What Should We Do about Motivation Theory?

Six Recommendations for the Twenty-First

Century
Author(s): Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham
Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul., 2004), pp. 388-403
Published by: Academy of Management
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 ?
Academy o?Management Review
2004,Vol. 29,No. 3, 388-403.

WHAT SHOULDWE DO ABOUTMOTIVATION

THEORY?SIXRECOMMENDATIONSFOR THE
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
EDWIN A. LOCKE
University of Maryland

GARY P. LATHAM
University of Toronto

We present six recommendations for building theories of work motivation that are
more valid, more complete, broader in scope, and more useful to practitioners than

existing theories. (1) Integrate extant theories by using existing meta-analyses to

build a megatheory of work motivation. (2) Create a boundaryless science of work
motivation. (3) Study the various types of relationships that could hold between

general (trait) and situationally specific motivation. (4) Study subconscious as well as
conscious motivation. (5) Use introspection explicitly in theory building. (6) Acknowl
edge the role of volition in human action when formulating theories.

The concept of motivation refers to internal berg's work by developing a model suggesting
factors that impel action and to external factors the specific work characteristics and psycholog
that can act as inducements to action. The three ical processes that increase employee satisfac
aspects of action that motivation can affect are tion and the motivation to excel. All these theo
direction (choice), intensity (effort), and duration ries center on the issue of the organization's
(persistence). Motivation can affect not only the effect on the individual employee's "cognitive
acquisition of people's skills and abilities but growth."
also how and to what extent they utilize their Other theories and approaches have focused
skills and abilities. on specific psychological processes, as does
Work motivation has been of interest to Vroom's theory. Organizational behavior (OB)
industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists at modification (Luthans & Kreitner, 1975), which is
least since the 1930s, stimulated in large part by not influential today, was derived from Skin
the famous Hawthorne studies (Roethlisberger & ner's behavioristic philosophy that denied the
Dickson, 1939), which focused mainly on the ef importance of consciousness. This approach
fects of supervision, incentives, and working stresses the automatic role of rewards and feed
conditions. However, it was not until 1964 that back on work motivation; however, these effects
Vroom made the first attempt to formulate an are mediated by psychological processes such
overarching theory?namely, a hedonistic cal as goals and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986; Locke,
culus called the "valence-instrumentality 1977). Goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 2002)
expectancy model." Theory building in the field and control theory?a mechanistic combination
of work motivation, however, has typically been of cybernetics and goal theory (Lord & Hanges,
more specialized than Vroom's overarching 1987)?focus on the effects of conscious goals as
model. motivators of task performance. Attribution the
(1957), for example, focused on the ory's (Weiner, 1986) emphasis is on ways that the
Argyris
congruence between the individual's needs and attributions one makes about one's own or oth

organizational demands. Herzberg and col ers'

performance affect one's subsequent
leagues (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959) choices and actions. Social-cognitive theory
focused primarily on sources of work satisfac (Bandura, 1986) is very broad in scope?its do
tion and, within that domain, mainly on ways in main is much wider than that of work motiva
which the job could be designed to make the tion?but Bandura's core concept of self-efficacy
work itself enriching and challenging. Later, has been found to have powerful motivational
Hackman and Oldham (1980) extended Herz effects on task performance (Bandura, 1997).

388

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 2004 Locke and Latham 389

Two work motivation theories have a social When beginning to study the plethora of ex
emphasis (although [1986] stresses
Bandura the isting work motivation theories, one's reaction is
motivational effects of role modeling). Adams' sometimes bewilderment at the enormous vari
(1963) theory focuses on the motivational effects ety of concepts and approaches. But, ifone looks
of distributive justice, which is based on com closely, it is evident that, for the most part, these
parisons between the inputs and outcomes of theories, though flawed and/or limited in vari
oneself versus those of comparison others. More ous respects (see Miner, 2002), do not so much
recently, scholars have extensively researched contradict one another as focus on different as
procedural justice (Greenberg, 2000), stressing pects of the motivation process. Therefore, there
the important effect on employee satisfaction of is now an urgent need to tie these theories and
the methods or processes by which organiza processes together into an overall model, inso
tional decisions affecting employees are made. far as this is possible.
Personality-based approaches to motivation, Locke (1997) made a preliminary attempt at
although in and out of fashion over the past integrating theories of motivation in the work
several decades, have always had some strong place. The model, shown in Figure 1, begins
supporters. McClelland and his colleagues (e.g., with an employee's needs, moves to acquired
McClelland & Winter, 1969) stressed the effect of values and motives (including personality), then
subconscious motivation?specifically, need for to goal choice, and thence to goals and self
achievement?on economic growth. In recent efficacy. The latter two variables constitute a
years the study of conscious, self-reported traits "motivation hub" in that they are often the most
has become popular, especially traits such as direct,conscious, motivational determinants of
conscientiousness, which is fairly consistently performance. Performance is followed by out
related to effective job performance (Barrick & comes, and outcomes by emotional appraisals,
Mount, 2000). such as employee satisfaction and involvement,
All of the above theorieshave limitations. that lead to a variety of possible subsequent
None of them are abovecriticism, and some actions. (Job satisfaction, of course, may also
have dropped by the wayside in recent years, affect performance; the precise causal relation
yet most provide some useful insights into em ship between them is not fully known [see Judge,
ployee motivation. Thus, it is clear that the field Thoreson, Bono, & Patton, 2001].) Job character
of work motivation has not only progressed but istics are shown as affecting satisfaction. The
has progressed in multiple directions over the place where a specific theory applies is shown
last several decades. Nevertheless, our knowl by the dotted boxes. This is not a speculative
edge of the subject of work motivation is far from model. Every connection but one?namely, the
complete. The issue, then, is where should we go link from needs to values?is based on empiri
from here? cal research.
Our goal in this article is not to offer yet an A useful next step would entail identifying the
other theory of work motivation. Rather, our fo size or strength of the various relationships
cus is on metatheory?the process or processes shown in Figure 1. This could be done by com
through which we can build more valid, more bining the results of all known meta-analyses
complete, and more practical theories. This pa relevant to each path in the model and would
per provides rationales for six categories of rec include calculating known mediation effects, as
ommendations for advancing knowledge and well as known moderator effects. Itwould also
understanding of employee motivation in the entail adding pathways based on theories for
twenty-first century. We provide examples of which there is some empirical evidence but
specific types of studies that might be carried which are not, as yet, included in the model (e.g.,
out relevant to each recommendation. Kanfer & Ackerman's [1989] resource allocation
theory and Weiner's [1986] attribution theory).
The result could be the firstmotivation mega
SIX RECOMMENDATIONS theory in the behavioral sciences derived from
combining different meta-analyses.
Recommendation 1: Use the results of Using meta-analyses to build theory, which is
existing meta-analyses to integrate called "mega-analysis," was originally sug
valid aspects of extant theories. gested by Schmidt (1992). He and his colleagues

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390 Academy of Management Review July

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 392 Academy of Management Review July

used it on a small scale in the field of human Weingart & Jehn, 2000, for some preliminary
resources management by tying together empir findings). Social loafing is another potent group
ical studies of the relationships among job ex motivation phenomenon that is not part of ex
perience, ability, knowledge, and performance tant work motivation theories (Karau & Wil
on work samples, as well as in the workplace liams, 2001). A separate megamodel might have
(Schmidt, Hunter, & Outerbridge, 1986). However, to be constructed to explain team motivation.
a mega-analysis of extant work motivation the Motivation also should be studied within the
ories would be on a much wider scale and realm of decision making. For example, Schnei
would integrate an enormous amount of data der and Lopes (1986) have argued that level of
into a comprehensible framework that would be aspiration (i.e., goals) needs to be incorporated
useful to both theorists and practitioners. The into prospect theory. Along this line, Knight,
model could be expanded, of course, as new Durham, and Locke (2001) have found that goals
discoveries were made. affect the degree of risk people take when mak

2: Create a bound ing decisions. Personality theory has implica

Recommendation
tions for prospect theory as well. For example,
aryless science of work motivation.
those high in extroversion may assess risk quite
Jack Welch coined the term boundaryless or differently from those high in neuroticism.
ganization when he was CEO of General Elec Within the field of personality, an issue that
tric (GE), as a result of his frustration over needs to be addressed is the extent to which
knowledge that was being ignored rather than certain traits are stable aspects of the person
shared and embraced among the myriad divi versus readily manipulable motivational states.
sions of GE. Similar dysfunctional behavior had For example, Dweck and her colleagues (e.g.,
been referred towithin theWeyerhaeuser Com Dweck & Elliott, 1983) have argued that goal
pany as the "not invented here" mindset?a orientation is a relatively stable disposition. Yet
mindset that prevented managers within one there is a paucity of studies that have assessed
region of the company from building on the its test-retest reliability (e.g., VandeWalle, Cron,
knowledge gained by managers in other re & Slocum, 2001). Moreover, the empirical re
gions. search suggests that goal orientation is readily
This implies two things. First, work motivation malleable. Dweck herself has even acknowl
theory needs to be extended into and further edged this in the field of educational psychol
developed within areas other than isolated task ogy (e.g., Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Mueller & Dweck,
performance settings. Second, motivation theo 1998). In the OB field, Seijts, Latham, Tasa, and
rists should consider using concepts developed Latham (in press) found that when people were
in fields outside OB and I/O psychology. given do-your-best instructions, Dweek's (1986)
For example, motivation could be studied fur predictions regarding the goal orientation trait
ther in the realm of team effectiveness. There were supported. But when a specific difficult
are processes affecting teams that do not arise learning goal was set, it masked the effect of
when the focus is on the individual's motivation, this trait. A learning goal, as is the case with an
such as the specific ways in which team mem outcome goal (Adler & Weiss, 1988), was shown
bers motivate and demotivate one another. For to be a strong variable that mitigates the effects
instance, team members might encourage one of this individual-difference variable (trait). Re
another through building efficacy by means of search is needed to see under what conditions
persuasion or the offering of useful ideas. They situationally induced motives negate trait
might undermine one another through belittle effects.
ment and insults. Extending motivation re Motivation theory can be better incorporated
search into the realm of teams would lead to the into macrotheories, particularly organization
exploration of such issues as conflicts among theory. For example, there is little doubt that
personalities, values, and/or goals that are not degree of centralization and decentralization
yet a part of extant work motivation theories. has motivational consequences, as appears to

Although has been studied, less

team cohesion be the case span of control (Donaldson,
with
attention has been paid to the sources, content, 2000). Firms that have subsidiaries in different
and effects of team conflict and how these spe countries inevitably run into the issue of value
cifically influence team motivation (but see differences (Erez, 2000). Hence, more knowledge

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 2004 Locke and Latham 393

is needed abouthow value differences actually Dysfunctional thoughts lead people to evalu
operate. For example, are goal setting, partici ate information inappropriately, thus leading to
pation in decision making, performance ap negative emotional states. Beck and his col
praisal, and so forth differentially effective as a leagues developed methods of consciously cor
consequence of value differences, or are they recting dysfunctional thought processes. Clients
simply used in a different form?or both? report their automatic thoughts through intro
Motivational issues are also important for spection (an issue to be dealt with at length
strategic management. For example, strategic below), and then the psychologists discuss with
management frequently involves change, and the clients the rationality of such beliefs. For
the phenomenon of resistance to change is well example, a depressed client might claim, "Pat
known (Beer, 2000). When firms decide that they has therefore, I am worthless."
leftme; The psy
will employ a certain strategy (e.g., low cost), chologist might then ask, "Is that really true?
they may differ radically in how well they im What do you base that on?" Gradually, clients
plement it (e.g.,Wal-Mart versus K-Mart). In part, come to see that their implicit conclusions or
this is an issue of knowledge and skill, but it is "automatic thoughts" are not rational and that a
also related tomotivation. Resistance to change different perspective is more in line with
reality.
is discussed routinely within the field of organ By challenging dysfunctional thoughts as they
izational development, but the motivational is arise and correcting them consciously, the cli
sues involved are not directly included in tradi ents' automatic or subconscious processing
tional motivation theories. At best, they are changes thus, their negative
and, emotions are
addressed by implication; for example, resis mitigated (Haaga, Dyck, & Ernst, 1991).
tance to change may imply refusal to commit to Such clinical methods have practical utility in
certain goals and may be motivated by low self the realm of work motivation. Millman and
efficacy, low instrumentality, and/or negative Latham (2001) found that they were able to train
valences. This issue needs to be studied explic unemployed individuals to engage in functional
itly. Of course, there are other aspects of strate thinking?that is, positive self-talk?and
that
gic management that entail motivation?for ex such training significantly improved their
ample, decision choice and competitiveness? chances of finding a new, well-paying job.
requiring further study as well. Cognitive methods could be used to teach em
Finally, motivation theory in the realm of work ployees the principle of reframing dysfunctional
needs to draw on findings from other fields. Both thoughts in work settings. For example, when
the science and practice of OB have already individuals encounter difficulties during train
benefited from theory in social (e.g., Bandura, ing, they can reframe a self-demeaning state
1986) and educational psychology (e.g., Dweck, ment like "I can't stand always being so stupid"
1986). In the study of motivation, findings by as "It is normal tomake mistakes when I am first
non-I/O scholars in clinical psychology must not learning to perform a task." Reframing self
be overlooked (Latham & Heslin, 2003). Two ex deprecating statements in constructive ways
amples include research by Beck and by Selig can have a positive effect on motivation and can
man (and their respective colleagues). sustain a person's self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
Beck and his colleagues (Beck, 1967; Beck, Similarly, employees might be taught to deal
Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979) focused on the rela with stress through thought retraining. Stress is
tionship between depression and "automatic a response to the appraisal that one is being
thoughts," by which they mean thoughts held in psychologically or physically threatened. But
the subconscious that affect emotional re threat appraisals are not always rational, and
sponses. These researchers examined what they even when they are, employees can be trained
call "dysfunctional thinking" with respect to to engage in problem-focused thinking so as to
both content and process. Examples include develop methods that enable them to mitigate
overgeneralization (e.g., "If I do something bad, the threats they confront (Lazarus & Folkman,
itmeans that I am a totally bad person"), (irra 1984). For example, employees faced with the
tional) perfectionism (e.g., "If I am any good at possibility of layoffs could be trained to identify
all, I should be able to excel at everything I try"), the exact nature of the perceived threats (e.g.,
and dependence on others (e.g., "I do things to financial and/or psychological) and to generate
please other people rather than please myself"). plans to cope with them.

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 394 Academy of Management Review July

Irrational beliefs may adversely interact with Optimists attribute their failures to causes
feedback provided by others. Rational beliefs that are temporary rather than stable, specific to
can mediate the effect on performance feedback the attainment of a particular goal rather than
from authority figures (e.g., a supervisor). Train all their goals, and see the problem as a result of
ing in ways to replace irrational with rational the environment or setting they are in, rather
beliefs would also appear to be applicable to than inherent in themselves. Setbacks and ob
whose desire for inappropriate per stacles are seen as challenges (Seligman &
employees
fectionism is preventing them from completing Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Thus, optimists are usu

job assignments in a timely fashion. ally resilient in the face of failure.

Managers and business leaders can engage Seligman (1998b) found that optimism can be
in dysfunctional thinking, not only when the learned, using a method similar to that em
business is doing badly but also when it is do ployed by Beck. Step 1 requires the clinician to
clients beliefs
ing well (e.g., "We are growing at 40 percent per help identify self-defeating they
year and will always grow at that rate; thus, may be unaware of. Step 2 involves gathering
there is no need to change our strategy"). Over information to evaluate and dispute the accu
confidence leads to engage in poor racy and implications of these self-defeating be
managers
decision & liefs that are triggered by environmental events.
making (Audia, Locke, Smith, 2000).
in metaprinciples of how to think ra Step 3 involves replacing maladaptive beliefs
Training
with constructive, accurate ones based on the
tionally should be beneficial to people at all
data collected in the second step.
organizational levels.
The ASQ may prove useful for identifying peo
Based on over twenty-five years of program
ple in organizations who suffer from learned
matic research in the laboratory and in the
helplessness. Seligman and Schulman (1986)
clinic, Seligman (1968, 1998a,b) established a
have provided evidence suggesting the value of
causal relationship between a person's pessi
ASQ for OB. They found that salespeople with
mistic explanatory style and subsequent de
an optimistic explanatory style sold 35 percent
pression, on the one hand, versus an optimistic
more insurance than did those whose explana
explanatory style and a person's creativity, pro
sense on the tory style was pessimistic. Moreover, people
ductivity, and overall of well-being, with a pessimistic style were twice as likely to
other. Drawing on attribution theory, Seligman
quit their job in the first year than those with an
and his colleagues (Peterson et al., 1982) devel
optimistic style. Similarly, Schulman (1999)
oped the Attribution Style Questionnaire (ASQ), found that those who scored high on optimism
which assesses a person's explanatory style outsold those who scored as pessimists by 20 to
with regard to the locus, stability, and globality
40 percent across a range of organizations (e.g.,
of attributions. Locus refers to the extent to
auto sales, telecommunications, real estate, and
which a noncontingency between one's actions
banking). Strutton and Lumpkin (1992) found that
and the consequences experienced is attributed the mediator of the two attribution styles on
primarily to either oneself or to factors in the is
employee performance strategy. Salespeople
environment. Stability is the extent to which the who scored high on optimism used problem
lack of a response outcome is temporary or is whereas those who scored
solving techniques,
likely to persist into the future. Globality is the
high on pessimism focused on ways of seeking
extent to which noncontingent outcomes are social support.
as either domain specific or likely to
perceived Seligman's training technique may provide a
undermine many areas of one's life. framework formentors, coaches, and trainers to
Learned helplessness results from setbacks and influence a person or
predict, understand,
that are considered long lasting (stable), under team who has given up trying to attain goals
mining the attainment of most if not all of one's because of repeated failures. No one as yet has
goals (global), and caused by personal deficien shown whether the ASQ has general applica
cies (internal) rather than situational con tions to the workforce. We also need to deter
straints. The resulting low outcome expectancy mine whether learned optimism is basically
causes deficits in future learning, as well as equivalent to trait-level self-efficacy and
motivational disturbances such as procrastina whether optimism effects are mediated by situ
tion and depression (Seligman, 1998a). ationally specific self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).

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 2004 Locke and Latham 395

f?ecommendafion 3: Identify how gen situations, people may feel less free to act as
eral variables such as personality get they want or "really are" as compared to when

applied to and are mediated by task they are in "weak" situations. However, this
and situationally specific variables, likely occurs because people appraise situa
how they are moderated by situations, tions partly in terms of what they can and
and how they affect situational choice should do in them. Furthermore, what has yet to
and structuring. be studied is the other side of the strong versus
weak situation coin?namely, the possibility of
A problem that must be overcome in combin "strong" versus "weak" personalities. Strong
ing motivation theories is how to integrate the personalities should be less constrained by sit
with the specific. For example, a Big uations than weak ones. For example, hyper
general
Five personality trait such as conscientiousness competitive people look forways
might to com
is, by definition, general. It reflects action pat pete everywhere?not only in sports or business
terns that cross tasks and situations. Typically, but also in social and personal relationships.
trait measures correlate about 0.20 with action Thus, they would construe every situation as an
in specific settings. This mean correlation is bet opportunity to demonstrate their superiority.
ter than chance, but it does not answer such Finally, we must not overlook the fact that
questions as: How do traits actually operate? people are not merely the passive victims of
How can we make better predictions? situations. For example, employees choose the
A partial answer to these questions becomes jobs they apply for and quit those
they dislike.
evident when we recognize that there is no such They may restructure jobs to make a better fit

thing as action in general; every action is task with their own talents and proclivities. They
and situationally specific. Specific measures, if may also work with others to change situations
chosen properly, virtually always predict action they dislike. They can choose what new skills to
better than general measures. However, general develop and what careers to pursue. Going fur
measures predict more widely than do specific ther afield, they can also choose (in most free
ones (Judge et al, 2002). countries) whom they marry, where they live,
A general value or motive must presumably how many children they have, how they spend
be "applied," consciously or subconsciously, to their money, whom they want as their friends,
each specific task and situation. It follows that and what off-the-job activities they engage in.
situationally and task-specific knowledge, as As Bandura (1986,1997) has noted, people are not
sessments, and intentions should be affected by simply dropped into situations; they themselves
such motives and that these assessments, in create, choose, and change situations. We need
turn, should affect actions taken in the situation. to study how traits affect these processes.
A person's goals, as well as self-efficacy, have Recommendation 4: Study subcon
been found to partly or wholly mediate the ef
scious as well as conscious motivation
fects of some personality traits, as well as the
and the relationship between them.
effects of various incentives (Locke, 2001). These
traits include conscientiousness, competitive The concept of the subconscious is not a "hy
ness, Type A personality, general (trait) efficacy, pothetical construct" but a fully objective one. It
need formastery, and self-esteem. VandeWalle refers to information that is "in consciousness"
et al. (2001) found that goals and efficacy medi but not, at a given time, in focal awareness.
ate the effects of the trait of goal orientation on Psychologists have shown that people can only
performance. The mediation hypothesis is im hold about seven separate (disconnected) ele
plicit in Figure 1, in that values and personality ments in focal awareness at the same time
are shown to work through goals and efficacy. (Miller, 1956). The rest of one's knowledge, to use
Nevertheless, it is possible that some trait ef the usual computer analogy, is "stored in mem
fects are direct and, thus, not mediated at all. If ory." We validate the concept of the subcon
so, it will be necessary to discover when and scious by observing that we can draw knowl
why this occurs. edge out of memory without any additional
The identification of personality trait media learning. Typically needed information is pulled
tors does not preclude the study of person out automatically, based on our conscious pur
situation interactions. In "strong" or constrained pose (e.g., when we read a book, the meanings

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 396 Academy of Management Review July

of the words and our knowledge of spelling and land & Winter, 1969) believed that subconscious
are We can motives are differentially aroused
grammar automatically engaged). by different
also observe that certain events and experi situations and operate differently than con
ences (e.g., early childhood memories) are scious motivation.
harder to recall than others. Failure to specify the effect of the subcon
It is undeniable that people can act without scious on action is a limitation of goal-setting
being aware of the motives and values underly theory (Locke & Latham, 2002)?not to mention
ing their behavior. This assertion does not re other motivation theories. Yet, over a century
quire the positing of an unconscious
that is ago, the Wurzburg school in Germany showed
made up of primitive instincts devoid of any that goals that are assigned to people can affect
access to, or contact with, the conscious mind, as their subsequent behavior, without their being
Freud asserted. Nor does acknowledging the aware of it. In this century, Wegge and Dibblett
subconscious require a leap to the unwarranted (2000) have shown that high goals automatically
conclusion that all actions are governed by un increase the speed with which information is
conscious forces (Wegner & Wheatley, 1999). cognitively processed. Locke (2000b) has argued
Such a claim would clearly be arbitrary. This that goals may arouse task-relevant knowledge
assertion only requires acknowledgment that automatically, but almost nothing is known
the subconscious is a storehouse of knowledge about how and when this occurs.
and values beyond what is in focal awareness Studying the subconscious is difficult pre
at any given point in time (Murphy, 2001) and cisely because people, including laboratory par
that accessibility to this stored information dif ticipants and employees, cannot always directly
fers within and between people. provide the needed information stored there.
McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell Thus, indirect measures are required. Projective
(1953) claimed that the achievement motive, measures may be useful (see Lilienfeld, Wood, &
which they asserted to be related to entrepre Garb, 2000), but they are riddled with such diffi
neurship,
was a subconscious motive. Thus, culties as low internal reliability and the effect
they argued, it had to be measured with a pro of choice of pictures (in the case of the TAT). In
jective test?namely, the TAT?which involves the realm of achievement motivation, a 2 (high/
people telling stories in response to pictures. low projective measure) X 2 (high/low conscious
This claim may be true, but to the present au self-report) factorial design might reveal
thors' knowledge, no self-report measure of whether responses to these two measurement
achievement motivation has been designed techniques?subconscious and conscious?
with items that match exactly the type of TAT assuming they are actually referring to the
story content that is indicative of high need for same concept, interact or work additively. The
achievement. Thus, TAT-measured achievement same type of study could be conducted in rela
motivation may or may not be assessing a con tion to other traits. The Big Five, for example,
cept different from self-reported achievement might be measured projectively as well as
motivation measures.
through self-reports.
Self-report measures of achievement motiva Projective tests do not have to be confined to
tion are typically uncorrelated with projective the TAT. Other projective measures may be
measures, even though both types of measures equally if not more useful. An example is the
are significantly associated with entrepreneur incomplete sentence blank (ISB), used exten
ial action (Collins, Hanges, & Locke, in press). sively by Miner (e.g., Miner, Smith, & Bracker,
Need for achievement, measured projectively, 1994). Different projective methods should be
also appears to be unrelated to conscious per compared for agreement, when the same al
formance goals (e.g., Tracy, Locke, & Renard, leged concepts or motives are measured, as well
1999). Similarly, A. Howard (personal communi as for predictive validity.
cation) found that, in a reanalysis of her twenty Another way to examine subconscious effects
five-year AT&T study with Bray, conscious goals is through "priming." Priming involves giving
for promotion had no relationship with a set of people information that is apparently unrelated
projective measures that had been designed by to the task at hand but that can affect an indi
McClelland to predict managerial progress (see vidual's subsequent responses, without being
Locke & Latham, 2002). McClelland (e.g., McClel aware of the effect. In two experiments Earley

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 2004 Locke and Latham 397

and Perry (1987) used priming to influence the practically, but it is psychologically trivial if the
task strategies that subjects used to attain basis for the behavior is not explained. If traits
goals. Priming could be used in many other are more than just behavioral regularity, they
types of motivation studies. Bargh, Gollwitzer, must be caused by underlying motives. We can
Lee-Chai, Barndollar, and Troetschel (2001) only learn about the nature of these motives by
found that primed goals for performance and having people with varying levels of trait scores
cooperation had significant effects on these two engage in introspection. With regard to the
outcomes. Research should be conducted com above discussion of projective versus self-report
paring the effect sizes of, and possible interac measures of traits, such as need for achieve
tions between, consciously assigned versus sub ment, people who are highly effective versus
consciously primed goals. ineffective at introspection could be studied to
see if the two types of measures predict differ
Recommendation 5: Use introspection
ently within each type of person. In addition,
explicitly as a method of studying and can be trained in introspection
motivation. people
understanding & Locke, 1985). Research
(Schweiger, Anderson,
Few methodologies in the history of the be is needed to determine whether training would
havioral sciences have been more controversial produce greater convergence between con
than introspection. Introspection was used ex scious and subconscious measures
of the same
tensively by Titchner, an influential psycholo concept. Motive "constructs" (i.e., concepts) in
gist in the early twentieth century, but it was OB are often defined statistically, as a conglom
subsequently rejected by his followers because eration ofmeasures or of items. They are seldom
they found his view of psychology to be unduly defined experientially. This is especially true of
narrow. Freud and his followers also rejected so-called high-order constructs, which may have
introspection because they believed that moti little or no psychological reality. For example,
vational dynamics were in the unconscious, nof the Big Five personality dimensions are statis
the subconscious?or, as they called it, the "pre tical conglomerations of a number of related
conscious"?and, thus, inaccessible to direct subdimensions. But little is known about how
awareness or observation. Drive reductionists, people with high scores on traits such as extra
such as Hull and Spence, agreed with this inac version actually experience themselves and the
cessibility argument because they believed that world. Such an understanding should enable
motivation was strictly physiological. The be researchers to develop better measures.
haviorists, especially Watson and Skinner, re (2) Increasing accuracy. The conditions under
jected introspection because they believed the which self-reports of psychological states are
subject matter?consciousness?was irrelevant more versus less accurate need to be identified.
to understanding human behavior. Neverthe Ericcson and Simon (1980) have described the
less, it is self-evident that motivational states conditions under which introspective reports are
exist in consciousness; thus, introspection must most reliable. The evidence suggests that the
be used to study it. Psychological concepts (e.g., more immediate and specific the information
desire, self-efficacy, purpose, satisfaction, be requested, the more accurately the respondent
lief) could not even be formulated or grasped is able to introspect and, thus, to report the in
without introspection. Furthermore, question formation accurately. It is usually difficult for
naire studies in OB have always relied on intro respondents to formulate broad abstractions
spection by the respondents, even though all about themselves, especially personality traits
people are not equally good at it. The use of or broad values. It is even harder for them to
introspection, as an accepted methodology in formulate accurate and comprehensive state
OB, will provide at least six important benefits ments about the causes of their own and others'
for advancing our understanding of employee actions. A major reason Herzberg used his men
motivation. These are as follows. tor Flanagan's (1954) critical incident technique
(1) Understanding traits and motives. In the to collect data was to avoid the problems asso
field of personality, it is often unclear whether ciated with asking people to introspect in order
researchers are describing behavior or an un to answer such abstract questions. Rather, he
derlying motive that causes the behavior. Pre used very specific questions, such as the follow
dicting behavior from behavior may be helpful ing: "Tell me a time when you were very satis

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 398 Academy of Management Review July

fied with your job." "What were the events and dence that organizational leaders actually man
conditions that led up to it?"What is still needed age using principles (Locke, 2002). But we know
is the discovery of how to get from such specific very little about how managers formulate,
questions to accurate, broad abstractions such adapt, apply, and orchestrate in a
principles
as overall job satisfaction ratings. given context. To study this, we
organizational
Developing structured interviews
might yield need to gain knowledge about how managers
more accurate data than using questionnaires. think. In organizational
actually settings, many
The investigator could check with the respon decisions must be dealt with quickly, and most
dents as to how they are interpreting the ques have to be adapted to a
principles by managers
tions and could
help to introspect and,
them specific context, since each organization is, in
therefore, increase the accuracy of the answers. some way, unique. Management strategy, sys
Studies are also needed to compare the validity tems, and procedures have to be orchestrated so
of measurements conducted by well-designed that they work in harmony. Introspection with
interviews versus those obtained by question highly effective and ineffective
leaders might
naires. reveal (1) what principles they use, (2) how they
(3) Understanding the effects of attitudes. How discovered them, (3) how they orchestrate them,
do people act when they like or dislike their (4) and how they implement what they advo
jobs? Through introspection, we can see at once cate?that is, "practice what they preach."
that there are many different things that we do (5) Understanding self-motivation. We know a
and can do when we
experience these feelings. good deal about what organizations and their
Through introspection, we know that high or low leaders do tomotivate people, but we know less
productivity is far from a fixed response to such about what people do tomotivate themselves at
attitudes. This leads to asking ourselves addi work. Discovery of what people do to regulate
tional questions: How do we decide what to do? their own actions may be discovered through
How do we choose from among alternatives? having them introspect. Since motivation means
Through introspection, many factors that influ the motivation to do something, introspection
ence choices, including internal values and or can be used to ascertain how people energize
ganizational circumstances, can be identified. themselves to undertake and persist working at
Once we have these answers as starting points, specific tasks, especially tasks in which (1) they
other people can be questioned to see if they experience various types of conflict both within
give similar answers to the same questions. themselves and between themselves and others,
Such a process might have enabled us to avoid (2) they experience initial failure or goal frustra
decades of torturous efforts to resolve the satis tion, and (3) there are both short- and long-term
faction-performance issue solely by means of goals that require consideration. Introspection
statistical techniques. Rather than continue to can also shed light on what people do to get
look for correlations between satisfaction and themselves committed to tasks. Functional self
productivity, we might use introspection to point talk (Meichenbaum, 1977; Millman & Latham,
to a variety of decision-making processes in 2001), self-induced optimism, and efficacy build
volved in getting from satisfaction to perfor ing may be critical factors. New discoveries
mance, and vice versa, that then could be studied about how people motivate themselves may be
systematically. This would enable researchers to used by organizations, including trainers, tomo
look at the psychological processes that mediate tivate employees, in the same way that studies
such effects, as well as the various causal paths in clinical psychology have been used to help
and the directions of causal influence. Relevant people motivate themselves at work (e.g., see
measurements of the key variables could then be Frayne & Latham, 1987, and Latham & Frayne,
developed. 1989).
(4) Learning how managers formulate and ap (6) Understanding the relationship between
ply principles. The first author has argued that motivation and knowledge. In most studies of
management should be taught in terms of prin motivation, researchers attempt to hold cogni
ciples (general truths) rather than specific theo tion (knowledge) constant so as not to confound
ries (Locke, 2002) and has asked various experts their separate effects on performance. But, in
in the field to identify core principles in OB and reality, they always go together. Thus, we need
HR (Latham, 2000; Locke, 2000a). There is evi to learn about how each affects the other.

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 2004 Locke and Latham 399

Through the use of introspection by leaders and actions are controlled by antecedent
solely fac
one aspect of the knowledge issue in tors?is self-contradictory in that it makes a
employees,
organizations can be broken down into what claim of knowledge based on a theory that
motivates (1) knowledge discovery, (2) knowl makes knowledge, as distinguished from arbi
edge sharing, and (3) knowledge utilization trary word sounds, impossible. Free will is an
when making decisions or taking action. Itmay axiom; it consists of the choice to think or not to
be that somewhat different motivational princi think, to raise one's level of focus to the concep
ples govern each. To give an oversimplified ex tual level or let it drift passively at the level of
ample, knowledge discovery may be motivated sensory perception (Binswanger, 1991).
mainly by love of discovery and personal pas Thus, it is important not to view the causes of
sion for one's work (Amabile, 2000), knowledge action as fully determined by circumstances or

sharing may be affected by team- or organiza by predetermined ways of processing. In his ex

tional-level incentives and leadership (as was pectancy theory, Vroom (1964), for example, ar
done by JackWelch at GE), and knowledge uti gued that people will multiply expectancy by
that valence =
lization may be affected by assigning goals instrumentality by (Force ExIxV)
can best (or only) be attained by using the when choosing among alternatives. This theory
knowledge that is provided (Earley & Perry, implies determinism, since it is argued that peo
1987). ple are constructed to be satisfaction maximiz
On the other of this coin, we need
side to es, yet, in fact, people are usually not maximiz
discover how knowledge affects motivation. We es of anything (Simon, 1976), nor do they have to
know that knowledge of one's personal capabil multiply ExIxV when deciding what to do. E, I,
ities (self-efficacy) has potent effects on task mo and V are only factors that they may choose to
tivation (Bandura, 1997). But what about other consider, and they may choose to weight the
types of knowledge? There is a long history of three components in different ways, or even to
the study of the effects of participation in deci ignore one or more of them. Furthermore, people
sion making?that is, consulting subordinates may treat negative and positive outcomes dif
about their ideas?on employee motivation, but ferently and, thus, may consider a variety of
the effects have been shown not to be as pow different time spans and outcomes when consid
erful as was originally believed (Locke, Alavi, & ering their choices. Many people make choices
Wagner, 1997). However, there are many other every day with little or no thought?based on
ways in which knowledge could have motiva the emotions of the moment, for example.
tional effects. Answers to questions such as the Similarly, Beach's (1990) image theory states
following are needed: leaders more strongly
Are that people make decisions using a specific pro
self-motivated after they have formulated a cess
(e.g., value images, trajectory images, stra

clear vision of what their organization should be tegic images, etc.). However, people do not have
and what strategies will make it successful? Are to use this process; there are many processes
followers more motivated when they hear such a they can use, including mindlessly following
vision explained and consider it sound? How what others say or, as noted above, following
does the discovery by employees that a leader is their emotions.
lacking in moral character, or the discovery that Descriptive studies based on introspection
the leader is lacking in key task knowledge, would doubtless uncover an enormous variety
affect their motivation? How does the discovery in how people make decisions about numerous
that one's company is doing badly financially issues. Normative theories should be built by
affect motivation? first discovering what people actually do and
then seeing what types of processes lead to the
Recommendation 6: Acknowledge the
role of volition on human action when optimum outcomes. The optimal processes may
very well be task or domain specific.
formulating theories.
Theories of employee motivation should be
Everyone can validate by introspection that contingent?namely, if the person chooses to fol
they have the power tomake choices not prede low processes a and b, then the outcomes will
termined by antecedent conditions (Binswanger, routinely be better than if the person chooses
1991). The concept of psychological determin processes c or d. Similarly, if people reach con
ism?the doctrine that all one's thoughts and clusion "a" from "b," then they are most likely to

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 400 Academy of Management Review July

do "c," but if they reach conclusion "d," they are For

example, we also need to study topics
most likely to do "e." Consistent with this idea, such as time perspective?how employees,
goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002) managers, and leaders consider and integrate
states that if people try for specific, hard goals, short- versus
long-term considerations or out

then they will, given certain moderating condi comes?a topic not addressed in the AMR (Oc
tions such as feedback, knowledge, and commit tober 2001) special issue on time. The issue of
ment, perform better than when they have vague time perspective is important at both the indi
and/or easy goals. Similarly contingent predic vidual and organizational levels. Individuals
tions can be found in social-cognitive theory and organizations have to survive in the short
(Bandura, 1986). term; otherwise, there is no long term. But focus
This is not to deny that people can be influ ing only on "today," without regard for long-term
enced by external factors, but the connections consequences?whether these consequences
are not mechanical. Thus, predictions should be are the result of failing to upgrade one's job
made conditionally. In other words, the effects of skills or failing to fund R&D?can be disastrous.
the environment depend on what people attend We need to know much more about how people
to and what conclusions they draw from the balance short- and long-term considerations
experiences they have and the situations they when making decisions.
encounter (Bandura, 1986). Recall that, in the A second issue, related to time perspective, is
field of organization theory, itwas initially hy that of how people and organizational leaders
pothesized that technology determines organi prioritize their goals and values and the conse
zational structure. Programmatic research test quences of different types of priorities. Every
ing this hypothesis was not very successful, decision one makes is a choice between alter
however, because human choice and imagina natives; the decision to do x today may mean the
tion were not taken into account (Miner, 2002). need to postpone y until another time. We know
The same caveat applies to internal factors. very little about how employees and organiza
For example, the best known psychological pre tional leaders actually do this, and even less
dictor of quitting a job is the intention to quit, about what makes some people better at it, in
but often this intention is not carried out?the terms of positive decision outcomes, than others.
reasons forwhich have not been studied. People A third issue that needs to be addressed in the
who have an intent must still choose to act on it, field of work motivation is that of definitions.
and formany reasons they may not do so. Sim Locke (2003) has noted elsewhere that research
ilarly, people who claim to be committed to their ers tend to be careless about how?and wheth
goals may not act to achieve them. Additional er?they define their terms. Even the term mofi
studies are needed to understand the choices vation is not always used clearly. For example,
people make after formulating intentions or in the OB literature and I/O psychology litera
committing themselves to a goal. Volition does ture, the term may refer to either job satisfaction
not destroy the possibility of a psychological or the motivation to perform, even though satis
science, but it does mean that predictions must faction versus choice, effort, and persistence are

be conditional (Binswanger, 1991). The relevant not the same phenomena, do not necessarily
conditions pertain to the individual's psychol have the same causes or effects, and may not

ogy, both conscious and subconscious. affect one another. At other times, key concepts
are not defined at all. Whole books or chapters
have been written on the subjects of emotions or

CONCLUSION justice or stress, without these terms being de

fined. When definitions are provided, they may
The purpose of this article has been to argue be riddled with excess verbiage or nonessen
that, in order to progress further, work motiva tials. Sometimes definitions are not justifiable,
tion needs to be studied from new perspectives. as when inanimate objects such as work equip
Many topics have yet to be sufficiently studied, ment are claimed to possess efficacy, which is a
and certain methods have been underutilized. psychological experience. The failure to define
The six recommendations in this paper by no terms in a clear and valid way stifles cognitive
means exhaust the possibilities for new direc clarity and, therefore, progress in the field of
tions for research on motivation. work motivation. A good project for someone

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 2004 Locke and Latham401

a glossary H. 1991. Volition as

would be to develop of valid defini Binswanger, cognitive self-regulation.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Pro
tions of motivational concepts. cesses, 50: 154-178.
The use of clinical approaches and introspec
Collins, C, P., & Locke, E. In press. The
tion could be very useful in identifying the fac Hanges, relationship
of need for achievement to entrepreneurial behavior: A
tors that make for effective balancing of short
meta-analysis. Human Performance.
and long-term considerations and effective
Donaldson, L. 2000. Design structure to fit strategy. In
prioritizing and in enabling investigators to for
E. Locke (Ed.), Handbook of principles of organizational
mulate valid definitions.
Of course, many addi behavior: 291-303. Maiden, MA: Blackwell.
tional topics in work motivation can be studied.
Dweck, C. 1986. Motivational processes affecting learning.
There is no limit to the number of new ideas that American 41 (Special 1040-1048.
Psychologist Issue):
can be explored. New discoveries are simply a
Dweck, C, & Elliott, E. 1983. Achievement motivation. In
matter of the researcher's creative imagination P. Mussenand & E. Hetherington (Eds.), Handbook of
and passionate love of the work (Amabile, 2000). child psychology: 643-691. New York: Wiley.

Earley, C, & Perry, B. 1987. Work plan availability and per

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Edwin A. Locke is Dean's Professor

of Leadership and Motivation (Emeritus) at the R. H.
Smith School of Business at
the University of Maryland, College Park, and a fellow of
APA, APS, and the Academy of Management. He is internationally known for his
research and writings on work motivation, leadership, and related topics, including
the application of objectivism to psychology and management. He is a senior writer
for the Ayn Rand Institute.

Gary P. Latham is the Secretary of State Professor of Organizational Effectiveness at

the Joseph L. Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto; a past president
of the Canadian Psychological Association; and a fellow of the Academy of Manage
ment, APA, APS, CPA, and the Royal Society of Canada. His research interests include
employee motivation, performance management, self-management, training, and
selection.

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