DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

As person grows, the personality is also formed. M psychologists present different views
about how personality develops mentioned. Freud presents a very interesting theory about
personality components and development. Read on and hopefully it will somehow lead you to
understand more your own personality.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along the
way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person
will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud
identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific “pleasure
areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a
fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the
child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral
Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of
personality may be oral receptive, that is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol,
overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or
even gossip. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and
aggressive in relating with people.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The
child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s expectations,
particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. Let us remember that between
one year and a half to three years the child’s favorite word might be “No!”. In terms of personality,
fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness,
perfection, and control; or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool
age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will
sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s studies led him to believe that during this stage
boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys then see their father as a rival for
her mother’s affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, thus,
the castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex.
Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience. Developing
unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to as the Electra
Complex.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The
children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with
boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the
start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus
their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego and the
superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and last to develop is
the superego.

The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality
because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the
pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever
feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality. Logicality or practicality
of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. It’s id wants food or milk… so the baby will cry.
When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too
hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.

The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler. He/she relates more with the
environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is
aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that being impulsive
or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response
to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the
id meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego
develops. The superego embodies person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parents.
Teachers and other persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral The superego is likened
to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong.

Topographical Model

The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that
most of what influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier
were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they
caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking. Feeling
and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our
conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we
are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what we are is
hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we
can reach if prompted. But is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still
“hidden” somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone number, some
childhood memories, or the name of your best. Childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.

Plaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational
psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of development and learning. Its
focus is on how individuals, construct knowledge. For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research
on cognitive development. His research method involved observing a small number of individuals
as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian
tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he was
interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into biology and
he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his
theories and research of child development. Out of his researches, Piaget came up with the stages
of cognitive development.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or
create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer
has folders that contain files of things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees
a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It
barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog “on file” in his mind. When he sees
another similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal,
and says “four legs, tail, barks, furry…. That’s a dog!”
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would
make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a different- looking dog) into his
schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema If the same child now sees another
animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema
of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then the
mommy explains. “That’s not a funny looking dog. That’s a goat!” With mommy’s further
descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his
filing cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand how the world
works and to find order, structure. And predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper
balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our
schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development S

Stage 1. Sensorimotor Stage. The first stage corresponds from: Birth to infancy. This is the stage
when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized
in his movement and activity. The term sensorimotor focuses on the prominence of the senses and
muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working
with children in the sensorimotor stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating
environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object Permanence- ability of the child to know that an object exists even when out of sight.
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years
old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.
At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is
now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic function- ability to represent objects and events.
Egocentrism- tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also
has his same point of view.
Animism- tendency of the child to attribute human traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
Centration- tendency of the child to focus on one aspect only.
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to
think logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between
8-11 years or the elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the
following: Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This
allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.
Reversibility- ability of the child to do certain task even in reverse version or direction.
Decentering- ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.
Conservation- ability of the child to know that a certain properties of objects remain the same
despite the change in appearance.
Seriation- ability of the child to arrange things in series or certain order based on a particular
dimension such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between
12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical reasoning- the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to
gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
Analogical reasoning- the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem.
Deductive reasoning- the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.

Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words. Namely psychological
(or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc) and social (external relationships
and environment). Both at the heart of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally you’ll see the term extended
to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.
Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the
theory and incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented
theory. It’s also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own
journey through the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that underpinned his work.

Erikson’s eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very accessible and
obviously relevant to modern life, from several different perspectives for understanding and
explaining how personality and behavior develops in people.

The Eight Psychosocial Stages of Development (by Erik Erikson)

 • Psychosocial Crisis- refers to opposing forces of contrary dispositions.
• Virtue- refers to psychosocial strength which involves achieving a healthy ratio or
balance between the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.
• Maladaptation- involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative
dispositions.
• Malignancy- involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the
task.

Stage Crisis Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

Infancy Trust vs. Sensory Withdrawal Hope
Mistrust distortion
Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Impulsivity Compulsion Will Power
Shame &
Doubt
Early Initiative vs. Ruthlessness Inhibition Purpose
Childhood Guilt
Late Industry vs. Narrow Inertia Competence
Childhood Inferiority Virtuosity
Adolescence Identity vs. Fanaticism Repudiation Fidelity
Role
Confusion
Early Intimacy vs. Promiscuity Exclusivity Love
Adulthood Isolation
Middle Generativity Over-extension Rejectivity Care
Adulthood vs. Stagnation
Late Ego Integrity Presumption Disdain Wisdom
Adulthood vs. Despair

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 1- TRUST VS. MISTRUST

The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and
one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.Because an infant is utterly dependent,
the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure In the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of
mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result In fear and a belief that
the world Is Inconsistent and unpredictable.
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 2 – AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT
The second stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and Is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. Freud,
Erlkson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. Hovæver, Erlkson’s reasoning
was quite different then that of Freud’s. Erikson believe that learning to control one’s bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of Independence.
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 3 – INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel
capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt,
self-doubt, and lack of initiative. When an ideal balance of individual Initiative and a willingness
to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 4 – INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11. Through social
Interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this
stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence or a belief our own
abilities to handle the tasks set before us.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 5 – IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from
this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of Independence and control. Those who remain
unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live
by society’s standards and expectations.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 6 – INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are committed and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong
sense of personal identity was Important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less relationships and are more
likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage
results in the virtue known as love. It Is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful
relationships with other people.
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 7 – GENERATIVITY VS. ST%NATION
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who
are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fal to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved
in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of
your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity
with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 8 – INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. Those who are
unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of
their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means
looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These Individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork for the present
debate within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways
of thinking through their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such as
justice, rights, equality and human welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment
and extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity
took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thought..

If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive development of
children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). The case you read in the
Activity part of this module was written for this module but was based on how Kohlberg wrote his
dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to the individuals in his research and asked
for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the responses were right or wrong. He was
interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.

From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major
levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of
the person. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development According to Kohlberg, moral development
occurs in six stages

Moral Development (by Lawrence Kohlberg)

Level 1 (Pre- conventional) Moral reasoning is based on the consequence/result of the act,
not on the whether the act itself is good or bad.
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
Punishment/Obedience. One motivated by fear of punishment He will act in order to avoi
punishment.
2. Self- interest orientation/Mutual benefit
(What’s in it for me?)
Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later. You
scratch my back, scratch yours.
Level 2 (Conventional) Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or “norms” of society.
This may include approval of others, law and order.
3. Social approval
(The good boy/girl attitude)
Social Approval. One is motivated by what others expect in behavior- good boy, good girl.
The person acts because he/she values how he she will appear to others. He/sh gives
importance on what people will think or say.
Level 3 (Post- conventional) Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent
principles. Is not just recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law.

4. Law and order

One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order. The person will follow the law
because it is the law.
5. Social contract orientation
Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and the common
good.
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience)
This is associated with the development of one’s conscience. Having a set of standards that
drives one to possess moral responsibility to make societal changes regardless of
consequences to oneself. Examples of persons are Mother Teresa. Martin Luther King

Socio- Cultural Theory/ Socio-Historic/Socio-Linguistic Theory of Development (by Lev

Vygotsky)
 ➢ Definition
✓ Sociocultural theory results from the dynamic interaction between a
person and the surrounding social and cultural forces.
✓ Contributions of Culture to Children’s Learning
▪ Children acquire much of their thinking (knowledge) from it.
▪ Children acquire the processes or means of their thinking (tools of
intellectual adaptation) from the surrounding culture.
➢ Role of Language
✓ “Development consists of gradual internalization, primarily through
language, to form cultural adaptation.”
➢ Zone of Proximal Development
3 claims of Vygotsky
a. Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools
b. Functioning emerges out of social processes
c. Developmental methods (Zone of Proximal Development)
▪ Strategies to utilize the benefits of ZPD
a. Scaffolding- requires demonstration, while controlling the
environment so that one can take things step by step. The support or
assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish
independently is called scaffolding.
▪ Reciprocal teaching- open dialog between student, and teacher which goes
beyond simple question and answer session.
➢ Vygotsky theorized that human development is not something that is fixed and
eternal. It will change as a result of historical development.
Cultural Influences

a. Imitative learning
b. Instructed learning
c. Collaborative learning

Principles
a. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.
b. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social. Piaget’s
work on Piagetian’s tasks focused heavily on how an individual’s cognitive development became
evident through the individual’s own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, other hand gave more
weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For
him, the social environment or the community takes on a major role in one’s development on the
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities,
making the social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners’
environment all contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide
feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning
experience,
Cultural factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive
development of children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through
universal stages of cognitive development that allows him to move from simple explorations with
senses and muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other hand. Looked into the wide range
of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture’s view about
education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of
the child.
Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
Learners can use language to know and understand the world and solve problems. Language serves
a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and
reflect on his own thinking.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best through hands-
on activities than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even made more fruitful when
children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory presents child
development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s environment. It
describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the child. Each
layer is further made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s
own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s development.

Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his immediate
family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.
Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s develop
ment then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the
interaction of the larger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

MICROSYSTEM – The Microsystems Is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structure which
the child directly Interacts with. They are called immediate environment Example: one’s family,
school and neighborhood Question: Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships with
the parents and the family? Question: Are his/her needs met?
MESOSYSTEM – This layer serve as the relationships between two or more microsystems such
as what is learned at home culturally. They are called connections. Example: Interactions between
the parents and teachers The parents and health services The community and the church. The
mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one’s life. This means that your
family experience may be related to your school experience.
EXOSYSTEM – is the setting In which there is a link between the context where in the person
does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child
is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months,
there may be a conflict between the mother and the child’s social relationship, or on the other hand,
this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.
MACROSYSTEM – The Macrosystem is a large cultural and social structural elements of the
environment that shape human development. They are called social and cultural values. Example:
marriage ceremonies, outbreak of Mers-Cov or Aids. The setting is the actual culture of an
individual. The cultural contexts Involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family,
his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being
born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.
CHRONOSYSTEM- includes the transitions and shifts In one’s lifespan. This may also Involve
the sociohistorical contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how
divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple’s relationship but also their
children’s behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the
first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family
becomes more stable and agreeable.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start. The publicly-funded early childhood program in

the US. He concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive
force to a child’s development.” Researches tell us that absence or lack of children’s constant
mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their development. According to
the bioecological theory. “if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child
will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the
affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship
look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in
adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self- direction.”
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very important role.
If there is a lack of support, care and affected from the home if there is a serious breakdown of the
base relationships in a child’s life, what can the school, the teachers in particular. This theory helps
teachers look into every child’s environment systems in order to understand more about the
characteristics and need of each child. Each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute
stability and long-term relationships, but only to support and no replace the relationships in the
home. Bronfenbrenner believes that. The primary relationship needs to be with someone who can
provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a
person or people within the immediate sphere of the child’s influence.”