MULTIPLE ROLES OF KIDNEYS

1. **Excretion of Metabolic Waste Products and Foreign Chemicals**:

- The kidneys filter the blood, removing metabolic waste products like urea, creatinine, and
uric acid, which are byproducts of normal metabolic processes. They also eliminate foreign
chemicals, drugs, and toxins that may enter the bloodstream.

2. **Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Imbalances**:

- The kidneys maintain the balance of water in the body by adjusting the amount of water
reabsorbed or excreted in urine. They also regulate the levels of electrolytes, such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium, ensuring the proper balance necessary for cellular
function.

3. **Regulation of Body Fluid Osmolality and Electrolyte Concentrations**:

- By adjusting the concentration of urine, the kidneys control the body's fluid osmolality,
ensuring that the body's overall fluid concentration remains within a normal range. This helps
maintain proper electrolyte concentrations in the blood and tissues.

4. **Regulation of Arterial Pressure**:

- The kidneys play a vital role in regulating blood pressure. They do so by controlling the
volume of blood circulating in the body and by releasing hormones like renin, which influences
blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance.

5. **Regulation of Acid-Base Balance**:

- The kidneys help maintain the body's acid-base balance by managing the levels of hydrogen
ions and bicarbonate in the blood. They excrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbonate,
helping to regulate the body's pH levels.

6. **Regulation of Erythrocyte Production**:

- The kidneys produce erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the bone marrow to
produce red blood cells (erythrocytes). Red blood cells are crucial for carrying oxygen to body
tissues.

7. **Secretion, Metabolism, and Excretion of Hormones**:

- Hormones like renin, erythropoietin, and calcitriol (activated vitamin D) are produced and
regulated by the kidneys. The kidneys also help metabolize and clear various hormones and
other signaling molecules from the bloodstream.

8. **Gluconeogenesis**:
- In situations of prolonged fasting or starvation, the kidneys can contribute to glucose
production (gluconeogenesis). They can synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate sources,
helping maintain blood sugar levels.

These functions collectively ensure the body's internal environment remains stable and
balanced, supporting optimal health and function. The kidneys' ability to regulate waste
removal, fluid balance, blood pressure, acid-base balance, hormone levels, and even contribute
to erythrocyte production is essential for overall well-being.

#1

For maintenance of homeostasis, excretion of water and electrolytes must match intake precisely. If intake exceeds
excretion, the amount of that substance in the body will increase. If intake is less than excretion, the amount of that
substance in the body will decrease

Figure 26-1 shows the response of the kidneys to a sudden 10-

fold increase in sodium intake from a low level of 30 mEq/day to
a high level of 300 mEq/day. Within 2 to 3 days after raising the
sodium intake, renal excretion also increases to about 300
mEq/day so that the balance between intake and output is rapidly
re-established. However, during the 2 to 3 days of renal
adaptation to the high sodium intake, there is a modest
accumulation of sodium that raises extracellular fluid volume
slightly and triggers hormonal changes and other compensatory
responses that signal the kidneys to increase their sodium
excretion.

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The kidneys are the only means of eliminating certain types of acids from the body, such as sulfuric acid and
phosphoric acid, which are generated by the metabolism of proteins.

#6
  In this question, we’re going to find out and
also review hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic
solutions and their differences.

 Cells have a very finite range of conditions in

which they can survive.

 If the conditions are too hot, too cold, too

watery, too salty, too acidic, or too basic, they
can’t function properly. So, we’re going to
understand what happens when you place a
cell in a solution that is much more salty (or
say hypertonic), much more watery
(hypotonic), or has an equal salt concentration
(isotonic).

 Remember that cell membranes are selectively

permeable; they allow certain particles to pass
through, but not others.

 Usually, larger molecules can’t fit through the

membrane without special channels. The cell
membrane is fitted with special protein
channels called Aquaporins, which allow water
molecules to pass through without expending
energy. However, the ease with which the
water molecules can cross is going to depend
on something called the concentration.
Concentration is a measure of how much
solute there is per volume of solvent. In other
words, whether the liquid is more salty or
more watery.

Sodium chloride solutions of more than 0.9% are hypertonic. If a

cell is placed in a hypertonic solution having a higher concentration
of impermeant solutes, water will flow out of the cell into the
extracellular fluid, concentrating the intracellular fluid and diluting
the extracellular fluid. In this case, the cell will shrink until the two
concentrations become equal. We call this cell concentration
plasmolysis.

Solutions of sodium chloride with a concentration of less than 0.9%

are hypotonic and cause cells to swell. If a cell is placed into a
hypotonic solution that has a lower concentration of impermeant
solutes (<282 mOsm/L), water will diffuse into the cell, causing it
to swell; water will continue to diffuse into the cell, diluting the
intracellular fluid while also concentrating the extra- cellular fluid
until both solutions have about the same osmolarity..

If a cell is placed in a solution of impermeant solutes having an

osmolarity of 282 mOsm/L, the cells will not shrink or swell
because the water concentration in the in- tracellular and
extracellular fluids is equal, and the solutes cannot enter or leave the
cell. Such a solution is said to be isotonic because it neither shrinks
nor swells the cells. Examples of isotonic solutions include a 0.9%