkward to use a metre rule to measure x because Use a 30 cm ruler instead.
the rule was too big.
Table 2.4

The suggestions should be realistic and achievable in a school laboratory. They could relate to the apparatus,
the experimental procedure or the sources of error learners have identified. If the learners needed to make
improvements while carrying out the investigation, these could also be included.

Practical investigation 2.3: Balanced metre rule

Skills focus
See the Skills grids for details of the skills developed and used in this investigation.

Duration
The practical work will take about 30 minutes; the analysis and evaluation questions will take about 30 minutes.

Preparing for the investigation

• Learners will balance a metre rule using two masses.
• Learners will vary one of the masses and balance the rule again by adjusting its point of suspension from a
string loop.
• Learners will determine one of the masses, which is unknown, using their graph.
• Learners will consider limitations of the procedure and suggest improvements.
• This practical can be conducted at the start of a course and does not have to coincide with the teaching of
the theory.

You will need

Equipment
• stand • 50 g slotted mass
• boss • three 10 g slotted masses
• clamp • sphere of modelling clay (e.g. Plasticine®) of
• metre rule mass 40 g
• loop of thick string of circumference 20 cm • small triangular pivot.

Safety considerations
Learners should take care that the masses and modelling clay do not fall off the metre rule when the rule slides
through the string loop.

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Carrying out the investigation

When discussing limitations and improvements, explain why the improvement in Table 2.7 is not appropriate
(because it could have been achieved with the existing apparatus).

Limitation Improvement
The slot in a mass means that its centre of mass is Turn the masses so that the slot is at right angles to
not at its centre. the length of the metre rule.
Table 2.7

Theory predicts that a straight line results from plotting 1y against m. Students could plot 1y against m and
use x = 48 ( 1y = 0.0208) to read off the value of M from their graph. Figure 2.2 shows how this graph would
appear based on the sample results.
0.025

0.024

0.023

0.022

1
y / cm 0.021
−1

0.020

0.019

0.018

0.017
0 20 40 60 80 100
m/g

Figure 2.2

Sample results
Table 2.8 provides results learners may obtain in the investigation.

m/g y / cm
10 56.1
20 53.1
30 50.5
50 45.9
60 44.2
70 42.1
80 40.3
Table 2.8

Answers to the workbook questions (using the sample results)

a y decreases as m increases.
b, c See Figure 2.3.
d The value of M is found where y = 48 cm. From Figure 2.3, the value of M is 41 g.

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60

58

56

54

52

y / m 50

48

46

44

42

40
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
m/g

Figure 2.3

e See Table 2.6.

Limitation Improvement
B The masses moved on the rule. Use a small quantity of adhesive putty to
keep them in place.
C The string loop was too small so the rule Use a larger string loop.
rotated when balanced.
Table 2.6

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