Ed 101 - Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Module 3: Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories

Overview:
The learner is the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around the learner. The fourteen (14) learner-
centered principles will serve as a guide in determining appropriate pedagogy for learners at different stages.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, you must have:
1. explained each developmental theory.
2. Drawn principles of teaching and learning from developmental theories

Content:
 Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories
1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
2. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
3. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
4. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
5. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
6. Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Discussion:
Freud Psychoanalytic Theory
The 2 definition of terms:

Erogenous zone – A specific area that become the focus of pleasure of needs.
Fixation – Results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also probably the most controversial. His
theory of psychosexual development includes five distinct stages:
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During oral stage, the child is focused on pleasures
(sucking). This type of personality may be oral receptive, that is have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat or oral
aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails or use curse word or even Gossips
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child focus of pleasure in this stage is anus. Through society’s expectations,
particularly the parents, the child need to work on toilet training. In terms of personality, fixation during stage can result in being anal
retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and
disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6) The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool age, children become
interested in what makes boy and girl different.

They are the Two complex on Phallic stage: the Oedipus Complex and Electra Complex.
Oedipus complex - when the boy develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. The boy then see the father as rival for
his mother and also boy may fear of their father to punish.
Electra complex – Psychoanalyst believed that girls may also have a similar experience, developing unconscious sexual
attraction towards their father.

Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). Its during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The development begins at the start of puberty when, sexual urge are once awakened.

Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego, the superego.
The id. Freud say that the, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a baby, it works
so baby’s essential needs are met. Example, a baby is hungry, it’s id wants food or milk….. so the baby will cry. When the child is
uncomfortable. In pain, too hot, too cold, of just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the ego
slowly begins to emerge. The ego is a reality principle.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage develops. Embodies a person moral
aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers, and other person who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The superego
is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right or wrong.

Topographical Model

The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotion, belief, feelings, and impulses deep within
are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious.
 The Conscious. Freud said that all we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprise a very
small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality most
what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted but is
not our active conscious. Its right below the surface but still hidden somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our
telephone number, some childhood memories, or name or your best friend is stored in the preconscious. The water, may represent all
that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been made part of the personalities reffered as the non-conscious.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these
processes.

Jean Piaget
- Swiss biologist and psychologist
- first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.
- His knowledge from being a biologist and psychologist influenced his theories and research of child
development.

Piagetian tasks
- designed by Piaget for his research method which involved observing a small number of individuals
responding to the cognitive task.

Genetic epistemo-logy
- theoretical framework of Piaget.

His theory not only examine the aspects of cognition but also to intelligence and moral development.
Piaget’s stages of development describe the stages of normal intellectual development, from infancy through adulthood, and
characterizes different stages of development. He suggested that children progress through 4 stages and that they all do so in the
same order.
His theory of intellectual or cognitive development is still used today in some branches of education and psychology.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema
- refer to the individual’s way of understanding or creating meaning about something (a thing or an experience).
- It is the pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge.

For example, if a child sees a dog, he/she able to creates his/her own schema that a dog has 4 legs, a tail and barks. When he/she
sees another dog he/she pulls out his scheme for a dog and able to identify it.

Assimilation
- it is a process by which an individual is using existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

For example, this time a child sees a short version of a dog. His/her schema about the dog added that a dog has different
looks.
Accommodation
- this happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or
situation.
- In other words, it is the process of creating new schema.

For example, if a child sees another kind of animal that resembles the schema that he/she made for dog, he/she will be able to
differentiate it and the people around his/her will be able to give his/her new schema by correcting or even telling the child about the
name of the animal.

Equilibration
- process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation. It achieves a balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
- if the child’s experience doesn’t match with his/her schema, there will be cognitive disequilibrium.
- in order to achieve equilibrium once more, more effort should be exert to the assimilation and accommodation.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage (Birth-Infancy)
- infants are only aware of what is immediately in front of them and learns by doing: looking, touching and
sucking.
- they explore the world through direct sensory and motor contact. Object permanence is developed.
 Object permanence is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It appears around 9 months.

Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years old)

- the child begins to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols.
- they are able to make mental images to represent object but does not reason logically. In this stage, the
following are evident:
 Symbolic Function is the ability used to represent something other than itself. (e.g. A child pretends broom as a horse)
 Egocentrism refers to the tendency of a child to have a difficulty thinking outside of their own viewpoints. Infants has difficulty
taking the viewpoints of others. (e.g. A child cannot understand why his/her cousins call her daddy “uncle” instead of daddy)
 Centration is the tendency of the child to focus only on one aspect and ignore the others.
 Irreversibility means that the child cannot understand the reverse of something (e.g. They can understand 2+3=5 but can’t
understand 5-3=2)
 Animism refers to the use of human traits to describe inanimate objects.
 Transductive Reasoning refers to a reasoning that is particular from particular and not from inductive to deductive nor
deductive to inductive.

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage (8-11 years old)

- the child can think logically about concrete objects that can be seen or touched.
- they begin to realize that one’s own thoughts are unique and may not be shared with others. This stage
is consists of:
 Decentering ability to focus on more than one feature of a problem at a time.
 Reversibility ability to think about the certain operations in a reverse manner or in any order.
 Conservation ability to understand that an amount or quantity stays the same even if it changes in size or shape.
 Seriation refers to the capacity in arranging series such as weight, height etc.

Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage (12-15 years old)

- the adolescent can reason abstractly and think in hypothetical terms . This stage is emphasized by the
following:
 Hypothetical Reasoning is the ability to come up with different hypothesis and manipulate ideas in order to make a decision.
 Analogical Reasoning is the tendency to have a reflective thought and perceive relationships to find the possible answer to a
certain question.
 Deductive Reasoning is the ability to be able to think from general idea to a specific one.

From Piaget’s findings, we can derive the following four principles:

1. As children undergo different stages of cognitive development, they will provide different explanations of reality.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that children can learn and adapt.
3. Learning materials and activities should be suitable to the children and avoid giving them tasks that is beyond their level.
4. Teaching methods should be relevant and actively involve the students.

Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Erickson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words-namely psychological (or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind,
brain, personality, etc.) and social (external relationship and environment), both at the heart of Erickson’s theory. Occasionally, you’ll
see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.
 Erickson’s theory was influenced by Sigmund Freud. But, Erickson extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social
aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented theory.
 The Epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains:
 “This principle says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress
through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.”
 Erickson’s theory delve into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages served as the foundation for later
stages.
 The theory highlighted the influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build up upon the
next and result into one’s personality.
 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two emotional opposing forces called “contrary dispositions”
 To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between each pair of forces or dispositions Erickson connected them with
the word “versus”. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will us through the
rest of the stages of our life.
 If we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptations and malignancies.
 Malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as
a person can’t trust others.
 Maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much positive and too little of the negative aspect, a person who trusts too
much.

The 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Stage One
 Psychosocial Crisis
-The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a half of life. the crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The
goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
-Sensory Maladjustment: overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would mean them harm
and will use all the defenses at their command to find an excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of course, is the
child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side, they will develop the malignant tendency of withdrawal,
characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
 Virtue
-if the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that, even when things
are not going well, they will work out well in the end.

Stage Two
 Psychosocial Crisis
-the second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to three or four years old. The task is to achieve a
degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
-a little shame and doubt is beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erickson calls
impulsiveness, a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood, to jump into things
without proper considerations of abilities. On the other hand, too much shame and doubt will lead to the malignancy Erickson
calls compulsiveness. A compulsive person feels as if their entire being rides on everything they do, and so everything must
be done perfectly.
 Virtue
-if you get the proper balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or
determination (“Can do” is their motto).

Stage Three
 Psychosocial Crisis
-The Early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt.
-Initiative means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful.
-the capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
-includes oedipal crisis in this stage
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
-Ruthlessness. Too much initiative and too little guilt.
-the extreme form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
-Inhibition. The malignancy of too much guilt.
-they fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
 Virtue
-a good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose.
-Courage is the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.

Stage Four
 Psychosocial Crisis
-Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for
industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority.
- Children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate their imagination and dedicate themselves to education and to
learning the social skills their society requires them.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
 -too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity; children who are not allowed to be
children.
- Children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate their imagination and dedicate themselves to education and to
learning the social skills their society requires them.
-malignancy called inertia, this includes all of us who suffer from the “inferiority complexes”
-if at first, you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again!
-we become inert.
Virtue - Competency. The right balance of industry and inferiority to keep us sensibly humble

Stage Five
 Psychosocial Crisis
-Stage four is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The task during
adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion.
- Ego Identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of the society.
-Rites of passage. Certain accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
-too much ego identity, a maladaptive tendency called fanaticism. A person is so involved in in a particular role in a
particular society or subculture that there is no room for tolerance.
- lack of identity is a malignant tendency called repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. Reject the membership in the
world of adults and reject the need for identity.
 Virtue
-Fidelity. It means loyalty, the ability to live by societies’ standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness
and inconsistencies.
Stage Six
 Psychosocial Crisis
-Stage six is the stage of young adulthood, which lasts from about 18 to about 30. the task is to achieve intimacy.
- intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant in the society.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
-Erickson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency to become intimate too freely,
too easily, and without any depth to your intimacy.
-the malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship, and
community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for one’s loneliness.
 Virtue
-the virtue of psychosocial strength Erickson calls love. Love, in the context of his theory, means being able to put aside
differences and antagonisms through “mutuality of devotion.”
Stage Seven
 Psychosocial Crisis
-Stage seven is the stage of middle adulthood. It would include the period which we are actively involved. The task
here is to achieve the balance of generativity and stagnation.
-Generativity. An extension of love into the future. It is concerned for the next generation and all future generations.
-anything, that satisfies that old “need to be needed.”
-Stagnation. The self-absorption. Caring for no one. The stagnant person stops to be productive member of society.
 Maladaptation/Malignancy
-Overextension. Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and
relaxation.
-Rejectivity. Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or contributing to
society.
 Virtue
-if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will serve you through the rest of your life.
Stage Eight
 Psychosocial Crisis
-referred to as late adulthood or maturity, or less delicately as old age, begins sometime around retirement, after the
kids have gone, say somewhat 60.
-the task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair.
-Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life. if you are able to look back and accept the course of events, the
choices made, your life as you lived it, then you need not fear death.

Maladaptation/Malignancy
-the maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens when a person presumes ego
integrity without actually facing difficulties in the old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right.
-the malignant tendency is called disdain, by which Erickson means a contempt of life, one’s own or anyone’s.
 Virtue
-someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erickson calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children,
because “healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.”

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

 According to Lawrence Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages:

LEVEL STAGE DESCRIPTION

Pre-conventional Level. Moral reasoning is
based on the consequences/ result of the
act, not on the whether the act itself is
good or bad.
Conventional. Moral reasoning is based on
the conventions or “norms” of society. This
may include approval of others, law and
order.
Post-Conventional. Moral Reasoning is
based on enduring or consistent principles.
It is not just recognizing the law, but the
principles behind the law.
1 Punishment/Obedience. One is motivated by fear of punishment.
He will act in order to avoid punishment.
2 Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may
obtain later. You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.
3 Social Approval. One is motivated by what others except in
behavior – good boy, good girl. The person acts because he/she
values how he/she will appear to others. He/she gives importance
on what people will think or say.
4 Law and Order. One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and
order. The person will follow the law because it is the law.
5 Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act
based on social justice and the common good.
6 Universal Principles. This is associated with the development of
one’s conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one to
possess moral responsibility to make societal changes regardless
of consequences to oneself.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Piaget and Vygotsky
 Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920’s and 30’s but they had clear differences
in their views about cognitive development.

Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in focus More social in focus
Believed that there are universal stages of cognitive
development Did not propose stages but emphasized on cultural
factors in cognitive development
Did not give much emphasis on language Stressed the role of language in cognitive development

Social Interaction
 Vygotsky, gave more weight on the social interaction that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals.
 Social environment or community takes on a major role in one’s development.
 Emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the social context of learning
crucial
 Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners’ environment all contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist, give
direction and provide feedback to the learner.
 Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.

Cultural factors
 Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on cognitive development of children.
 Vygotsky looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child.
 One’s culture view about education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the
child.

Language
 Learners can use language to know and understand the world and solve problems.
 It serves as a social function but it also has an important individual function.
 Helps the learner regulate and reflect on its own thinking.
 Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
 Learning by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

Zone of Proximal Development

 Vygotsky referred to the zone of proximal development is the difference between what the child can accomplish alone and
what she can accomplish with the guidance of another.
 More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) is referred to competent adult or a more advance peer, the child can perform at a higher
level of competency.
 Zone of actual development is when a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient at it. So
alone she may perform at a certain level of competency.
 Scaffolding is the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently.
 Scaffold and fade-away technique- learners can become more proficient, able to complete task on their own that they could
not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdraw.

When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:

 1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model-also known as the Bioecological systems theory-Presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that compromise the child’s environment.
-Describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the child.
-Each layer is made up of different structures.
-The term “bioecological” points that a childs own biological make-up impacts one’s development.
-Conflicts or changes in any one layer will ripple through the other layers.
-Must not look at only the child and the immediate environment but also at the interaction of the larger environment in studying
a child’s development.
-Looks into interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of structures between layers.
-This bioecological theory helps us determine how different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the worl affect
the child as he or she goes through more or less predictable sequence of natural growth and development.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment
1) The microsystem- layer nearest the child.
- comprises of structures that the child directly interacts with. (family, school, neighborhood)
-covers the most basic relationship and interaction that a child has in his/her immediate environment.
-relationship effects happen in two directions—away from the child and toward the child. Child is affected by
people (through interaction)around him and this people is also affected by the child.
-Bi-directional influences(Bronfenbrenner)-child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents, the child
also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parents.
-interaction at outer layers still influence the structures of the microsystem.
2)Mesosytem –serves as the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem.
-example the link between parents and teachers, parents and health services or the community and the church.
3)Exosytem –refers to the bigger social sytem in which the child does not function directly.
-includes the city government, the workplace, and the mass media.
-the child is likely to feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts with the child’s own system.
4) Macrosystem –this layer is found in the outermost part in the childs environment. Includes cultural values, customs and laws.
- the believe systems contained in one’s macrosystem spreads or penetrates all the interactions in the other
layers and reaches the individual.
- differences in beliefs and customs from different parts of the world ,experience different child-rearing
practices and therefore results in different child development as well.
5)Chronosystem- covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s environments.
- involves “patterns of stability and change” in the child’s life, whether the child’s day is characterized by an
orderly predictable pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine.
- this system can affect or influence the child externally, (timing of other siblings coming, parental separation
or even death) internally, (bodily changes that occur within the developing child)
- as children get older, they may have react differently to environmental changes. They may have also
acquired the ability to cope and decide the extent they will allow changes around them to affect them.
Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child’s
development”, the absence or lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their
development.
According to the bio-ecological theory “if relationships in the intermediate microsystem breakdown, the child will not have the
tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or
child/other important adults) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in
adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of discipline, inability to provide self-direction.”
This theory helps teachers look into every child’s environmental systems in order to understand more about the characteristics
and needs of each child, each learner. School and teachers can contribute stability and long-term relationships, only to support but not
replace relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner believes that “primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a
sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of
child’s influence”
Schools and teacher’s crucial role is not to replace the lack of home but to work so that that school becomes an environment that
welcomes and nurtures families.

Evaluation:

1. As you read through Freud’s theory, complete the table below:

ORAL EROGENEOUS ZONE
STAGE DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE
FIXATIONS
ANAL EROGENEOUS ZONE
STAGE DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE
 FIXATIONS
PHALLIC EROGENEOUS ZONE
STAGE DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE
FIXATIONS
LATENC EROGENEOUS ZONE
Y STAGE DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE
FIXATIONS
GENITAL EROGENEOUS ZONE
STAGE DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE
FIXATIONS

2. Choose a story you want to use for this activity. Use the matrix below to relate the characters to Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development.
Title of Story/Movie:

CHARACTER DESCRIPTION PIAGETIAN CONNECTION

Father: What is his stage of cognitive development?

Mother: What is her stage of cognitive development?

Children: What is his/her stage of cognitive development?

Other Characters: What is his/her stage of cognitive development?

3. Write your own life story using the stages of Erikson’s Psycho-social development as framework.
4. Cite how the theory of Kohlberg’s Mora development can be applied to your work as future teacher.
5. Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-Cultural” theory.
6. Applying Bronfebrenner’s Ecological Theory, determine the special educational needs of learners, including: geographic
isolation; chronic illness; displacement due to armed conflict, urban resettlement or disasters; child abuse and child labor
practices.

References:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L., & Lucido, P.I. (2018). The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles. Metro Mania:Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L., & Lucido, P.I. (2015). Child and Adolescent
Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages. Metro Manila:Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

EIMEE D. POTATO, EdD

Course Facilitator