WEATHER VARIABLES & VARIATIONS Global temperature, pressure, circulation, precipitation, Humidity CLIMATOLOGY » Study of Climate » Study of behavior of atmosphere & changes in temperature, pressure & other atmospheric factors over a period of time » CLIMATE: Average state of atmosphere over a long period of time (25-30 years)CLIMATE VS WEATHER CLIMATE — WEATHER CLIMATE Weather pattern of a particular Short term conditions of the atmosphere in a particular time place: overa long period “Measured over a long period of _time Measured over a short period of time “Affected by the climate system as well as | latitude & altitude Affected by air temperature, pressure & moisture etc Forecasted | by collective weather statistics over tong time Study of climate is called Climatology Forecasted by collecting meteorological data “Study of weather is called Meteorology CLIMATE SYSTEM > Spheres of earth 1, Lithosphere 2. Hydrosphere 3. Atmosphere 4. Cryosphere 5. Biosphere > Climate system is an interaction of these 5 spheresTEMPERATURE » It is the measurement of heat in degrees which is created due to interaction of insulation with atmosphere & earth’s surface » Distribution of temp is significant for occurrence of weather, climate, vegetation zones, life forms » Temp distribution cab be studied in terms of: > Space ( spatial distribution of temp ) > Time (temporal distribution of temp ) > Spatial distribution can further be classified as: > Horizontal distribution ( latitudinal distribution) > Vertical distribution ( Lapse rate & Inversion) LATITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION > It is horizontal distribution of temp across the latitude over earth surface > Amount of insulation received varies from latitude to latitude > Decreases from equator towards poles > At latitude below 40o, more solar radiation is received than is lost to space by earth > At higher latitude more heat is lost than received Still, the tropics do not get progressively hotter and the poles do not get progressively cooler » This is because of latitudinal heat balance VvLATITUDINAL HEAT BALANCE > Due to latitudinal imbalance of heat, winds and oceanic currents are produced > Atmosphere (wind currents) & Hydrosphere (oceanic currents) act as giant thermal engines & transfer heat from the tropics towards the poles > This transfer of surplus energy maintains an overall balance over earth surface > Most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid latitude (300 to 500)— much of the stormy weather is associated with this region ISOTHERMS > On maps, horizontal distribution of temp is shown by isotherms > Isotherms: imaginary lines joining places having equal temp > Close spacing (between two isotherm lines) indicates a rapid change in the temp, wide spacing means slow change in the temp | | | | |VV VV NY FACTORS FOR SPATIAL TEMP DISTRIBUTION Latitude (variation of insulation) Altitude ( lapse rate) Distance from the coast (temp increases if dista nce from sea increases) Nature of land & water (land cools & heats up quickly, water cools & heats up slowly) Nature of ground surface (soil type, forest cover) Nature of ground slope ( high temp on sun facing slopes , less temp on other side, leeward slope ) Winds Ocean current Vv TEMP VS PRESSURE Adiabatic change refers to the change in temp with pressure On descent of air through atmosphere, the lower layers are compressed under atm pressure & temp increases On ascent, the air expands as pressure decreases. This expansion reduces the temp & helps in condensation of water vapor Condensation releases heat (latent heat of condensation) which is the major driving force behind tropical cyclones & convectional rainsGLOBAL PRESSURE » Atmosphere exert pressure on earth surface » Atmospheric pressure: the weight of air column at a given place & time (force / area) » Barometer measures pressure » Pressure on earth surface varies vertically & horizontally VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION > Atmospheric pressure decreases with height > Due to gravity, air at surface of earth is denser hence has higher pressure > Inthe air column, upper air mass compresses the lower air mass, hence lower layers are denser than upper layers & thus exert more pressure > Atsea level, the average atm pressure is 1 bar & decreases by 1millibar for each 10 meter height > Vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than horizontal pressure gradient but it is generally balanced by gravitational force. Hence, no strong upward windsHORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION > It is distribution of atmospheric pressure over the globe > Horizontal atmospheric pressure variations are caused by thermal expansion (LP) & compression ( HP ) of air. This horizontal motion of air is called wind. It redistributes heat & moisture across latitudes, thus maintaining constant temp of earth (latitude heat balance) > Shown on maps with isobars (lines connecting places with equal value of pressure) > Close spacing of lines indicates steep pressure gradient, wide spacing means gentle pressure gradient PRESSURE BELTS > Distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure are called pressure belts > Seven pressure belts > Equatorial low pressure belt > Sub tropical high pressure belt (N & S Hemisphere) > Sub polar high pressure belt (N & S Hemisphere) > Polar high pressure belt (N &S Hemisphere)Polar high Sub-tropical high ~Subpolartow, Polar high EQUATORIAL LP BELT > Lies between Oo to 50 N & 0o to 50S > Vertical rays of sun - high temp — air becomes warmer & rises over the equatorial region to the top of the troposphere — results in low pressure > Inter tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) lies here as trade winds of the Northern & Southern hemisphere come together > ITCZ shifts north & south seasonally with the sun > This belt is also known as belt of calm or belt of Doldrums——_ Equatorial low pressure belt 90° Bo" 65 55° 3 Equatorial low pressure belt SUB-POLAR LP BELTS » Lies between 600 to 650 N & 600 to 650S > Earth’s centrifugal forces operating in this region makes the air rise— creating low pressure > Centrifugal force is the apparent outward force on a mass when it is rotated. It is maximum on equator (atmosphere is therefore more thick at equator than poles) > These belts experience stormy weather & cyclonic activity especially during the wintersSub- Polar Low Pressure Belts 60° ‘Sub Polar Low Pressure Belt\\55° Sub Polar Low Pressure Belt, SUB-TROPICAL HP BELTS > Lies between 300 to 350 N & 300 to 350S > As the equatorial jet stream (warm air) moves toward poles, it begins to cool & sink down at about 300 North & South of the equator > Air from Sub Polar HP belt (600 N & 600 S) also descends in the sub tropical belts > This creates the areas of high air pressure > This pressure belt is referred to as Horse Latitude > As the cool dense air is sinking here from both sides, therefore, no effect of centrifugal forcesubtropical high pressure belts 10 80° sub- tropical high 35° pressure belt 25° 5° 5° sub- tropical high oa pressure belt 35 30° 60° 65) POLAR HP BELTS > Lies between 850 to 900 N & 850 to 900 S > Polar regions experience cold climate conditions as the sun rays are extremely slanting— the air is dense & heavy so remains sinking on poles > Air from Sub Polar HP belt (600 N & 600 S) also descends in the polar regions > Thus sinking of cold air at poles gives rise to high pressure beltGLOBAL ATMO: SPHERIC CIRCULATION Polar cell Ferrel %& wy | | | g | ne ‘- | a | aeelN ss P | Fenel\ | cell | Polar cell | GLOBAL CIRCULATION > Atmospheric air circulates across the globe due to pressure gradient- Winds > Trade winds > Westerlies & Easterlies > Three cell circulation model > Hadley cell Ferrel cell > > Polar cell eeHADLEY CELL > Proposed by George Hadley in 1735 | > Between So to 30o latitude > Iris global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the equator, flowing poleward, descending in the sub tropics, and then returning equatorward | > This circulation creates the trade winds FERREL CELL > Proposed by William Ferrel in 1856 > Between 300 to 600 latitude > Itis global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features part of air rising at 60o latitude flowing towards equator, descending in the sub tropics, and then returning towards sub polar regions > This circulation creates the WesterliesPOLAR CELL > Between 60o to 90o latitude > Itis global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features part of air rising at 60o latitude (sub polar) flowing towards poles, descending at polar regions, and then returning towards sub polar regions-— polar cell > This circulation creates the polar Easterlies WIND SYSTEM > Movement of air due to pressure difference is called wind > Wind blows from high pressure to low pressure > Anemometer measures wind pressure > Wind vane measures wind direction > Types of winds > Primary winds > Secondary winds > Tertiary windsPRIMARY WINDS > Also called as prevailing winds, planetary winds, permanent winds, invariable winds > Main types of primary winds ee > Trade winds oe ee a > Westerlies > Easterlies 224242 2 SANA ~~ “™ o XN ar TRADE WINDS > Flow in Hadley cell > Flow from sub tropical HP belts towards equatorial LP belt (between 300 N to 300 S) > Innorth hemisphere- direction (north east to south west). In south hemisphere- direction (south east to north west ) > On their way to equator, they get warm & moist and near equator they converge, rise and cause heavy rainsTrade winds ET Coney Org N DF sos ry ae » Na stead CORIOLIS EFFECT > It occurs due to rotation of earth > Its Influences is observed in long distances winds > It causes deflection in the direction of primary winds (difference in rotation speed, high at equator) Upward winds Downward winds t Left side Right side ee:_—_——_— WESTERLIES » Flow in Ferrel cell > Flow from sub tropical HP belts towards sub polar LP belt (between 300 to 600 ) > They blow from south west to north east in the northern hemisphere and north west to south east in the southern hemisphere ) > They are stronger in south hemisphere because there is no large landmasses to interrupt them WESTERLIES > They are best developed between 400 to 600 S > These latitudes are often called: > Roaring Forties > Furious Fifties > Screaming SixtiesPOLAR EASTERLIES > Flow in Polar cell (dry & cold winds) > Flow from polar HP belts towards sub polar LP belt (between 90o & ) > They blow from north east to south west in the northern hemisphere and south east to north west in the southern hemisphere ) > When low temp easterlies meet with high temp westerlies at 600, sub polar fronts are formed resulting in mid latitude cyclones, thunderstorm etc FACTORS GOVERNING PRIMARY WINDS > Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating > Emergence of pressure belts > Migration of pressure belts (ITCZ shifts at tropics during winter & summer) following apparent path of sun > Distribution of continents and oceans > Rotation of earth ( Coriolis effect)SECONDARY WINDS > Also known as seasonal winds, Periodic or variable winds » Seasonal winds-- These winds change their direction in different seasons e.g Monsoon » Periodic winds are those which keeps flowing periodically. For example, land & sea breeze ( day time or night time), mountain & valley breeze MONSOON > Monsoon winds are seasonal winds characterized by a complete reversal in their direction from One season to another > They blow from sea to the land in summer and from land to the sea in winter. So, traditionally explained as land & sea breezes ona large scaleSummer Paci OCEAN em Tropical Basterly Jet Streams > Subsropical Westerly Jet Streams > Surface winds Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Mouth of June!mee | as 4 mele FROME OF CANCER EQUATOR ——> Subtropical Westerly Jet Streams —— Surface winds Atmospheric Conditions over the Indian Subcontinent in the Month of January LAND & SEA BREEZES > DURING DAY (Sea Breeze) > Land heats up faster & becomes warmer than sea- air rises & low pressure ocuurs > Sea is cool— high pressure occurs > Thus air moves from sea to land > DURING NIGHT (Land Breeze) > Reverse condition > Land loses heat faster than sea becomes cooler, HP > Thus air moves from land to seaaa Day Time Hot air rises up mm \ Cool air sinks down | rT {|| vad ——_ _,; Low pressure zone High pressure zone —— ss Night Time Cool air * down oN Hot air rises up ze ttt High pressure zone —> ——— > Low pressure zoneee MOUNTAIN & VALLEy WINDS > DURING DAY (Valley Breeze) > Slope facing the sun get heated up > Air from valley moves upslope to fill the gap and called as valley breeze or upslope wind or anabatic > DURING NIGHT (Mountain Breeze) > Slopes radiate heat & get cooled » Air becomes denser and descends downhill into the valley and called as mountain wind or downslope wind or katabatic wind Rees ete Pen heart Pent tny NIGHT Pune es Fete ia sas Stet) Pe ela omoo LOCAL WINDS > These are called tertiary winds > These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area > Local differences in temp and pressure produce local winds > Such winds are local in extent & are confined to the lowest level of the troposphere > These are either hot & dry winds (tropical dessert in summer eg Loo / heat wave, leeward windfall) or cold or dry winds (polar region eg Blizzards, from high mountain eg Mistral, Bora) JET STREAMS - UPPER CIRCULATION > Upper air current that forms high in atmosphere (upper troposphere) > Jet streams are ‘rivers of air’ > Narrow bands of strong (unaffected by friction), fast flowing (120-400 km/hr), meandering winds (when meander or waviness is large, it is called Rossby wave) > Geostrophic winds (blow parallel to isobars) > Also called as Westerly winds— blows from west to east but the flow shifts to the north & south. > Discovered during 2"¢ World War Li Polar Jet Stream __ JET STREAMS - FORMATION > Form when warm air masses meet with cold air masses in the atmosphere > Warmer air rises higher while cooler air sinks down to replace the warm air, creating jet stream > Types: > Sub-tropical jet stream & Polar jet stream > Factors: > Differential heating, Pressure gradient & Coriolis forceFP Ree 5 Ress ==, py Z Polar jet stream > Subtropical jet.stream Temperate air Tropical airJET STREAMS - wuy WESTERLY > High pressure of atmosphere above equator > Low pressure of atmosphere above poles » The direction of Jet streams from equator (HP) to poles (LP) is deflected by C Oriolis force till it balances out the pressure gradient force. This deflection makes the direction from west to east... parallel to isobars HIGH PGF 5400 Geopstrophic Wind 5460 5520 500mb heightsHUMIDITY > Amount of water vapor present in air > Water vapor comprises only 4% volume of atmosphere but greatly affect weather & climate > Humidity varies spatially & temporally > Same amount of water vapor results in higher humidity in cool air than warm air > Hygrometer or psychrometer measures humidity > Sources > Evaporation from water bodies > Evapotranspiration from vegetation and soil FACTORS AFFECTING HUMIDITY (vapor content) > Land — water distribution > Vegetation cover > Angle of sun rays incidence (Latitude) > Altitude (decreases with height) > Prevailing winds > land & sea breezes > Temperature (increases with raise in temp)— MEASUREMENTS OF HUMIDITY > Absolute Humidity: actual amount of water vapor in the air. Unit is g/m3 (weight/volume) > Specific humidity: the ratio of weight of water soe the rota weight of moist air (including vapor), expressed as grams of vapor per kg of most ate (g/kg) porpernse > Relative humidity (RH): the ratio between actual amount of water vapor present in air and the maximum amount of vapor that the air can potentially hold at a given temperature. > RH is expressed in % RELATIVE HUMIDITY VS TEMP > RH is inversely proportional to temp > When RH is 100%, air is saturated & condensation starts > The temp at which this happens—Dew point Condition Prehumid / wet Humid Sub-humid ; Semi-arid (rain 40-80 cm) Arid (rain below 40 cm)ee | FACTORS AFFECTING RH | » Temperature: RH increases with decrease in temp > Altitude: RH increases with height > Latitude: RH increases from tropics to poles, RH decreases from equator to tropics > Amount of water vapor: more amount, high RH > Distance from sea: RH is more near sea >» Vegetation cover: RH is more in vegetative area CLOUDS > Clouds: aggregate of numerous tiny water droplets, ice particles or mixture of both in air much above the ground surface > Droplets are too small to fall as rain or snow (0.001 cm in radius)- remain suspended & float as clouds > Nephology: study of clouds > For meteorological purpose, amount of cloud (cloudiness) is expressed in Eights or Octas (2/8) > Isonephs: map lines joining places with equal degree of cloudiness> Four major types: 1) High clouds — mainly Cirrus clouds (Ci), feathery (40,000 — 20,000 ft above ground) 2) Middle clouds — mainly Alto clouds (Alt) (20,000 — 7000 ft above ground) 3) Low clouds — mainly stratus clouds (St), Sheet (below 7000 ft above ground) 4) Clouds with vertical extent- mainly cumulus clouds (Cu), Heaped (2000 — 30,000 ft above ground) CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS > High clouds > Cirrus clouds, Cirrocumulus & Cirrostratus > Middle clouds > Altocumulus & Altostratus > Low clouds > Stratus, Stratocumulus & Nimbostratus > Clouds with vertical extent > Cumulus & Cumulonimbusom crowns cet ‘Canes Hate around sn 08 —— ts raoswan Atoourasat (Sun sty wots) MOODLE CLOUDS Cumdenibs — 20m ————— axon enbosta ‘cLovDs ovos with oe VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT CONDENSATION > Conversion of gaseous form of water into liquid form is condensation > Solidification (freezing): from liquid to solid > Deposition: from gas to directly solid > Factors for condensation > Temp deficiency, RH, & hygroscopic nuclei (dust) > Condensation happens at Dew point (temp at which air become fully saturated) > Forms of condensation: dew,frost,fog,mist,cloud > Condensation is caused by loss of heat > Condensation by itself does not cause precipitationFORMS OF CONDENSATION > Dew: water droplets deposit on cooler surface of solid objects. Clear sky, calm air, high RH, cold & long nights are ideal conditions. For Dew, the dew point required to be above freezing point > Frost: when condensation takes place below freezing point. Moisture on the ground surface freezes to form an icy deposit > Fog: type of low lying cloud. Visibility of less than 1km is international recognized definition of fog FORMS OF CONDENSATION > Smog: smoke + fog occurs in areas of high smoke > Mist: like fog, mist is the result of suspension of water droplets, but simply at lower density. Mist contains more moisture than fog & but is less dense than fog. Can be seen further than | Km > Haze: is caused when sunlight encounters tiny dry pollution particles in the air, not water droplets. These particles are invisible to the naked eye, but sufficient to make air hazyPRECIPITATION > Release of moisture after condensation » Continuous condensation- condensed particles grow- resistance of the air fails to hold them against gravity— they fall on the earth surface > It takes place in solid (snowfall) or liquid form (rainfall) > Classification: > Liquid state (rain, drizzle) > Solid state (snow, hail, sleet, glaze) PRECIPITATION > Depending on intensity, rain is classified into: > Lighter rain: Imm - 2.5mm > Moderate rain: 2.5mm —7.5 mm > Heavy rain: > 7.5mm > Formula for intensity of rain: dp/dt > dp =volume of precipitation > dt =time of precipitaion > Measuring instrument: Rain-gauge LLTYPES OF PRECIPITATION > Based on the origin or the mechanism for lifting of air mass 1. Convectional: due to convectional current (ground heat made air hot, it raised high and transferred heat to above layers) 2. Orographic: due to physical features as warm air move upslope 3. Cyclonic or frontal: due to pressure difference 4. Non frontal: when warm moist air mass is stationary & moving cold air mass meets