UNIT III

Chapter 1
Environmental Policies and Practices
Climate Change
We feel hot during summer and cold during winter. These are the different climatic conditions
that we experience. The climate of a place is the average weather that it experiences over a
period of time. The factors that determine the climate at a location are the rainfall, sunshine,
wind, humidity, and temperature.
While changes in the weather may occur suddenly and noticeably, changes in the climate take
a long time and are therefore less obvious. There have been changes in the earth's climate and
all life forms adapted naturally to this change.
However, the last 150 - 200 years climate change has been taking place too rapidly and certain
plant and animal species have found it hard to adapt. Human activities are said to be responsible
for the speed at which this change has occurred.
Climate change describes a change in the average conditions — such as temperature and
rainfall — in a region over a long period of time. NASA scientists have observed Earth’s
surface is warming, and many of the warmest years on record have happened in the past 20
years.

Causes of climate change

The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories - Natural and man made
Natural causes
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the important
factors are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents and the earth's tilt.
• Volcanoes
When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour,
dust, and ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic activity may last only a few days, yet
the large volumes of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for years. The gases and dust
particles partially block the incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling.
• The earth's tilt
The earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. Changes in
the tilt of the earth affect the severity of the seasons. More tilt means warmer summers and
colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters.
• Ocean currents
The oceans are a major component of the climate system. They cover about 71% of the Earth.
The oceans absorb the sun's radiation about twice as much as the atmosphere.
Human causes
Greenhouse effect
The earth receives energy from the sun, which warms the earth’s surface. As this energy passes
through the atmosphere, a certain percentage (about 30) gets scattered. Some part of this energy
is reflected back into the atmosphere from the land and ocean surface. Certain gases in the
atmosphere form a sort of blanket around the earth and absorb some of this energy. These gases
like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, along with water vapour, comprise less than
one per cent of the atmosphere. They are called 'greenhouse gases'. Just as the glass of the
greenhouse prevents the radiation of excess energy, this ‘gas blanket’ absorbs some of the
energy emitted by the earth and maintains keeps temperature levels. Hence it is named
‘greenhouse effect’.
The greenhouse effect was first recognized by a French scientist, Jean-Baptiste Fourier. He
pointed out the similarity in what happens in the atmosphere and in a greenhouse. The blanket
of greenhouse gases has been in place ever since the creation of the earth. However, as a result
of increased human activities, more and more of these greenhouse gases are released into the
atmosphere. This leads to the blanket becoming thicker and upsets the ‘natural greenhouse
effect’.
Carbon dioxide is released when we burn such fuels as coal, oil, and natural gas. And, when
we destroy forests, the carbon stored in the trees escapes as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Increasing agricultural activities, changes in land-use patterns, and other sources lead to rising
levels of methane and nitrous oxide. Industrial processes also release artificial and new
greenhouse gases like CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), while automobile exhaust fumes lead to
ozone generation. The resulting enhanced greenhouse effect is more commonly referred to as
global warming or climate change.
How do we contribute to the greenhouse gases?
• Use of fossil fuels like coal, petrol, etc
• Cutting down trees to meet our demand for more land
• Generation of non-degradable waste material - plastics
• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, pesticides in agriculture

How will climate change affect us?

Climate change is a threat to mankind. The earth's average surface temperature has increased
by 0.3-0.6 0C since the end of the 19th century. Such increase in temperature may seem to be
minimal to us but they can lead to a disaster as highlighted below.
Agriculture
The increasing population has resulted in increased demand for food. This results in pressure
on natural resources. Climate change will affect agricultural yield directly because of
alterations in temperature and rainfall, and indirectly through changes in soil quality, pests, and
diseases. It is said that the yield of cereals is expected to decline in India. Extreme weather
conditions such as high temperature, heavy rainfall, floods, droughts, etc. will also affect crop
production.
Weather
A warmer climate will change rainfall patterns, lead to increased droughts and floods, cause
melting of glaciers and polar ice sheets, and result in increased sea- level rise. An increase in
the number of cyclones and hurricanes over the last few years has been attributed to changes
in temperature.
Sea level rise
One of the outcome of climate change is the rising sea level. The heating of oceans, and melting
of glaciers and polar ice sheets, is predicted to raise the average sea level by about half a metre
over the next century. Sea-level rise could have a number of physical impacts on coastal areas,
including loss of land due to inundation and erosion, increased flooding, and salt-water
intrusion. These could adversely affect coastal agriculture, drinking water resources, fisheries,
human settlements, and health.
Health
Global warming will directly affect human health by increasing cases of heat-related mortality,
dehydration, spread of infectious diseases, malnutrition, and damage to public health
infrastructure.
Forests and wildlife
Plants and animals in the natural environment are very sensitive to changes in climate. If the
rate of climate change continues to increase, extinction of various species of plants and animals
could happen.
Preventive measures
• Reduction in the use of non-renewable sources of energy (fossil fuels)
• Increased use of renewable sources like solar, wind energy etc.
• Save trees and grow more trees
• Avoid indiscriminate use of non degradable materials like plastics

Ozone Layer
The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere. It has the
potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun
that can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent, millions of people would develop
skin diseases and may have weakened immune systems.
However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This has
focussed their concern on various environmental issues and steps to control them. The main
reasons for the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons. Let us have a detailed look at the various causes and effects of
ozone layer depletion.
Ozone Layer Depletion
“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous bromine or
chlorine from industries or other human activities.”
What is Ozone Layer Depletion?
Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere. This
happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone
and destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is
destroyed more quickly than it is created.
Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light, which
then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODS).
The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon
tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-
depleting substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro
bromofluorocarbons.
Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is only when the
chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with ozone.
Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone-
depleting substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the ozone
layer of the earth.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main
causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released
by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet
radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.
2. Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of the
ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone
layer by the year 2050.
3. Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for the depletion
of the ozone layer.
4. Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots
and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the major
effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.
• Effects on Human Health
Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such as
skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.
• Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.
• Effects on the Environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants.
The forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.
• Effects on Marine Life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in
the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain
are also affected.
Solutions to prevent Ozone Layer Depletion
The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmes have been launched
by the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the
individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:
1. Avoid Using ODS
Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and
air conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers, etc.
2. Minimise the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as
ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.
3. Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way
into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural
products to protect the environment.
4. Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is
adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of
nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the individual
level as well.

What is Acid Rain?

Acid Rain as the name suggests can be said to be the precipitation of acid in the form
of rain in the simplest manner. When atmospheric pollutants like oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
react with rainwater and come down with the rain, then this results in Acid Rain.
Acid Rain Definition
Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically the
disproportionate levels of sulphur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing
processes. Often called acid rain as this concept contains many types of acidic precipitation.
The acidic deposition takes place in two ways: wet, and dry. Wet deposition is any form of
precipitation which removes acids from the atmosphere and places them on the surface of the
earth. In the absence of precipitation, dry deposition of polluting particles and gases sticks to
the ground through dust and smoke.
Causes of Acid Rain

The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with the wet
components of rain. Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with water are found in
two ways either man-made i.e as the emissions are given out from industries or by natural
causes like how a lightning strike in the atmosphere releases nitrogen ions and sulphur is
released from volcanic eruptions.
According to the Royal Society of Chemistry, which considers him the “father of acid rain,”
the word acid rain was invented in 1852 by Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith. Smith
decided on the word while studying rainwater chemistry near industrial towns in England and
Scotland.
The regular clean rain we experience, even though it is not clean i.e water and carbon dioxide
react together to form weak carbonic acid which essentially by itself is not extremely harmful.
The reaction occurring is :
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)
The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature. The oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur are blown away by the wind along with the dust particles. They settle on
the earth’s surface after coming down in the form of precipitation. Acid rain is essentially a by
product of human activities which emit oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the atmosphere.
Example – the burning of fossil fuels, unethical waste emission disposal techniques.
Acid Rain formation
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide undergo oxidation, and then they react with water
resulting in the formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. When the pH value of
rainwater falls below 5.6, it is called as Acid Rain. The following reaction will clarify the acid
formation reaction:

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)

4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)

Effects of Acid Rain

• Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It washes away all
nutrients which are required for the growth and survival of plants. Acid rain affects
agriculture by the way how it alters the composition of the soil.
• It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.
• When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it affects the aquatic
ecosystem. As it alters the chemical composition of the water, to a form which is
actually harmful to the aquatic ecosystem to survive and causes water pollution.
• Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes. Which further results in leaching of
heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.
• It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones and metals.

Effects of acid rain on monuments

Real-Life Examples
1. Taj Mahal, one of the 7 wonders of the world, is largely affected by acid rain. The city of
Agra has many industries which emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
People continue to use low-quality coal and firewood as a domestic fuel, adding to this
problem. Acid rain has the following reaction with the marble (calcium carbonate):
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
The formation of calcium sulphate results in the corrosion of this beautiful monument.
2. Statue of Liberty which is made of copper has also been damaged by the cumulative action
of acid rain & oxidation for over 30 years and is, therefore, becoming green.

Prevention of Acid Rain

• The only precaution that we can take against acid rain is having a check at the emission
of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
• We have so far seen the details of acid rain and its harmful effect on animals, plants
and the monuments.
• Being responsible citizens, one should be aware of the harmful effects they cause and
of the industries which give out nitrogen and sulphur compound wastes unethically.

Environmental Laws
The Environment (Protection) Act,1986
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 authorizes the central government to protect
and improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit
or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds. The
Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing for the
protection and improvement of the environment. It empowers the Central Government to
establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its
forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the
country. The Act was last amended in 1991.
• The Environment (Protection) Rules lay down procedures for setting standards of
emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.
• The objective of Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 is to
control the generation, collection, treatment, import, storage, and handling of hazardous waste.
• The Manufacture, Storage, and Import of Hazardous Rules define the terms used in this
context, and sets up an authority to inspect, once a year, the industrial activity connected with
hazardous chemicals and isolated storage facilities.
• The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of hazardous Micro-organisms/
Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules,1989 were introduced with a view to protect
the environment, nature, and health, in connection with the application of gene technology and
micro-organisms.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act)

• Industrialization and urbanization have resulted in a profound deterioration of India's
air quality. of the 3 million premature deaths in the world that occur each year due to outdoor
and indoor air pollution, the highest numbers are assessed to occur in India. According to the
World Health Organization, the capital city of New Delhi is one of the top ten most polluted
cities in the world. Surveys indicate that in New Delhi the incidence of respiratory diseases due
to air pollution is about 12 times the national average.
• The Act provides for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. It also
provides for the establishment of Boards with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes.
• Decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the
preservation of the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the
preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.

Water (prevention and control of pollution) act of 1974

• The act aims to prevent and control water pollution and to maintain/restore
wholesomeness of water by establishing central and state pollution control board to monitor
and enforce the regulations.
• The Central Pollution Control Board, and State Pollution Control Boards composition,
terms and conditions of service of members are defined in Sections 3-12 of water (prevention
and control of pollution) act, 1974.
• The Board advises the government on any matter concerning the prevention and control
of water pollution. It coordinates the activities and provides technical assistance and guidance.
This policy sets the standards and penalties for non-compliance for polluting bodies.
• The Government has power to restrict any unit, and to take samples of effluents and get
them analysed in Central or State laboratories. Whoever fails to comply with any provision of
this Act is punishable with imprisonment, fine or with both.

Wild life protection act 1972

• The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted for
protection of plants and animal species.
• Before 1972, India had only five designated national parks. Among other reforms, the
Act established schedules of protected plant and animal species; hunting or harvesting these
species was largely outlawed.
• The Act provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants; and for matters
connected there with or ancillary or incidental thereto. It extends to the whole of India, except
the State of Jammu and Kashmir which had its own wildlife act.
• The hunting to the Enforcement authorities have the power to compound offences under
this Schedule (i.e. they impose fines on the offenders). Up to April 2010 there have been 16
convictions under this act relating to the death of tigers.

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

• The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 an Act of the Parliament of India to provide for
the conservation of forests and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental
thereto. It was further amended in 1988.
• This law extends to the whole of India. It was enacted by Parliament of India to control
further deforestation of Forest Areas in India. The act came into force on 25 October 1980.
• In 1992, some amendment was made in the Act which made provisions for allowing
some non-forest activities in forests, without cutting trees or limited cutting with prior approval
of Central Govt. These activities are setting of transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploration,
drilling and hydroelectric projects. The last activity involves large scale destruction of forest,
for which prior approval of the Centre is necessary.
List Of Pollution Acts And Rules:
1. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act- 1981.
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act- 1974.
3. The Environment (Protection) Act-1986.
4. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution Union Territories) Rules, 1983.
5. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1982.
6. Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998.
7. Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution (Procedure for Transaction
of Business) Rules, 1975.
8. Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning Preparedness and Response) Rules, 1996.
9. Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989.
10. Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989.
11. National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995.
12. Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.
13. Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999.
14. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977.
15. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978.
16. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1975.

International agreements
Montreal Protocol
• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is a landmark
international agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.
• The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992.
The Montreal Protocol stipulates that the production and consumption of compounds that
deplete ozone in the stratosphere--chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride,
and methyl chloroform--are to be phased out by 2000 (2005 for methyl chloroform).
• Scientific theory and evidence suggest that, once emitted to the atmosphere, these
compounds could significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer that shields the planet from
damaging UV-B radiation.
• Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the
most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled
off or decreased.
Kyoto Protocol
• The Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly
threatening our climate, life on the earth, and the planet, itself.
• The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations
to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly.
• It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on December 11, 1997, and became international law
on February 16, 2005.
• The Kyoto Protocol mandated that industrialized nations cut their greenhouse gas
emissions at a time when the threat of global warming was growing rapidly.
• Countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol were assigned maximum carbon emission
levels for specific periods. If a country emitted more than its assigned limit, then it would be
penalized by receiving a lower emissions limit in the following period.
Convention on Biological Diversity
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity
Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals including: the
conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its components;
and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
• In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding
sustainable development. The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993.
• Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of
genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
Chemical Weapons Convention
• The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is an arms control treaty that outlaws the
production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors.
• The Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits the large-scale use, development,
production, stockpiling and transfer of chemical weapons. Very limited production for
research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes is still permitted.

Nature Reserves
Why do we need nature reserves?
One main reason why we have nature reserves is to protect our biodiversity- the degree of
variation of life. A sufficient biodiversity is required to keep our ecosystem in natural balance.
With sufficient biodiversity, the loss of any part of the food chain will not lead to a serious
disruption and effects on the other organisms as they can obtain nutrients in other ways. If not,
any disruption in the food chain will lead to a stop in the nutrient cycle path and the collapse
of the whole ecosystem over time.
Nature Reserves of India
1. Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan
2. Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand
3. Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh
4. Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat
5. Kaziranga National Park, Assam
6. Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh
7. Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala
8. Sunderbans National Park, West Bengal
9. Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, etc.

Tribal Population and Rights

India has the second largest tribal concentration in the world spread across various parts of the
country mainly in forests and hilly regions. The characteristics of these communities are their
particular geographical location, distinct culture, economic backwardness and aloofness from
the society at large.
Article 366(25) refers to Scheduled Tribes as such tribes or tribal communities or groups as are
deemed under Article 342 of the Constitution. According to Article 342 of the constitution, the
Scheduled tribes are the tribes or tribal communities which have been declared as such by the
President through a public notification. It is given in Article 14 of the Indian Constitution: “The
State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws
within the territory of India.” In India, since these people are considered low and are not treated
well the Constitution of India provides several rights to these people for safeguarding their
interests. There are a number of social problems which are associated with these people like
untouchability, illiteracy etc. Article 17 of the Constitution of India states:” Untouchability is
abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden.”
Various other provisions are also made by the Constitution of India to improve the life of the
Scheduled Tribes. This paper explores the concept of rights available to the scheduled tribes in
India and also carries out the analysis of these rights along with the contribution of Supreme
Court and the social activists who helped in improving the condition of Scheduled Tribes and
safeguarding their rights

Human Wildlife Conflict in India

The growing human population, deforestation, loss of habitat and decline in their prey species
are few major reason behind the Human wildlife conflict in India. Natural wildlife territory is
overlaps with the humans existence and various forms of human–wildlife conflict occur with
various negative results. Some of the examples are,
• Leopard Attack - Leopard attacks on humans are regularly reported only in India,
leopards kill more humans in India than all other carnivores. Human–leopard conflict regions
of the country are West Bengal, Maharashtra and Assam where most of the deadly leopard
attack incident happened.
• Tiger Attack - Most of the Tiger attacks in India appeared in the Sundarbans mangrove
forest National Park of West Bengal. Sundarbans host largest population of tigers in the world
due to its densely covered mangrove forests and climate. In the recent tiger attacks on Human
was, A tiger attacked forest rangers on an Elephant in the Kaziranga National Park of Assam,
in the north-east state of India. The tigers are known as Man-Eaters and Sundarbans is one of
the famous place to spot these big cats, there are only 1706 tigers are left in the wild India.
• Elephant Attack - Elephant is one of the holy animal in India, especially in Kerala but
due to elephant attack some 500 people are killed by each year. There are many incident of
elephant attacks occurred in the villages of Kerala and other parts of India.
• Bear Attack - A sloth bear attacked and killed one person and seriously injured three
others in India, major zone includes Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh where most of the
incident occurred.
Reason Behind The Human Interaction
• Deforestation
• Loss of Habitat
• Decline in Prey
• Injured or Old Animal
• Growing Human Population
Results of Human Wildlife Conflict
• Crop Damage
• Animal Deaths
• Loss of Human Life
• Injuries to People
• Injuries to Wildlife
• Livestock Depredation

Solutions to Reduce Human Interaction and Wildlife Conflict

• Fencing
• Land-Use Planning
• Livestock Protection
• Avoid stepping out After Dark
 Chapter 2
Human communities and the Environment
Human Population and growth
Overpopulation refers to an undesirable condition where human population exceeds the
available natural resources to feed and sustain it. Today, the world is inhabited by over 7 billion
people, with India topping the list as the most populated country, followed by China. Rapid
population growth is the bane of the economy of underdeveloped, poor and developing
countries in the world.
The two main common causes leading to over population in India are:
• The birth rate is still higher than the death rate. We have been successful in declining
the death rates but the same cannot be said for birth rates.
• The fertility rate due to the population policies and other measures has been falling but
even then it is much higher compared to other countries.
The above causes are interrelated to the various social issues in our country which are leading
to over population.
1. Early Marriage and Universal Marriage System: Even though legally the
marriageable age of a girl is 18 years, the concept of early marriage still prevails and getting
married at an young age prolongs the child bearing age. Also, in India, marriage is a sacred
obligation and a universal practice, where almost every woman is married at the reproductive
age.
2. Poverty and Illiteracy: Another factor for the rapid growth of population is poverty.
Impoverished families have this notion that more the number of members in the family, more
will be the numbers to earn income. Some feel that more children are needed to look after them
in their old age. Also hunger can be cause of death of their children and hence the need for
more children. Strange but true, Indian still lag behind the use of contraceptives and birth
control methods. Many of them are not willing to discuss or are totally unaware about them.
Illiteracy is thus another cause of over population
3. Age old cultural norm: Sons are the bread earners of the families in India. This age
old thought puts considerable pressure on the parents to produce children till a male child is
born. More the better.
4. Illegal migration: Last but not the least, we cannot ignore the fact that illegal migration
is continuously taking place from Bangladesh, Nepal leading to increased population density.

Effects of Over Population

Even after 67 years of independence, the scenario of our country is not good, due to over
population. Some major impacts of high population are as follows:
 1. Unemployment: Generating employment for a huge population in a country like India
is very difficult. The number of illiterate persons increases every year. Unemployment
rate is thus showing an increasing trend.
2. Manpower utilisation: The number of jobless people is on the rise in India due to
economic depression and slow business development and expansion activities.
3. Pressure on infrastructure: Development of infrastructural facilities is unfortunately not
keeping pace with the growth of population. The result is lack of transportation,
communication, housing, education, healthcare etc. There has been an increase in the
number of slums, overcrowded houses, traffic congestion etc.
4. Resource utilisation: Land areas, water resources, forests are over exploited. There is
also scarcity of resources.
5. Decreased production and increased costs: Food production and distribution have not
been able to catch up with the increasing population and hence the costs of production
have increased. Inflation is the major consequence of over population.
6. Inequitable income distribution: In the face of an increasing population, there is an
unequal distribution of income and inequalities within the country widen.

OVERPOPULATION SOLUTIONS
Preventing the rapid growth of the population is the key to the victory over poverty, illiteracy,
unemployment, economic backwardness, etc in the modern world. The increasing population
will only swallow the growing development of the nation and the benefit of advanced
technology. Therefore, the following measures should be taken to curb the excessive growth in
population:
• Family Planning: For a good, prosperous nation, it is necessary that its residents are
healthy and their numbers are in sync with the country’s wealth. For this, modern methods and
measures of family planning should be adopted. They should be propagated in a proper manner
by the government, NGOs and civil society.
• Increase in marriage age: Minimum age of marriage of boys and girls should be
increased. The age of marriage in India has been fixed for girls at 18 years and for boys at 21
years. It should be complied with firmly in all the states. For this, we require a strong political
will, accompanied by an effective system of governance.
• Balanced ratio: It is also necessary to make qualitative improvement in the population.
The gap between the children should be at least five years and the number of offspring should
not exceed two children per family.
• Improvement in public health services: It is necessary to pay attention to public
health and cleanliness to increase man’s economic capacity. In each state, emphasis should be
on pollution-free and clean environment in urban and rural areas.
• Proper utilization of land: To reduce the burden of the growing population, what is
required is the scientific and proper planning of the land. To achieve this aim, it is necessary to
emphasize on certain parameters:
• Need for education: To improve the condition of the farmers, they need to be educated
and attached with some cooperatives. With the help of government, co-operatives and other
useful institutions, the farmers continue to get the opportunity to learn about loans, proper
agriculture methods, education and technology. They, thus, realize that illiteracy is a curse that
leads to only deprivation and destruction.
• Proper industrialization: In areas where industrial development has not reached yet,
industrialization should be done promptly. Small and cottage industries should be encouraged,
because small industries establish a necessary linkage and coordination between agriculture
and large-scale industries, along with it between rural and urban income. By reducing the gap,
they also develop other means of livelihood. This leads to the development of many subsidiary
and new dwellings in the cottage and small scale sector. If small industries increase in the
villages, they also absorb the burden of population.
• Proper government policies: Means of education, entertainment and employment
should be increased. Our government needs to adopt such public policies that not only curb the
uncontrolled growth of the number of persons, but also prevent unchecked migration of the
population and the growing centralization of the people in urban areas. For the right population
mix, adequate resources should be harnessed with provision of enough space and strong
infrastructure.
• Promoting family planning: Spreading awareness about the contraception measures
and birth control techniques is most effective method to keep the population within limit. We
need to make people aware about benefits and ways of family planning in order to overcome
the problem of overpopulation. It will also help them to understand the need of having one or
two children at the most.
Family planning needs to be seen under its own right. Right measures will have to be
implemented, force will not work, but only through discussions and persuasion, success can be
achieved. Legal measures can be helpful but what is of urgent need is the social awareness and
realization of responsibility in society as a whole. Other suggestions include:
• Encourage interval method rather than sterilization in family planning programme.
• Age of girl child marriage should be raised further.
• Emphasis to be laid on economic development.
• Rapid awareness campaign to be run by the government and non-governmental
organizations
• New, innovative contraceptives should be explored.
• Reduction in birth and fertility rates.
• Emphasis on gender parity priority for girl education.
• Empowering women: Any woman who has many children for parenting and who passes
through child deliveries repeatedly spends most of her life as a mother and wife. She is
imprisoned in the four-walls of her house. She cannot play any meaningful role in her
community and society until she is able to limit her family to a proper size. Family planning
will not only improve family welfare, but also contribute to achieving social prosperity and
personal happiness.
• Raising awareness: Fast population growth in India hinders the progress and
development of the country. Reducing the existing population is not possible but it is possible
to check further rise in population of our country which can overcome the problem of
population growth, through spreading awareness about overpopulation.
Once people know that unemployment, poverty, illiteracy, unhealthy living conditions,
depletion of natural resources and environmental problems are all results of overpopulation;
they will themselves take initiatives to control the population growth.
Unbridled growth of population is certainly a problem that our country needs to overcome. The
government, NGOs and the people of the society have to work together to solve the problem
of overpopulation in our country. Clearly, human beings need to stop overpopulating the world.
The Earth has a limited capacity and we must not tear open its bowels to feed ourselves.

Carbon Foot Print

A carbon footprint is the total sum of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an
organization, event, product or person. As we are aware, the increasing concentration of GHGs
in the atmosphere can accelerate climate change and global warming, it is very necessary to
measure these emissions from our day to day activities. The first step towards managing GHG
emissions is to measure them.
Calculate your home Carbon footprint;
Our day to day activities are moreover dependent on electricity which is mostly coming from
coal based power plants, Diesel and Petrol for our vehicles and LPG for cooking in our kitchen.
All of the energy we use is derived from these fossil fuels which are GHG intensive. Following
methodology helps you to calculate your carbon footprint resulting from the use of Electricity,
Petrol, Diesel and LPG.
Step 1- Data collection;
1. Electricity: Collect data on your annual electricity bills. You can find number of power
units (In India, one unit = 1KWh of electricity) consumed in your home from the monthly
electricity bills issues by State Electricity Board/ Distribution/Collection companies. Take
monthly consumed units and then multiply them by 12 (No of months in a year).
2. Petrol/Diesel: Add number of liters of petrol/diesel you used in your car/motorcycle
in a year. If you do not remember the exact value right now, please add average values.
3. LPG: Generally one LPG cylinder has around 14 kg of liquefied petroleum gas.
Multiply number of cylinders used in a year by 14 and add the resulted value in the calculation.
Step 2 – Calculation Methodology;
Electricity : Input value (in KWh/Yr) X 0.85 (Emission Factor) = Output value in (Kg of CO2)
Petrol: Input Value(In Litres/Yr) X 2.296(Emission Factor) = Output value in (Kg of CO2)
Diesel: Input Value(In Litres/Yr) X 2.653 (Emission Factor) = Output value in (Kg of CO2)
LPG: Input Value(In Kg/Yr) X 2.983 (Emission Factor) = Output value in (Kg of CO2)
Your Carbon Footprint : Add (1+2+3+4) = Output value in (Kg of CO2)
Divide final value (no 5) with 1000 so that you get total carbon footprint in ton of CO2.
Final Carbon footprint should be in tons of CO2 (t CO2).

How to Reduce Carbon Footprint?

One easy way to reduce your carbon footprint is to minimize the energy you waste. Shut off
lights, air conditioning, and electrical appliances when you aren't in a room and use heat and
air conditioning sparingly. Switch to energy efficient light bulbs, which will not only help the
planet but help your electricity bill, too. You can conserve water by taking shorter showers and
keeping the water off while you brush your teeth. Conserve paper by using reusable canvas
shopping bags. Buy locally grown produce or even better, start your own garden. Lastly,
reconsider your transportation choices. Walking or riding a bike not only reduces your carbon
footprint, it brings health benefits.

Resettlement and rehabilitation

People are forced to move out of their land due to both natural and manmade disasters. Natural
disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, tsunami etc. render thousands of people homeless and
sometime even force them to move and resettle in other areas. Similarly, developmental
projects like construction of roads, dams, canals and flyovers displace people from their homes.
Leakage of nuclear material in Japan resulted in millions of people being forced to leave the
area for their safety. Thus, resettlement refers to the process of settling again in a new area.
Rehabilitation means restoration to the former state.
Involuntary Resettlement
Involuntary Resettlement refers to two distinct but related processes. Displacement is a process
by which development projects cause people to lose land or other assets, or access to resources.
This may result in physical dislocation, loss of income, or other adverse impacts. Resettlement
or rehabilitation is a process by which those adversely affected are assisted in their efforts to
improve, or at least to restore, their incomes and living standards.
Reasons for displacement of people
various causes for displacement of people are:
• Natural disasters like earthquake, cyclones, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, prolonged droughts
conditions, floods, hurricanes etc.
• Manmade disasters like industrial accidents (e.g. Bhopal gas tragedy), nuclear accidents
(Chernobyl; Japan), oil spills (Exxon Valdez oil spill), toxic contamination of sites etc.
• In search of better employment opportunities.
• Developmental projects like:
• Construction of dams, irrigation canals, reservoirs, etc.
• Infrastructural projects like flyovers, bridges, roads, etc.
• Transportation activities like roads, highways, canals, etc.
• Energy related project like power plants, oil exploration, mining activities, pipelines
• Agricultural projects
• Projects related with the conservation of wildlife like national parks, sanctuaries and
biosphere reserves.
Issues regarding Resettlement
As per the World Bank estimates, nearly 10 lakh people are displaced worldwide for a variety
of reasons. Some of the issues faced by the people being resettled are:
• Little or no support: Displacement mainly hits tribal and rural people who usually do not
figure in the priority list of any political authorities or parties.
• Meagre compensation: The compensation for the land lost is often not paid, is delayed or
even if paid, is too small both in monetary terms and social changes forced on them by these
mega developmental projects.
• Loss of livelihood: Displacement is not a simple incident in the lives of the displaced people.
They have to leave their ancestral land and forests on which they depend for their livelihood.
Many of them have no skills to take up another activity or pick up any other occupation.
Usually, the new land that is offered to them is of poor quality and the refugees are unable to
make a living.
• Lack of facilities: When people are resettled in a new area, basic infrastructure and amenities
are not provided in that area. Very often, temporary camps become permanent settlements. It
is also a major problem of displacement or resettlement that people have to face.
• Increase in stress: Resettlement disrupts the entire life of the people. They are unable to bear
the shocks of emptiness and purposelessness created in their life. Payment of compensation to
the head of the family often leads to bitter quarrels over sharing of compensation amount within
the family, leading to stress in family life.
• Increase in health problems: Lack of nutrition due to the loss of agriculture and forest based
livelihood, leads to the general decline in the health of the people.
• Secondary displacement: Occupational groups residing outside the submergence area but
depending on the area for the livelihood also experience unemployment. Village artisans, petty
traders, labourers, etc, lose their living.
• Loss of identity: Tribal life is community based. The tribal are simple people who have a
lifestyle of their own.

Who is entitled to compensation and other forms of assistance

All persons losing assets or use of resources as a direct result of a Bank-supported project are
considered 'Project Affected People' entitled to compensation and/or other forms of assistance.
This includes people losing land they have held under customary or traditional rights, people
utilizing common property resources, squatters residing on public lands, and encroachers
deprived of established access to resources, as well as those with formally recognized property
rights. It also includes tenants, artisans, and wage earners whose livelihoods or living standards
would be adversely affected as a direct result of the project. It does not include persons
opportunistically invading a site after disclosure of project plans for the purpose of obtaining
assistance.
Because of the complexities inherent in resettlement processes, it is best to begin resettlement
planning as are as practicable. In most projects, a draft Resettlement Action Plan or RAP is
submitted to the Bank for legal and technical review during project pre-appraisal, and Bank
approval of a RAP is normally a condition of project appraisal. In some projects with multiple
subcomponents, or projects for which final designs cannot be known by appraisal, the World
Bank and international lending organisations requires submission of an acceptable policy
framework establishing entitlements and organizational responsibilities by appraisal. Approval
of a supplemental RAP based upon final designs and census/survey is then typically a condition
of initiating civil works.

Objectives of rehabilitation
The following objectives of rehabilitation should be kept in mind before the people are given
an alternative site for living:
• Tribal people should be allowed to live along the lives of their own patterns and others should
avoid imposing anything on them.
• They should be provided means to develop their own traditional art and culture in every way.
• Villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others to enable them to live a
community based life.
• Removal of poverty should be one of the objectives of rehabilitation.
• The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of the development. I should
say that it is really a good move by ISC to share its profits among the active contributors.
• The displaced people should be given employment opportunities.
• Resettlement should be in the neighbourhood of their own environment.
• If resettlement is not possible in the neighbour area, priority should be given to the
development of the irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for agriculture, drinking
water, wells, grazing ground for the cattle, schools for the children, primary healthcare units
and other amenities.
• Villagers should be taken into confidence at every stage of implementation of the
displacement and they should be educated, through public meetings, discussion about the
legalities of the Land Acquisition act and other rehabilitation provisions.
• The elderly people of the village should be involved in the decision making.
Examples or Case Studies of resettlement and rehabilitation
Some examples of resettlement and rehabilitation are:
• Displacement due to dams India has been constructing dams and other hydel projects. In the
last 50 years, 20 million people have been affected by the construction of such projects. The
Hirakud dam displaced about 20000 people living in about 250 villages. The Bhakra Nangal
dam was constructed around 1950's and displaced a number of people. Some of them have not
been rehabilitated even today.
• Displacement due to mining Due to possibility of the accidents or sinking of the land, people
have to be displaced in and around mining areas. Mining takes up several hectares of land. As
a result, thousands of people have to be evacuated. Jharia coal fields posed a problem to the
local residents due to underground fires. Some 3 lakh people were to be shifted and it became
a problem to find an alternative site. A huge amount of money to the tune of Rs. 115 crores
was spent to put out the fire. The problem still persists.
• Displacement in Japan due to nuclear crisis In Japan there was an explosion in three of the
major nuclear reactors of Fukushima city due to the tsunami. Currently, more than 2,00,000
people have been displaced from their native place. People were evacuated to protect them
from the possible nuclear hazard and exposure. They suffered from acute hunger as all the food
supply was interrupted due to contamination of food particles by radiation.

Disaster management
Disaster management in India refers to conservation of lives and property during a natural and
man-made disaster. Disaster management plans are multi-layered and are planned to address
issues such as floods, hurricanes, fires, mass failure of utilities and the rapid spread of disease.
India is especially vulnerable to natural disasters because of its unique geo-climatic conditions,
having recurrent floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, and landslides. As India is a very
large country, different regions are vulnerable to different natural disasters. For example,
during rainy season the peninsular regions of South India is mostly affected by cyclones and
states of West India experience severe drought during summer.
Classification of Disasters
There are two types of disasters:
(i) Natural Disasters:
The disasters that are caused by nature are termed as natural disasters e.g., earthquake, cyclone
etc.
(ii) Man-made Disaster:
The disasters which are caused as a result of human activities are termed as Man-Made
Disasters e.g., Road accident, terrorist attack.
Natural Disasters:
1. Earthquake:
Earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of ground causing great destruction as a result of
movement of earth’s crust. An earthquake has the potential to tsunami or volcanic eruption.
Earthquake of magnitude 9.2 on the Richter’s scale in 2004 in Indonesia is the second largest
earthquake ever recorded. The deadliest earthquake happened in Central China, killing over
800,000 in 1556. People during that time and region lived in caves and died from the caves
collapsing.
Earthquake mitigation strategies:
a. Existing critical facilities built on reclaimed land should be inspected and retrofitted if
necessary to ensure earthquake resistance.
b. Future critical facilities should not be located on reclaimed land because of the high potential
for liquefaction.
c. Older unreinforced masonry buildings should be inspected and retrofitted if necessary to
increase earthquake resistance.
d. Older unreinforced masonry buildings should not be used for critical functions.
2. Cyclone:
Cyclones (or more properly called Tropical Cyclones) are a type of severe spinning storm that
occurs over the ocean near the tropics.
The most famous Australian historic cyclone was Cyclone Tracy, December 1974, where
around 11 people died in Darwin, Northern Territory. The direction they spin depends on which
hemisphere they are in. In the Southern hemisphere they spin in a clockwise direction and
Northern hemisphere they spin in an anti-clockwise direction.
Cyclone mitigation strategies:
a. Future critical facilities should not be located in areas of accelerated winds.
b. The most significant aspect of structural damage to buildings by high velocity wind results
from roof damage. The roofs of existing buildings should be inspected and if necessary
retrofitted to adequate standards.
c. The roofs of existing critical facilities should be retrofitted to a higher standard to ensure
wind resistance.
d. Building openings such as windows and doors also suffer damage from high velocity winds.
These openings if not constructed of wood or metal should be protected with shutters or
temporary covers of adequate design.
3. Floods:
Flooding is the unusual presence of water on land to a depth which affects normal activities.
Flooding can arise from: overflowing rivers (river flooding), heavy rainfall over a short
duration (flash floods), or an unusual inflow of sea water onto land (ocean flooding). Ocean
flooding can be caused by storms such as hurricanes (storm surge), high tides (tidal flooding),
seismic events (tsunami) or large landslides.
Flood mitigation strategies:
a. Watercourses which pass through significant settlement areas should be properly configured
and lined with concrete.
b. Existing bridges should be inspected to determine which ones are too low or which have
support pillars within the watercourse channel. Where possible these should be replaced as
these features restrict water flow and cause the channels to be easily blocked with debris.
c. Future bridges should not be built with these undesirable features.
d. Buildings constructed adjacent to watercourses should be elevated by at least one meter to
prevent potential flood inundation.
e. Critical facilities should not be located adjacent to watercourses.
4. Tsunami:
Tsunamis are giant waves, initiated by a sudden change, usually in relative position of
underwater tectonic plates. The sudden jerk is enough to propagate the wave; however, its
power can be enhanced and fed by lunar positioning and boundaries that focus its energy.
Tsunami mitigation strategies:
a. In some tsunami-prone countries earthquake engineering measures have been taken to reduce
the damage caused onshore.
b. Japan, where tsunami science and response measures first began following a disaster in 1896,
has produced ever-more elaborate countermeasures and response plans. That country has built
many tsunami walls of up to 4.5 metres (15 ft) to protect populated coastal areas.
c. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming
tsunami.
National Disaster Management Act, 2005:
This Act provides for three tier mechanism for Disaster Management that includes National
Disaster Management Authority, State Disaster Management Authority and District Disaster
Management Authority.

Environmental Movements
1. Chipko Movement
Chipko Movement, started in 1970's, was a non violent movement aimed at protection and
conservation of trees and forests from being destroyed. The name of the Chipko moment
originated from the word 'embrace' as the villagers used to hug the trees and protect them from
wood cutters from cutting them. Chipko movement was based on the Gandhian philosophy of
peaceful resistance to achieve the goals. It was the strong uprising against the against those
people, who were destroying the natural resources of the forests and disturbing the whole
ecological balance.
It was first started in the Chamoli district in the year 1973 and from there it spread to the other
parts of the country. There is one very famous story about the girl, Amrita Devi, who died
while trying to save the trees grown in her village. The village was under the rule of the local
Maharaja, who desired to built a palace for his family. He ordered his servants to bring wood
from the nearby village. When the wood cutters arrived the village to cut the tress, Amrita and
other women of the village jumped in front of the trees and hugged them. She said they will
have to cut her first before the trees. The servants were helpless to follow the orders and cut
the tree. Amrita Devi died on the spot. Before offering her head to the Maharajas servants,
Amrita enchanted :- “seir santhe runkh raheb, to bhee sastojan” (it is till a small price to pay if
at the cost of my head the tree is saved).

The incident inspired the several other rural womens, who in 1970's launched such similar
movements in different parts of India. The incident inspired the several other rural womens,
who in 1970's launched such similar movements in different parts of India.It is really surprising
that the women of that age were better aware about the significance of forests. The rural women
in India actively participated in the movement, who knows about deforestation and its future
consequences. Some of the key women leaders who fought for the protection of forests, whom
they call it their maternal mother were Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Dev Suman,
Mira Behn, Sarala Behn and Amrita Devi.

The Chipko Movement gained momentum under Sunderlal Bahuguna, an eco activist, who
spent his whole life persuading and educating the villagers, to protest against the destruction
of the forests and the Himalayan mountains by the government. It was he, who made appeal to
the Prime Minister of India Mrs Indira Gandhi to ban the cutting of tress. He shouted the slogan
'ecology is the permanent economy'. Another main leader of the movement was Mr. Chandi
Prasad Bhatt, who advocated the development of small scale local industries, which were based
on the sustainable use of the forests resources for the local benefits. There were many slogans
that originated during that period. For example :-

“Embrace the trees and

Save then from being felled
The property of our hills,
Save them from being looted”
Another one says :-
“Let us protect and plant the trees
Go awaken the villages
And drive away the axeman”
One of the major achievement of the Chipko movement was the ban on cutting the trees for the
15 years in the forests of Uttar Pradesh in 1980. Later on the ban was imposed in Himachal
Pardesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Western Ghats and Vindhayas. All this was done on the
order of the Indian Prime Minister after the strong protests by the activists through out the
country.

2. Silent Valley Movement

Silent Valley Movement or Save Silent Valley was a social movement aimed at the protection
of Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India. It was
started in 1973 by an NGO led by school teachers and the Kerala Sastra Sahithya
Parishad(KSSP) to save the Silent Valley from being flooded by a hydroelectric project. The
valley was declared as Silent Valley National Park in 1985.
The Kuntipuzha is a major river that flows 15 km southwest from Silent Valley. It takes its
origin in the lush green forests of Silent Valley. In 1928 the location at Sairandhri on the
Kunthipuzha River was identified as an ideal site for electricity generation. In 1970 Kerala
State Electricity Board(KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River
that runs through Silent Valley, that will submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen
forest. In February 1973, the Planning Commission approves the project at a cost of about Rs
25 crores.
Silent Valley is home to the largest population of lion-tailed macaque. They are among the
world's rarest and most threatened primates
After the announcement of imminent dam construction the valley became the focal point of
Save Silent Valley Movement, India's fiercest environmental debate of the decade. Because of
concern about the endangered lion-tailed macaque, the issue was brought to public attention.
Romulus Whitaker, founder of the Madras Snake Park and the Madras Crocodile Bank, was
probably the first person to draw public attention to the small and remote area.[1] In 1977 the
Kerala Forest Research Institute carried out an ecological impact study of the Silent Valley
area and proposed that the area be declared a biosphere reserve.
In 1978 Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, approved the project, with the condition that
the state government enact legislation ensuring the necessary safeguards. Also that year the
IUCN (International Union of conservation of nature) passed a resolution recommending
protection of lion-tailed macaques in Silent Valley and Kalakkad and the controversy heated
up. In 1979 the Government of Kerala passed legislation regarding the Silent Valley Protection
Area (Protection of Ecological balance Act of 1979) and issued a notification declaring the
exclusion of the hydroelectric project area from the proposed national park.
Bishnois of Rajasthan
Out of the total population of India (approximately 1.271 billion), the Bishnoi count stands at
600,000 nationwide approximately and is estimated at 32,600 in Rajasthan.
Distributed in several north Indian states, Bishnois are concentrated in western Rajasthan,
where their founder Guru Jambheshwar was born (Jain 2010). Living both in rural as well as
urban areas of western Rajasthan, Bishnois defined themselves as a sect of Vishnu worshipers
with intense devotion to nature. They typically own varying amounts of land, are settled
pastoralists, and practice a variety of professions such as farming, selling milk, working with
the forest departments and the police, dealing in property and transport to being bureaucrats,
leaders and teachers.
Their eco-friendly ethos (even in the death rites) not only ensures environmental frugality but
lends them credibility as grassroots environmentalists. As teetotalers, they practice simple
lifestyles. Known for their proclivity for letting bushes, shrubs and foliage grow in the fields,
Bishnois manage to protect the desert sand from wind erosion. They provide the much-needed
forage for cattle during the hot dry season or a famine. Nonetheless, many observers caution
that the Bishnois cannot be eternally safe from the impact of detrimental ecological practices
(Shivraj Bishnoi, personal interview, July 19, 2017). Hence, contemporarily, the community
remains very active in efforts to save the environment in all ways possible.

Environmental ethics
Environmental ethics is a branch of environmental philosophy that studies the ethical
relationship between human beings and the environment. This field has given a new dimension
to the topics of conservation of natural resources and protection of the environment.
The definition of environmental ethics rests on the principle that there is an ethical relationship
between human beings and the natural environment. Human beings are a part of the
environment and so are the other living beings. When we talk about the philosophical principle
that guides our life, we often ignore the fact that even plants and animals are a part of our lives.
They are an integral part of the environment and hence cannot be denied their right to live.
Since they are an inseparable part of nature and closely associated with our living, the guiding
principles of our life and our ethical values should include them. They need to be considered
as entities with the right to co-exist with human beings.
Concept
The concept of environmental ethics brings out the fact that all the life forms on Earth have the
right to live. By destroying nature, we are denying the life forms this right. This act is unjust
and unethical. The food web clearly indicates that human beings, plants, animals, and other
natural resources are closely linked with each other. All of us are creations of nature and we
depend on one another and the environment. Respecting the existence of not just other humans
but also the non-human entities, and recognizing their right to live is our primary duty. With
environmental ethics, morality extends to the non-human world.
Role of Indians and other religions and cultures in environmental conservation
Living in harmony with Nature has been an integral part of Indian culture. This has been
abundantly reflected in a variety of traditional practices, religious beliefs, rituals, folklore, arts
and crafts, and in the daily lives of the Indian people from time immemorial. The present day
global concerns for sustainable development and conservation of natural resources spanning
the two decades between the Stockholm Conference of Environment in 1992 and the United
Nations Conference on Human Environment and Development (Earth Summit) at Rio de
Janeiro in 1992 are of recent origin in comparison to the long tradition and cultural ethos of
nature conservation in India.
The Indian tradition
For the people of India, environmental conservation is not a new concept. Historically, the
protection of nature and wildlife was an ardent article of faith, reflected in the daily lives of
people, enshrined in myths, folklore, religion, arts, and culture. Some of the fundamental
principles of ecology-the interrelationship and interdependence of all life-were conceptualized
in the Indian ethos and reflected in the ancient scriptural text, the Isopanishad, over 2000 years
ago. It says, 'This universe is the creation of the Supreme Power meant for the benefit of all his
creation. Each individual life-form must, therefore, learn to enjoy its benefits by forming a part
of the system in close relation with other species. Let not anyone species encroach upon the
other's rights.'
Sacred plants and animals
Many plants and animals have from historcial times been considered sacred in India by various
communities. The most outstanding examples are the peepal tree (Ficus religiosa). The banyan
tree (Ficus 'bengelensiss, and Khejdi tree (Prosopis cineraria), and these have been traditionally
revered and therefore never cut. There are a number of other trees and plants considered sacred
and grown in temple premises and are protected in other localities. More than a hundred such
species of trees/plants in India are considered sacred by various communities and religious
faiths. These include the sandalwood tree, beetlenut, palm, neem, coconut palm, juniper,
champa, lotus, tulsi, pepper, etc. Such traditional cultural attitudes, though based on religious
faith, have made significant contribution in the protection and propagation of various species
of trees and plants in India.
Many animals are considered sacred and worshipped by several Hindu and other communities,
and have thus received protection for centuries. The peafowl, sacred to lord Karttikeya is never
hunted, the blue rock pigeon is considered sacred to Saint Hazrat Shah lalal and is protected in
the Bengal region. Even rodents are considered sacred and are allowed to breed in the famous
temple of goddess Karnimata in Rajasthan. The tiger and the cobra, though greatly feared, are
afforded protection on religious grounds.
Environmental communication
This refers to the study and practice of communication about the environment and human
interactions with the environment. This includes a wide range of possible interactions, e.g. from
interpersonal communication to virtual communities, participatory decision making and
environmental media coverage.
What do those in environmental communication do?
Communicate the importance of conservation to the public, governmental agencies, and
private corporations
Communicate your agency’s commitment to good environmental stewardship
Persuade others of the need for compliance with environmental regulations
Communicate with the media about environmental issues
 Write speeches
Help sell environmentally-safe products
Environmental Public Awareness (EPA)
Families and communities are being exposed to environmental hazards, either directly from
their own behaviour or practices, or indirectly from policies and programmes decided
elsewhere and affecting their environment. Increasingly they have become aware of
deteriorating environmental conditions, which are affecting their human activities and health,
particularly in their children. They are becoming aware that the delicate balance between
human activities and the natural environment has been seriously upset. And this not only
threatens nature and the environment, but slows social and economic development as well.

More effort has to be put into increasing this awareness - awareness of the problems and the
symptoms but also awareness of the root causes of the environmental degradation. The public
has to become informed citizens in order to play an active role in maintaining a healthy and
productive environment.

EPA is a process by which individuals gain awareness of their environment - specifically to a

current or developing environmental problem that affects them, their families and their
communities - and acquire the knowledge and that will allow them to take action, individually
or collectively to address and possibly solve it.

The overall aim of EPA is to encourage and assist societies in conserving and protecting the
health and diversity of their natural environment, and to ensure that the use of their natural
resources is ecologically sustainable.

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