The Beechers and Kingdom of God:

Reverend Lyman Beecher, a celebrated minister in 1826, aimed to bring about the kingdom of
God in the United States through denunciations of various vices and support for religious
reforms. Evangelicalism, as embodied by Beecher, evolved over time, with the next generation
seeking not only individual conversion but also reforming fundamental institutions like slavery,
the family, and the political and legal subordination of women.

The Transformation of American Evangelicalism:

Before 1800, most American evangelicals adhered to Calvinism's doctrines, emphasizing
predestination and the limited role of human effort in salvation. However, by the early 19th
century, influenced by a revolutionary spirit, many evangelicals shifted towards a more
democratic belief, granting greater power to free will and human agency, fostering optimism
about human potential and driving revivals and reform programs during the Second Great
Awakening.

Charles Grandison Finney and Modern Revivalism:

Charles Grandison Finney, the founder of modern revivalism, transformed evangelicalism in the
19th century. Through his preaching and innovative techniques, such as protracted meetings
and the "anxious bench," Finney popularized the idea that human agency could bring about
revivals, emphasizing free will and the potential for individual salvation, and expressing
optimism about achieving a societal millennium.

The Appeal of Evangelism:

The Second Great Awakening's revivals attracted converts from all segments of American
society, fostering a potent and adaptable evangelical faith. In the North, middle-class white men
found comfort in evangelicalism's celebration of human ability amid economic uncertainties,
while the urban working class embraced its moral code for self-control and improvement. Rural
southerners affirmed their social dominance through evangelical teachings, and blacks, both
free and enslaved, joined churches in significant numbers, infusing evangelicalism with African
religious traditions and contributing to the growth of independent black churches in the North.

Women, Marriage and Conversion:

Women, both black and white, played a dominant role in the revivals and churches,
outnumbering male converts. Social changes, including a shift toward marriages based on
affection and the uncertainty of women's prospects for marriage, drew young women toward
religion, providing them with a sense of purpose, respectability, and opportunities for public
activism through church membership.

Revivalism and the Social Order:

The revivals of the Second Great Awakening, led by figures like Beecher and Finney, had
profound and lasting consequences beyond the growth of evangelical denominations. The
religious fervor channeled the energies of converts into benevolent organizations and reform
societies, impacting American society in areas such as drinking habits, ideals of women and the
family, and Protestant attitudes toward Roman Catholics.
The Significance of the Second Great Awakening:
The Second Great Awakening led to the dominance of evangelical Protestantism in America,
with a significant increase in membership in major Protestant churches. By 1840, about half the
adult population was connected to some church, making evangelicals a formidable force with
extensive institutions and widespread influence, even surpassing European adherence to
Christianity during the same period.

Revivalism and the Social Order:

The revivals of the Second Great Awakening, led by figures like Beecher and Finney, had
profound and lasting consequences beyond the growth of evangelical denominations. Religious
commitment reshaped antebellum society as zealous evangelicals directed the energies of
converts into benevolent organizations and reform societies, influencing American culture in the
realms of drinking habits, ideals of women and the family, and Protestant attitudes toward
Roman Catholics as early as the 1820s and 1830s.

The Temperance Movement:

The temperance campaign, led by figures like Lyman Beecher, brought about a significant shift
in Americans' alcohol consumption habits. Starting in 1826, the movement, initially focused on
combating drunkenness, gained momentum and led to a substantial decrease in annual
per-capita alcohol consumption by 1845, appealing to a broad spectrum of society for social,
economic, and moral reasons.

Ideals of Women and the Family:

Evangelicals significantly shaped a new ideal of womanhood during the first half of the
nineteenth century, emphasizing the "cult of domesticity" or "true womanhood." This ideal
portrayed women as the moral center of the home, focusing on their role as nurturers,
dispensers of love and moral guidance, with a belief in separate spheres for men and women,
and it influenced family structures and attitudes toward women's roles, particularly among the
elite and middle class in the urbanizing Northeast.

Expanding Public Roles for Women:

While the "cult of domesticity" was challenging for many women, particularly those in
lower-class families, who had to work constantly for survival, some elite and middle-class
women attempted to uphold the new ideals. Lyman Beecher's daughter, Catharine Beecher,
advocated for women's education and emphasized their crucial role in household and children's
care, but many women found an outlet for public activism and moral authority through
participation in benevolent and reform societies, aligning with evangelical teachings that
affirmed their superiority in piety and morality.
Protestants and Catholics:
The growing presence of Catholics in the United States, especially in the 19th century, led to
heightened tensions between Protestants and Catholics. As Catholic immigrants increased,
reaching 8 percent of the population by 1850, Protestants, particularly evangelicals, viewed
Catholicism as superstitious and politically threatening. Anti-Catholic sentiment resulted in
violence, including the burning of a convent and deadly outbreaks in Philadelphia, reflecting
deep-seated tensions that persisted into the 20th century.

Visionaries:
In antebellum America, evangelicals, growing more hostile towards Roman Catholics, found
themselves in opposition to various reformist groups, such as Unitarians, Transcendentalists,
socialists, and communitarians, who shared little common ground with evangelicals despite
expressing optimism about human betterment.

The Unitarian Contribution:

In the early 19th century, the most contentious religious debates in America centered on the
divide between evangelicals and rational Christians like Unitarians and deists, with Unitarians,
though a majority only in eastern Massachusetts, emphasizing human responsibility to follow
Jesus's moral teachings while rejecting his divinity. Despite differences, Unitarians, including
notable figures like Dorothea Dix, Samuel Gridley Howe, and Horace Mann, shared with
evangelicals a commitment to human free will and a dedication to social betterment, making
significant contributions to reform causes.

From Unitariasm to Transcendism:

In the mid-1830s, transcendentalism emerged as a philosophical movement led by discontented
Unitarian clergy like George Ripley and Ralph Waldo Emerson, emphasizing spiritual
communion with nature and the belief that every individual possessed a divine spark.
Transcendentalists, influenced by Romanticism, celebrated the individual's potential and
promoted optimistic reform, with figures like Thoreau and Whitman expressing their ideas
through works like Walden and Leaves of Grass.

Utopian Communities:
Antebellum believers, including evangelicals, Unitarians, and figures like Thoreau and Whitman,
focused on individual salvation and improvement, while some sought to reshape society through
communal experiments. Transcendentalists like George Ripley initiated Brook Farm in the
1840s, a utopian community near Boston, but such ventures struggled due to difficulties in
sustaining group cooperation. Separately, religiously inspired communal groups like the
Shakers, practicing celibacy and holding property in common, found more success initially but
faced decline after 1850 as membership waned.
The Mormon Experience:
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as the Mormons, originated
from the visions of Joseph Smith in western New York. Despite facing persecution and armed
attacks due to their unorthodox teachings and distinctive practices like polygamy, the Mormons,
reinforced by converts, established Nauvoo, a thriving city in Illinois, before moving westward to
Utah under Brigham Young's leadership after Smith's murder in 1844.

Abolitionism and Women’s rights:

The rise of abolitionism in the 1830s marked a transformative event in American history, as a
growing number of white Americans shifted from supporting gradualism and colonization to
advocating for the immediate end of slavery.

The Origins of the Abolitionist Movements:

The rise of abolitionism in the 1830s was influenced by Britain's example, where Parliament had
outlawed the slave trade in 1808 and emancipated nearly 800,000 slaves in 1833, inspiring
some Americans to call for an immediate end to slavery. African American activism, exemplified
by David Walker's Appeal and later taken up by William Lloyd Garrison, played a crucial role,
challenging earlier conservative antislavery strategies and emphasizing racial equality,
immediatism, and the moral condemnation of slavery as a sin.

The Spread of Abolitionism:

By 1832, William Lloyd Garrison had co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society, a national
abolitionist organization that coordinated a network of state and local societies, attracting
around 200,000 northerners, or about 2 percent of the U.S. population. Abolitionists,
concentrated in the East and areas settled by New Englanders, were generally young, intensely
religious, and influenced by the Second Great Awakening, with free African Americans,
including prominent figures like Frederick Douglass, playing a crucial role in the movement,
along with the development of the Underground Railroad to aid runaway slaves.

Opponents and Division:

The immediate abolitionist movement faced significant challenges in American society as
slavery became integral to the Southern economy, leading to the forced migration of opponents
to the North where racism and resistance to abolitionism were established. Northern resistance
sometimes turned violent, with notable incidents like the attack on William Lloyd Garrison in
1835 and the murder of Elijah Lovejoy in 1837, revealing opposition from influential individuals
protecting their economic interests.
The Women’s Rights Movements:
American women faced significant limitations in employment, political rights, and education, with
legal and societal constraints intensifying upon marriage. When abolitionists split on the issue of
female participation. The movement gained momentum with the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention,
which issued a Declaration of Sentiments calling for equal rights and marked the beginning of a
century-long struggle for women's rights, ultimately involving influential figures like Elizabeth
Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Isabella Beecher Hooker.

The Schism of 1840:

The 1840 schism within the American Anti-Slavery Society, triggered by Garrison's stance on
women's rights, weakened the influence of abolitionism as a reform movement. While the
movement heightened moral concerns about slavery, it failed to garner widespread support in
the North, and its lack of a practical long-term plan limited its impact.

Reform shakes the Party System:

The crusading idealism of reformers inevitably collided with the hard reality that society could
not be perfected by converting individuals. A growing number of frustrated reformers were
abandoning the principle of voluntary persuasion and looking to government coercion to achieve
their goals.

The Turn towards Politics:

The growing interest in moral debates, particularly on issues like temperance, posed a
challenge for politicians as it risked splitting voters from established party loyalties, threatening
party unity for both Whigs and Democrats. The agitation for temperance, despite its temporary
defeat, significantly disrupted the political landscape, contributing to party switching and,
ultimately, the collapse of the Jacksonian party system in the 1850s.

Abolitionism and the Party System:

The issue of slavery intensified divisions, as southern opposition to abolitionist literature and the
gag rule in Congress sparked protests and expanded the antislavery movement. While the
Liberty Party's presidential nomination in 1840 marked the beginning of antislavery political
involvement, the broader ferment of reform during the 1820-1850 decades revealed the
profound challenge of addressing societal transformations and sectional differences, particularly
concerning the institution of slavery.