Everyday Science Notesaw Vibe Main i, am a “as Biology ° = Prepared by Mohammad | ‘Muhammad Atif Ali : Kan ‘Bio means life and logy means sdy, so biology means “study of living organisms”, Branches of Bit . values amd O85" | + . & New Botany: Study of pleats. SS conty anents 4 | Zoology: Suéy of animals. 3 Sy : Ss Microbiology: study of micro- Cytology: Study of structure and func : Physiology: Study of aren Ecology: Stuy ofrlationship pipepeeahioms end eivk Taxonomy: Study of pines : SS Genetics: Study of inberit i Paleontol = wy Beas ontology: Stuy. J “Biotechnology: ¢ of living organisms for the welfare of mankind. SSS ‘ Entomology: Lee ~ JONMEFOREASY ACCESS TOEBOOKS &NOTES Omnithology: ‘Study of Birds. © 182-S10-S45-450-5 = ly 01 . x “. sis Mammalogy: Study of mammals. : Css ‘Aspirants Forum _ 79 les ot th ou vy Meat te ami elie (phe Sri servis Removed ic feat we Nat san Cn rset. “Separate Group For Females with verfcation HNP Ti hot Response tor copyrights Thisbooldnotes downloaded from te inert. aPrepared by E Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: A “Coll is the structural and funetional unit of lie” History of Cell: Cell vas discovered by Robert Hook in 1663.when, of cork under his self-made microscope. In 1831, Robert nucleus in the cell. . “Favo German scientists Schwann and Sehleiden in1839) geil theory. ‘There were three main points of cell theory. Cell is oo (sw After that many changes were made in cell so, consists'of following main points. = ) All organisms are composed of one or be 2) JAlleells arise from pre-existing cells 3). Cell is the basic structural and Structure of a generalized cell: Cell condists of following parts Cellmembrane:/ (| “4 tis the onter most layer:we at & ae oot oe fpadoplaymicwh tam F ype Cytoplasm consists of an aqucous material containing cell organciles, insoluble “wastes and soluble part. ~~ eS (Cell onganelles include Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Complex Mitochondria, | ‘Ribosomes, Plastids ct. <3e+ Insoluble wastes includes Calofum, Cellulose other nitrogenous waste products, (ly * Soluble partis also called Cytosol. Which is further divided into two parts "1, Solis the non-viscous, true solution. BSA Thivs 2. Gelis the vis colloidal solution. / + Over all cytoplasm is edmposed of 20% water. Cay > Endoplasmic rétieulum (ER: elle + Ibis anetwork of channels (tubes) oxtending: SSS pe et eel membrane. . Tae wall ofthese cacnels ae called Cisieng. SSS = They are of two types. SSS , 2 Rough ER on which Ribosomes are atached-They wee volved in the sybthesis ‘oei~ Fac ofproein, = es | . oth ER are without Ribosomes. They-axSinve in the me 1 lipids, detoxification of harmful drugs axtd oem ‘material of the cell to other parts ai foot elon } Golgi Complex or Golgi Apparatus 05S © Itconsists of membrane bound = Cistornae are continuously formed a oF ¥ ‘budding off from Endoplasmic Retieniam. » Protein which is synthesized transi oplex where itis converted into finished p eallor within the cell where it is necessary © Italso modifies the lipids 2 Lysosomes: 0 ES ah pein . gr comple. » Lysosomes are seor J Bodies (“Lyso” means splittiig and “Soma” © They are also knowns means Body). 5 : penchne? They contain special proteins (enzymes) which are used to break down any * ‘hanmful foreign particles or bacteria whieh enter into the cell. = They ere also used to digest the food. f4) Vacuoles: © “These are single membrane bounded organelle. © They are large in plant celland present in the centre of cell, while small in animal cell and are distributed in the cell. 3 ‘ 5 =) They are store houses of water and other metabolic products. es » They give support and help in rigidity to plant cell. prr oP my ran <°] Mitochondria: y+" 5 abranee - CG They are known as power house of the cell. — Their number is different in different cells, depending They have two membranes; outer and inner membrane Inner membrane forms finger like folding celled Cris Inside the mitochondria there is present liquid s They have their own DNA. ‘They are self replicating bodies. They synthesize ATP (Adenosine tri phosp ineell. “CLE 9 ae z 9} Plastids: SS Chloroplasts: eta poe They are preset in green “They consist of three: Stroma is a liquid POR ae carb Grane, consists of called. Chlorophyll is bin except it contains Mg (magnesivm) ion instead of Fe Chlorophyt migneclins — c is tn anand Tam ‘They are present in the petals of flowers. «They imparts different colors to plants other than greea = They help to produce attraction in flowers. =};3) Lencoplasts: + They are colorless. '« They help to store food. + Ming 9) Centridle: + They ate only present in animal c2 «They are present near the nucleus. % « Each centriole consists of nins: ¢ Each of microtubule is further ca ‘© They help in cell division by ) Nucleus: oe : i 5 = In animal cell it is pres 2 ‘the cell membrane. SS © Treonsists of two ies 0 sete sed * They consist ofRNA and :DNA. Pundi%@ They are used to synthesize ribosomal RNG. + _b) Chromosomes: © They are naa lke structures ® Their number is different in diferent animals, Human has 46, frog 26 ete. + ‘They are only visible during cell division. ‘ conhenents Chromosomes beve arms sod centromeres (Spindle bers are atiached fo” % centromeres during cell division). ~~ Chromosomes ar catposed of proteins and DNA., DNA is the hereditary material (which transfers from parents to offspring).i & > ucleic Acid ate” Prepared by Muhammad Tt has nitrogenous bases, but instead of Thyrnine it bas Urac Itisnot hereditary material. th called forayentbhion tis of three types, messenger RNA (@iRNA), basconal RNA (CRNA) and by ‘ransfix RNA (RNA), : HRNA, % © rRNA ispresentinribosomes.— * Goats | + tRNA trensfers the amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosome for the Synthesis of acl protcin Formation @ Problem from SRR MENA ts calle ot Tens i : Pot 9 Unerncomes which Cenjrol @ Perbeten Chewacter wre. Grom TLDNE Ls enews 65 ea Fomatpan ayDiffeanbote helueem, Eronseriphen ah Forerslo- bevy © Synthesis of mRNA fom DNA is called Transcription. Synthesis of protein fom mRNA is called Translation. “Difference between Plant and Animal cell” Plant cell Animal cell 1, Plant cefl has cell wall. iJ Iehesno cell wall. 2. Ithas plastids = 2. Ithasno plastids. 3. Ithas large vacuole present in 3, Ithas small the centre of the cell Gistributed thro 4, Ithasno centriole. 4. Tthasa pair af ce, t | 5. Nucleus is not present in the u pear the nuele 5. Nucleus is p of centre of the cell SearCS$— 2ale GLANDS Prepared by ’ Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: . Gisnd is 2 group of cells which secrete special chemicals called horssones or enzymes. Hormones: Hormones are organic compounds which by glands. Chemically i ids in nature (steroids). hormones are of two types, they are either protein. Enzymes: : SSS : — into the blood. They are ‘within those target areas or use ducts to transfer their secretions. They ar&865 as duct glands. For exemple, sweat gland, selivery geven, Types of Endocrine Glands ©. cl Hypothalamus: Pose Chemie. : . : a Tels a pat of forbid 1 source ceytotin and aatidtmtig mone (ADE, (28-1 which are stored in the posterior part of pituitary gland, This hypothalamus controls ef ‘the endocrine glands. 4 Me:So bd ds ss mostex ee du ee] 3 oe a ©) 2 o- Pituitary Gland 2b — Ibis also known os master ee aod Ee sion is equal t the size of the seed of pen. It bas fixer lobes, anterior, met posterior lobe. ~ Reals a Anterior lobe: / Rat It secretes following hormones: . Somatotrophin hormone ome @ go SS Baak the be gov of the body. It early life then it ety spment of follicles and secretion of Eom In females it stimulates the sone fe bet. In ales sis the production of sperms in testis. 1a) Lf tn bales it simadats the uplre of mature follicle to selene 26, I mii Gs ale etn of SESS (ESP nee ee 9 et AY Salerp °¢ Antidiuretic hormone; Eonckient : ra hormone). In males it stimulates the testis to secrete a hormone called ‘estosterone. 3) Prolactin: Tr females it stimulates the prodution of ai while in aul is -not secreted. Median lobe: It seoretes only one hormope called Mlanophare # pemgintain « Pa nage Be\ yen q s ‘| ey Byram eer t Cdleitenine- Kscnann : : yy a it consists of two Jobes, situated below the 7 eae ‘Tiyrovine and Calskonine- (2 Thyroid gland ary. Jt produces two hocmones 4) Thyroxine: «~ oe Tenor i ye iectGases the metabolic mae of gfacose. °° badly - T Thyroxin also involve in the growth of body sen with Sematotrophin Panchen 2) Cas @ Telowers down the concedteley CG a c) Paraé ae esration of caleiom fons inthe Blood. Cos: Serrenal Gland e Theyare present on the top ofeach Kidney. see pss omits of te pes, ena cortex lel | medulla Si as a ) . ae (air Advere) glat Ce mm? i ee keaitnory \ celulla-(( Aditenali nen Pcie.a) Adrenal cortex: e Tesemetes hormone called conti). Cortisol: Cenvert Polen toto aes « Teincreases blood glucose level mainly ftom the tmebolisn of protein. 1) Adrenaline: kde ae During stress conditions it dilates cssels, Which are going to ron f skeletal muscles (it imereases the# / wool increases the heart beat and b] A _. = Tt inoreases the release of gu where te te form of Glycogen. OS 2) Nor-adrenaline: (ay 1) Insulin: . Tt decreases the level of sugar in the blood and converts it into glyeogea ‘whichis stored in the liver. ae «If itis not seereted in the body then a disease is caused called Diabetes “be Calle L S aston tm J jones e aon =) ae --& Calucogen Foorests yy gq qoteosee “9esl - ae n- 2) Giueagon: A) Ovaries: in females. two hormones, Oestrogen “There aro two ovaries present in fee and Progesteran®- 1) Oestrogen: Two testes ere testosterone. re : 2 Teeauses a put of scotia sel cartes, Hat Ow , 2 cas grote 13Digestive System Prepared by - Mubammiad Atif Ali 5. ae so-which Wrealiowm of lager faed patcles to smaller absorbable ood parses ike place is called digestive sy=tx ; It consists of following parts: i - Ve Omlemity ; Ve Bsophags => (ule ht) ve Stomach 2 ve” Small intestine So SS Liver ‘Large Intestinebe i we af : ei sel et ern aCe itass on sich and plyoogt and convess them a L = When food the oral cavity thoa.it is in the form of e small bell like structure call This bolus then entars into the next part of digestive system. * called esophegtsbo|.uus = Tube tke Sethne-%y Rsophagus one aan! ends at the stomach, and longiindinal muscles. ‘the esophagus. hole digestive system is behind the bolus and bush it + Ibis like a pipe which stacts from the oral cavit > Itswalls are composed of two types of mms & «Both these muscles help in the movement + The movement of food from the © called peristalsis movenient, z So Se eee 4he stomach from the stomach wall from digestion. Parietal ces + These secrete HEL (Hyrochlorie Acid). = Itkills the microorgenisms in the food. () « Itchanges the PH of food. # Itoonverts the Pepsinogen into pepsin. . 3. Zymogen cells: Pepsinoge.Proton poly pop 20 0 freprlon, poly papel ~ Protere - changes into semi-fluid like structure called ae Before the food leaves stomach it +3 \5 chyme, which enters into small intestine. — Small intestine = Small intestine is six meter long. 1 eds futher divided into three perts, Duodenum, Je) 1) Duodennm: —- Entirokmare & eis the first part of small intestine. = . Jtis 20to 25 om long. = When food entecs into duodenum it causes f+ and Hiver. + Both panoreas and liver pour their secret Pancreas: 1. Amylase: Itdigests -2, Lipases it digests fats Sodium bicarbou aS ES = Itssesretion is known: » Bile contains no enzymes, but it ‘contains bile pigments which give it green color. Tf these pigments trap into the liver then Jaundice may 70500 : : 1s re piments ray be dc fo te aeoumsltion of cholesnt se liver which may change into pall stone, : 4 16+ Bile pigments are formed ftom the breakdown of haemogicbin in the liver. + Bile also contains bile salis which help inthe breakdown of fats. Duodemum itself only sceretes one enzyme called onterokinase which. helps in the activetion of Trypsinogen into Trypsin. ae ie Papsir trasin 2) Jejuaum: poy : : ae ani epeprak 00006 + Itistho second part of small intestine. : « Itis2.4 meter long = Food is completely digested in jejunum. Sry Osrm = CO * Scoretions of jejumum are collectively knoy b -f = Ttoontains five enzymes. e alee into dipeptides. J, 1. Amino peptidase: GG Erypsin: It converts 3. Lipases It converts fats into Chere Maltase: It converts maltose Jyge 5: Lactase: It converts la 3) Deum: Tels the third part of small é = Absorption of food takes = Internal surface of ileum hes = Each villus (singular) is ridh from ileum. 7 ‘Undigested food is ne = Iteonsists of 1) Caecum: = [pis blind sac that is present between ilewn and colon. «From caecum there arises a finger like projection called Appendix. = Appendix has no function in humai, Some times it is inflamed duc to the entrapping of undigested food particles and causing 2 disease called Appendicitis. - Same amount of water and salts are absorbed in the c2ecum. 72) Colon: = Tacolon the remaining salts end water is absorbed here. : « Some uot bere se eo preset in eclon wich bes is the crates of vitamin K.. . . [fF salts and water is not absorbed in the color ovens. : = If salts and weter is absorbed excessively =. Undigested material in the form of feces catgl 7, 3) Rectum: S3s = "It isthe last part of large intestine. stricture.Circulatory System: Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: “The eystem in which gases are circulated out the body is called circulatory system, 5 Seor ciaseos Itconsists of three parts, Blood, blood vessels and Heart. Composition of blood: Blood is composed of 55%. Plasma end 45% S eee Tore = Plasma: Ss + Plasma consists of 90% water, Carbon di oxide). Salids ate of two types, i Inorganic are Na, K, Ca, Organic includes, Plasma Non-protein nitrogenous 5 Fats like phospholipids, Carbohydrates like gh Coloring matters like Blood Cells: © These form 45% #4 RBCs (Erythri Sse ‘They are biconcave in shape. ‘Their size is 7.2 micro-meter. ‘Their number is 7-8 million per milli meter eube. ‘They have no nucleus. 19. “Tey contzin haemoglobin, which help in the transport of gases e-g COs end Ox © Their average life span is 120 days. | WECs (Lencocytes): (ems lo Sebetaes, . ~They are round in shape. - ‘Their number is 4-11000 per milli meter cube. They have meleus. ‘Their fimction is to defend the body fiom any’ particle which centers into the body. ‘They are colorless. © Their life span ranges . Platelets: - § “They are oval in shape. SS ‘Their size is 2-4 micro-meters. ‘Tei maraber is 3-4 million per Sty sees They also have no nucleus. ‘except pulmonary ‘end distribute it to other parts of body: 233 more as compared to other blood vessels. Sade up of three layers, outer, middle and inner layer. i scalar to witistand higher blood pressure, They heve no valves. Shape of the Iuruen is round in arteries. Veins: These catry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins «These carry blood from body to heart. 20Blood pressure in veins is low as compared to arteries. i “Tha wal of veins is also shade up of three layexs, outer, mille and ner ayer Middle layer is not highly nmsculex- ‘They have velves. ‘Shape of the lumen is oval in veitis. Capillaries: These carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blo, d Blood pressure in capillaries is least. “The wall of capillaries is only one cell thick, They have 10 valves. Exchange of gases takes place in copillaries. BS Ther was are panaable to water en gstsl SS «tis a sac like pumping ongen . ‘Tt is onclosed in a double membrane Heart is composed of special mus Structure: "a From right veotriole there ariscs 2 reft palmonary arteries which in tum entor into Tight and left Iungs. E «Then right ventricle contacts ‘and blood through pulmonary arteries enters into Iungs. : «Inthe Jungs oxygenation of blood takes place. aoe . From cach lung there arise pulmonary veins which enter itd left acum. 21ane ¢ion blood enters into the left atrium through pulmonary veins. Seton erat tracts and oxygensted blood enters into the Ie& ventricle rough a valve. = From left ventricle there arises a main artery’ where oxygenated 2 left ventriele contracts blood enters into a ‘blood is distributed into the whole body. nevi ste diets) —— Contraction of heart cambers is called: * One complete heart beat consi ‘about 0.8 seconds. © Heart contracts 72 times in one : Tera aS cee ws piva bon : pirehry tract dus * ahaa i fa = — hes | [Bion chi [Bxnchislax} Anas)Se en Excretory System Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: “The system, in vehich metabolic weste products ate exeroted out ofthe body”. . ‘A pair of kidney is preseat in the body for the exeretion of metabolic waste products. «Right Kidney is slightly Jower than the left Kidney. me = Kidneys are twolin number: . ‘They are attached to the dorsal body wall, on either ‘oral column. Structure of Kidney SS Bach kidney is bean shaned. eS Tis weight is less than 1% of the total weight of 20% of the blood daring each heart beat is suppl kidney. Cortex. Tn each kidney there is a lighter outer zegion ‘The inner pale region is knowns Medulla, There are cone shaped. structures i | a i é © Ureter from each kidney enters i Urinary bladder opens to the outsi = Each Hdney is composed of about 2+ Bowsan’s capsule. + From Bowman's alongnerow tube, which is further divided into three parts. ’ First convoluted part is kad yximal tubule, ‘Long U shane partis known es Loop of Heals. Second convoluted partis known es Distal tubule. Distal tubule opens into a duct called Collecting duct 3 ‘Afferent artery enters into the Bowman's capsule end divide repeatedly to form a ‘bal like structure Glomerulus. = ee Clomorulers Rowenanis corsuke « Pogeakie Prencian ftube- pte tubsle+ Walls of the Glomersius are porous. * From Glomemlus there arises Efférent arteriole which forms a network of capillaries around the proximal, loop of Henle and distal tubule, that network is called Perimbular capiflaries. Working of Nephron: x 1) Filtration: * Blood comiaining waste products enters into Glomen Sus + Due to high blood pressure and porous wells of is filtered bere. = © Blood cells and proteins remain in the ie ehicose,| urea uric acid i ae. here. + That filrate enters into the proximal part of 3) Secretion: © The inner layer of the nephron Iumen of nephron. we Regulation of eeid-base balance ve” Synthesis of vitamin D vitarnin D & Sun Shine Vitor in P Predured ».ey Sun Ught- siters a4Central Nervous System... Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali_ Central nervous systema consists of Brain and Sp don jasol "Brain Adpuh ancl + Brain is protected by @ ard bone callé cerebrospinal fluid. + Brain is divided into three parts, Fore jay dpe an «Te controls body temperature, hunger, menstrual cycle, water balance and the sleep-wake cycle. Amygdala: «It produces sensation of pleasure, punishment, § apd rage. orual aroused and feelings of fearHippocampus: © : » Itcontrols long tema memory 2nd is required for learning. Cerebrum: Fe left side of the body. 2 «Outer region of cerebrum is called cerebral Ss pa} It receives sensory information, processes . ~~ fature use. « - Tecontrols voluitary movements, and is “a _Teconsists of three p- / Medulla: ’ : a ems il RRC Ho int malo \ Pons: : 4s, Tt controls tonsitions besveen sleep and wakefelness. ~ Cerebellum: + -Itis important in coordinating movements and maintaining © tis also involved in learning and memory storage. position of the body. 26———— Skeleton of Human Prepared“hy- at Muhammad REAL : : - eS “There ‘are 380 bones in children while in ae Freduoe to 206 bones. Vertebral column: CSS itoonciss of 29 vertebraet” aula Bet ‘There are four kinds of vertebrae wich nected ‘afier their location in the body. . Cervical VertebraeNtina ye Nn. f 37 vertebrae, which lie in the neck , Which are which are located in the lube Pelvic Vertel in the pelvic regiog : : SS Bacterial Diseases - Disease? Name of Bacterium e «| Tuberculosis — i + Mycobacterium tubercle bacitt - . Leprosy __ ee Mycobacterium leprae » Tetanus — : Clostridium tetani i + Meningitis _ Maningococct s «Diphtheria Comybacterfum diphtheria . + Cholera : Vibrio cholerae 5 e+ Dysentery . ; Salmonella shigella = Typhoid Salmonella typhi 28Vaccines: _ Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali = Definition: és “The administrations of killed or attenuated Ih (bacterial or virus) into the body fo protect it against th the formation of antibodies”. [¥ Characteristics of Vaccines: CSS ‘Vecoines art given orally or intremuscula ‘Vaceines are safe and reliable but not iC rs 3. Htprovides immunity within two weeks red in the body. 4, A single dose of some vaccines provid protection against infection. 2 Types of Vaccines: aS LD eS “There are two main types of vaccines: SS Killed Vaccines: orgenisms retained the p = These vaccines can be uséd + Forexample, Chole "7 |. Haj veld Live Vaccines: Se. basically helf killed.or attenuated, which have the ‘immunity but ere unable to cause disease. mw « Forexample: Polio, TB, Yollow fever vaceines etc. aalbed ong” dts Ot i eval isn aroudtd oe Raplilndias One. produed by White bold Crile - open fovetan parses } mice vgn -Enzymes Prepared by Mohammad Atif Ali Definition: * “Enzymes are biological ezialyst which are increase the pace of a ; ‘biochemical reaction and are specific for = Structure of enzymes: : - Defmiliens 4 ee Ls é ¢ But some have a non-protein part Co-factor is essential for the fim UG ne enzym + 2.c0-factor for their proper functioning. ‘They are sensitive to even aminor change in PH, temperature and substrate concentration. 30A Immunity . af ; wy Prepared by ¥ a fe Muhammad Atif Ali 7 f 4 a Definition: abl a The capanity th recognize the iatresion of any materi ¢ body and to forciga material specifi wells and cell prods to kelp to remove the pe wuih grester speed and effectiveness is called immunt Mainly white blood cells form the immune § + They secrete special chemicals whic antibodies. «Kay foreign substance, which stimulate catied antigen. ‘Types of immunity: 2 fntopenty and Ps “There are two main types of immunity, Agta SS 1) Active immunity: The use of vaccines to stimulate the Tot antibod Squy snd making the immunity. body immune against the disease is ‘There are two types of active i cqytie a) Arfjficially Induced agieee ingmaunity: “The active munity wl SS BS ee fs called arfeilly Induced abtivesaayiniy. * ceeuee 3 >) Naturally indug ‘When a person is exposed to alr ction becosies ill and survives, then this immunity Gevclop agaist that sence is called naturally indooed active immunity. 2) Passive immunity: | acguly eo ‘The immunity which is echleved by introduction « called Passive immunity. 3 {antibodies directly into the body is.— Ont ergami< Compounds bie aus Ree Bev tee fant, % Seely. Bee ge tno ee eo SNe, eee a wee” Vitamins <¢s_ 221 216 Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali ~ gy, Definition: : ay “These are organic compounds wich are essential for the growth of the bedy, There are ‘two main types of vitamins”. Fat soluble vitamins and water soluble vitamins. + Fat soluble vitamins: Waiter soluble vitamins: These are those vitamins which oan only be stored in the body. For example Vitamin B Soa aa Beri beriTe ptestaey ZL destorg my piremies. whan 2 mals; thir priendls - (Abrahen Lin coln )ay ia Balance diet Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: : "A dit whic Stans all he essential muons of fod in peer prepara i ealed balance diet. ‘The i sich should be presaut in balanes diet are Cerbolsyterts, it, _proteln, water, vitamins and minerals. ‘Out of above mentioned nutrients first three are very important and are required in large quantity as compare to remaining ones. ~Percentage formula : ree Prepac sem £ Moomutvients - WeQ 2. Fats 30% ‘AS. Proteins 2% : meee > Micromulvienls = Quality formula vitamins, a Wakey 1. Carbohydrates 600 grams 2. Fate 100 grams 3. Proteins, 37-6) grams Minerals and vitamins ere required in very minute quantity. fa rut ~>Carbohydrates. Smovlis+ Tia pel a Ge B20 exo yest mich a water molecules. : Classification of carbohydrates [hye TYP" ‘There are three main types of Carbohydrates, Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides eal US { ph! ise 2A eee oeCr\nsu2 32+ Monosaccharides: «These are simple sugars. F z 4+ They are sweet in taste. : «They are easily soluble in water. + They cannot be further bydrolyzed. + Forexample, glucose, ribase etc. Oligosaccharides: : - Cob fs) a E «They are less sweetin taste. e They are less soluble in water. ; mace ¥ They can be hydrolyzed and on hydrolysis they produce two to ten Monosaccharides. «When two monosaccharides ere combined together, they form Dissocharides, Ha a oonacharices are combined thr) fom tisaschardes and ro on = Forexample, maltose, sucrose etc. 87 On >-S2- Brie Cola ee git Day". Polponccharides: . “They are most complex and most abundant. They can bobyarolyzed 5 They are least soluble in water. For example, Starch, ‘Glyeoges, cellulose ete. eee Bint or _/ Lipids / Lats: ee : ‘These are beteragencous ("Hetero” means different and "geneous" means types) group of compounds related to fatty acids. i ‘They are insoluble in water tut goluble in ormanic solvents like eter, alcohol, chloroform ete, * = ‘These include fats, oils, waxes, cholesterol ete. ade Notes ED ‘i Sei eaieee Protein ae These are polymer of many amino acids” / fr fei & corskémation 4 amino Lids — Importance of Protein: = They build many structures of the cell. . ca et are protein in paar, so, éhey contol the metabolism of <2 ‘@. $s about 20% water in bone cells, 85% water in brain cells and S $j se tary. ‘Water is an excellent solvent. - + Enzyme cen only work in aqueous cavironment, ‘ © Water has great ability of absorbing heat. 5 © Woter also forms d fluid eushion around organs ta protect them fom trauma, © Daily up take of water for normal individual ig 34 liters. 2 * uw body's o_oWater logging Prepared by Muhammad Atif. Definition: “The state of soil when water table raises to 5 00 per cent with water and the soil s wat Sources of Water iain’ SY ag eS) R 1 2 3. Seepage from fields. ode 4 Floods. co 5, Obstructions caused by canalf, & Se ae SSS SS Effects on plants: 5 SS Water replages ait (01 CS il pores, ‘deficiency of oxygen for the growth of p Remedies: = Seepage inteceptor Grains (along both sides of canals). Surface drains. Pumping of seepage water in the canals. Lining of canals. Pumping if ground water. Restricted practices of tigations. 2 Lace Plantation along the banks ofcanals. © ¥)>* EuelgP Proper designing ofeatals (should run parallel othe river). + Proper fow iia ge seston « a Esa 9 cama SeSoil erosion Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: be “Detachment and transfer of soil from one place to’ * 11.17 million heetor ares of Pakistan i * 4.7 million hector area of Pakistan is. * One billion tous of soil is Lost from fj Effects of erosion:Remedies: By providing more vegetation on hilly aces. By making bunds. By leveling the soil and gullies. By ploughing the area 2oross the.slope of the soil. pyaid prezing of the animals on the sloppy land. Building of small dams to check the flow of water. Strip farming. B) Wind erosion: “Brosion caused by wind is called es Factors affecting wind SS meast ks - Imseck, nil erie fe . Peng 4. a Pesticides Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali vy est: “An insect, animal, fungi, weed etc are called pest when their number increases to such an extent that they start econontic losses to human being”. 2 Pesticide: imeLuolur, insechicidles, Roden kade, ye fodles amd. ciel: Nematoe Classification: On the basis of types of pests, pesticides. wae D Insecticides: Ensecticides are those pesticides a) Insecticides of p!© Methyl parathion. © = Malathion. Diozinin. d) Caricides: = Chlorobenzilate. = Dicofol. 2) Rodenticide: Those pesticides which are used to Kill: is, mouse otc. For example: OSs 3) Nematocides: These are those pesticides wich For example: © Dibromo chk aos . Peal BIOS 4) Fungicides: aS zener me arse ey 38Hazards of Pesticides: ‘Mishandling of pesticides during their use can Kill the farmers. So esPollen Allergy * ay aaean Prepared by Mubgingia Allergy: “Allergy is the slbnormal reaction of 2 i .ces or situations which sre armless to other people. =) : Pollens: ~ . ‘These ere grains which exe parc Fagale teproduetive system of plans, Definition of pollen allergy a ‘The allergy which is eamsed By pollemereins is called pe ‘aepy. Explanation: In spring = large cater human nose and Symptoms: Sneezing 4 aaa circles, i ‘Watering © SS Inert ae Preventive meastre cme * Migate Some: place to angi plane where those Pats ae present wich do aa ee pit poloas though air (move from Billy eas to scashores) Remain indoors Guring windy days. Wear face masks. - Mien ee ondivoners inside the home and car can be quite belpfol in redveing jen levels. . rane ee Giicing devices (hh efcieny partioulate a) should bo used in hone and car. . de eas whieh produce oosise sald not be usd booms canoe isthe snain irritant in the nose. Patients should try to avoid unnecessary pollution and paint. exposure to dust insect spray, smoke, aireae a) \- sag ep dO —z Plu cay i 5 aaa Teeth Prepared Muhammad Rest Structure of tooth: The visible portion of the tooth is called beneath the gum linc is the root. Human teeth are made of four distinc cementum. Co Hetrodlant ambos cliporesie ‘types 4 Pear Pack ivhu - 2, Hamgderit means Same “gees 9. teeth ¢ axial : Hina fect ase made af yrs etitticck E ope Of Msi F : : | CO Erarnad= faydesk onlay deyes Balk. 1 BeBtes. ted Cort Bente th tow meek — ee: mea Pm gay orackessal « ; i) Falps bensett denblra Fafp- Cmtmel oy bled CEE ON eagel eek og ee yeni Medes (Cee Esa Wes bebao Ke ; c atime 5 : re oe bes ae bbb nce +Incigins ay teat! S ¥ frodhehad) A Types of Human Teeth ‘Adult humans typically have 32 teeth—16 : fit together and work in concert to chew: fs usually identical to the teeth on the left ¢idee io referred fo as sets, or pairs Ss eafeat the front of the mouth—four in the upper ve a sharp edge that is used to ent f ~ ety Incisors: 4 4 4 tee ‘Adult humans have eight incisors s jaw end four in the lower jaw.) Se c%, Canines: 2 - Ss Paso : On either side of the incisors are tif Binines, named for their resemblance to the pointy fangs of dogs. The uppe? canines are sometimes called cyeteoth. There are two canines in each jew, and their primary role is to tear food, » : c®, Premolar: 4+ 4 Bokind the caaines are premolars, flat teeth with pronowiced cusps thet grind and mash food. There are two sets, or four premolars, in each jaw. Th, ementh - wy Niflcteeth = Ae bal 42 Shed shouir @, -Pamentent 3 bWisoem teath §Molar: ¢ 54 ‘Behind the premolar are the blaze, where the mest viggrons chewing oceaes. Ther: 8° ‘twelve molars—throo sets in each jaw—zeferred to asthe frst, second, and thing molars. ‘Third molars are often called wisdom teeth. ae fs Upper fave est By the time a child is six old, 2 second set of 32 larger teeth, called permanent teeth, cart fo crapt, or 3s out ofthe gums, eventually replanng the deciduons teh ‘Wisdom testh usually erupt by the age of 21, 43aescsel= Definition: The condition in which inflammetion of the I or comtinucus expo: Si yy) viruses, bacterial infections, ., such as those-found in ero sprays and pei al Symptoms: tondemess. & ff usthersymptom is jamie & ‘the Liver fails to ‘break ee ne co = = Wi > SA _ . What are the “ee nsohiiver Ua eso by Hepatitis? It lives in feces i the intestinal tract. How it spreads: . i rene fendi ate mt ce and then handle Sood. Was eprom clans ot infected infant's diap the toilet apers and then hnadles food before 4aa SS ‘washing his or her hands. People wi 9 Coituminated food run a high risk + The virus also spreads when ‘contaminated with raw sewage. 3 as ice, of to wash fruits or * In addition to. the gem i symptoms Stele hanses, fatigue, and E © Babies bor to an infected mother have 2 90 to 95 percent chance of contracting : HBY during childbirth. Treatment: . ‘Although researchers are investigating promising new treatments Sar hepatitis B, the only one currently available is interféron, a drug that is effective in only 35 to 40 percent of patients treated. ri @ Liver trensplants may be beneficial tf infected patients, but the virus remains in ae eae Tay eventually attack the new liver. The Hepatitis C virus (HCV) 45approved to treat interferon. General Preventi = zRabies Prepared by Introduction: Rabies is an seute, contagion gist Louis Pasteur developed a preventive vaceine aguast ‘Pasteurs methods are still used in rabies therapy today. The ns of it, has greatly reduced the fatalities in humans from Modem treatment, following a bite by a rabid or presumed rabid aniial, consists of immediate and thorough cleansing of the bite wound and injection into the, wound and elsewhere of hyperimmune antirabies scrum. A 14-to 30-day course of daily injections of rabies vaccine is then given; booster doses are given 10 days after this course and again 20 days Tater.a Addison’s disease troduction: = Introduction: ea ‘Addison's Disease, chronic endo: resulting from mnderactive adrenal glands that do not produce enough corticdst ‘ormones. The disease was first described by the British physician Thomagy ein 785S. Adrenal glands may be adversely affected by a severe infection, such ait Js, massive bleeding of the adrenals or surgery s hibereaiosts, adiecting the glands, such‘ Soydivof @ tumor, but in most eases the origin of the SS ;Introduction: “The sxiallpo, a itong-f0 co referred to more simply es Ae largest vires's. ee &S How it spreads? Ss Course int fe hedy and Symptoms: - Qo = “After a person is inEied with the smallpox virus, ebout 12 days pass before the person begins fp feel sick, a time known as the incubation period. During the incubation period, vwihile the infected person still feels healthy, the smallpox virus multiplies in the lymph. nodes, lungs, and other tissues. By the 12th day the virus moves into the bloodstream, producing sudden and dramatic symptoms that include high fever of 39° to 41°C (102° t0 06°F), headache, muscalar and abdominal pain, and vorniting, Within two to three days infections during Jn the most extreme forms of stualipox, the virus causes bleeding undemeath the skin, 49giving the skin e buraing appearance. In cases the virus causes massive tissue Samnage to skin and to intemal organs, and Bleed heavily from the mouth and other body openings. Such eases are inveriatly The exact cause of death in stpallpax shock, cardiovascular complications, at those who survive the illness, the ‘pustules form scabs and finally drop of ‘use of intravenous fluids to, aspitin or codeine to relieys: penicillin or tetragyeline ¥ ‘an effort to minimize s antiseptic baths and naowcs Only vansination is the b&b Hestaeat These is no cure, oF orm 5 eles outbreaks, medical care p reat deirdre, & = SS SSS] plow against smalipok, and one of history's land took place in 1796 with an % re a early women ws lid course that ultimately led to victory over smallpox. i i Beth DNA» De-oxy — ribo Nucleic i alforibe qiuclaic detcl De- of Tibo (fuclese Actor a any ribo Nuclei Buta bur Ribo Needkeie Aid Rito fuer dual Rilo -Nuclae eid Ribo Muctece Aciel. -Introduction: Typhoid Fever, acute i d by bacteria called Salmonella ppki. The bacteria is transmitter by? , or solid food contaminated by feces of typhoid victims or of ‘The World Health Ozgnnizatiod (WHO}-Fstimates that globally some 16 million cases of typhoid fever occur aimually; causing 600,000 deaths. ion of mitk and water supplies, and the pasteurization of mille in greatly reduced the incidence of the typhoid bacilli. Of equal Higertance in the control of typhoid fever has been the recognition of carviers, who can then be prevented fom handling food, and improvement of -sewage facilities. : ‘Another important factor in the control of typhoid Sever is typhoid. inoculation of persons exposed to the disease, such as hospital employees and travelers to areas- Chemical Composition ofa E Mammalian cell =< Ss Percentage Components Water Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids DNA RNA Other organic mol inorganic ions Percentage 65% 18% 10% 3% { 2% 1% 4Symptoms: . Messier eae appearing on the surface of the skin, imitation of the eyes (es iy. gn ek to light), coughing, and a runny nose. * Aa 12d ais Ga BSR fs REESE a . Coughing and rk glands ios fun REE ent tekst SSS di ear: on the = ols ee » Four days later, limbs. )), about 1 iillion children die the brain, and ean cause death or for measles exists except vaccination. Patients are kept isolsted dividuals, usually resting in bed, and sre treated with aspirin, ‘iedone to lessen fever, coughing, and itching. The disease usually cough SPP, Or efier one stack, and an imate pregaant woman passes the antibody inthe globulin fraction of the blood serum, through the placenta, to her fms.S Poliomyelitis & ‘The term poliomyelitis decives fom Greek gray (polins) matter of the spinal cord (wspelos) ws “ It is infections viral disease that cometines eats BSS. ‘The infection chiefly affects children and young adults and is cau so ETRY. OF of three related viruses called polioviruses. ——— ~ aS Ss How Polio develops? Sy’ = There are nee types of poliovinss MinS EEE Deen Kdentifiods Type | (also known as Beattie 75S) By Type 2 (Lansing). <— a S => ‘Type 3 (Leon). Jymph nodes of the upper =5p ‘gaotointestinal tract {aru mach to G, The virus multiplies in the is sheg ace i in further infections. For example, 2 pareat ‘waste disposal can ead These infections, in tum, spread the virus m0 Large quamtitis jn intestinal tissue, where cells of the bady’s lymphatics: into the body's lymphatic system stirnulates thet antibodies. These specialized i és in time, will destroy the “ral intruder. From the lymphatic system, the virus typically invades the bidodstream: 2 Types of Polio Diseases and their Symptoms: Once the viras enters the bloodstream, the virus may cause one Of four *YPeS of illnesses marked by varying severity 1) Some infections result in abortive poliomspsit a mild form of the disease throat, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting, This hours to a few days. In more than 95. the virus may characterized by fever, headache, sore Short-lived form of the illness lasts only from “erect of cases, the discese gets no worse. Sometimes, however, 54invade the nervous system, causing more severe forms of the disease, 2) Some pollovins infpedons of ne sells, of neurons, result in nom-paralytic ‘paralytic polio usually subside within 3) In perhaps 1 or 2 percent eausing permanent damage. i disabling form of the disease oceurs, called paraiytic poliomyelitis. In of newrons in the spinal cord may cause temporary damage to ‘permanent destruction. The muscles svn by iced sega he end mcr wlan in eos and legs may develop, eee aw aAIDS Prepared by Muhammad Atif ‘What do AIDS mean? Discovery /symptoms: Physicians first reported itin 1980 Symptoms include: 3 Severe pneumonia (lungs: Sudden, weight loss SSS Swollen iymph nodes ST eee SS 36Cause: (HIV) 1984 research team from Pasteur institute in France and NIH in USA © Hostspecific SS «Major cell infected by HIV is CD4 cells (help =i mphocytes) © It is mejor component of immune syne «When HIV kills CD4 cells, thereis suumber reaches to less than 200 CI Jost. ae © Counting CD4 cells in the blood 200 cells indicate HIV infection © Presence of certain infections‘the blood, vaginal fd, semoa, breast milk of peoplcinfocted with HIV has enough of the virus in it to infect other people. Tecan be transmitted by: > Intimate sox contact > Contact with infected blood > Breast feeding (can be transmitted, pregnancy, delivery) workers Prevention: Avoiding direct contact Wi wm the HIV, it can slow down the damage to your imanne 2 ae is no way to cleat HIV out of the body = od to prevent infections > Vaccine hiv'be: n synthesized and its experimental administration in humans bas Teejarted in 200] in South Aética. But they are not effective as virus can mutate So as there is no way to cure AIDS and at the momeat: isnot infected” CARE IS BETTER THAN CURE 38"The process by which 78% of nitrogen is ¢f world of living s (All life requires nitrogen-com] ‘Air, which is 78% nitrogen gas (Na), if ‘But most organisms cannot nse nf ‘Plant must secure their nitrogen in ismas is know 2s nitrogen.“Microorganisms play major roles in all four of these. Nitrogen fixation ‘Three processes are responsible for most of the ufone fixation in the biosphere: + Atmospheric fixation by lightoing 5 Biological fixation by cerisin microbes-alone or ina symbiotic relationship with some plants and animals. a % © Tadustrial fixation in fertizers | = Atmospheric fixation S ‘The enormous energy of lightning breaks, combine with oxygen in the air oming. nitrates that are carried to the certh. A ae pot the total nitrogen Seed. = Y Biological Sration Sop The ability to fix nitrogen is found o eegtaits bacteria. ‘= Some live in a symbiotic Rhizabit — Biological nitrogen fixations Bc ATP. Although the Sat incorporated into proteit smtcther Organic Industrial fixation ~S= Tipe amount of nirogen iced i the form Ammonification =~ 72077 ee ; : cae in wp drt by plat ly However, most of the ammopit pebduced by decay is v onverted into nitrates. This is accomplished #nto ‘to steps: SP jacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NEES to nitrites (NO=). 7 Bepteia ofthe genus Nirobacter oxidize the ntrtes fo nitrates (NO-). 60“These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria. Throt activities (Which supply them with all their eneezy needs), nitrogen is made av the roots of plants. “Many Iegumes, in addition to fixing atmospheric nitrogen, also perform nitrification ‘converting some of their organic nitrogen to nitrites and nitrates. These reach the soil Ni assimilation ‘Plants use nitrogen in the form of nitrates, which on reduction forms ammonia. Plant cells zbsorb amenonia in amino (NEZ) from. The ammonia eves: becomes a part of amino acid which in tum forms proteins. Proteins from the plants are used. fs “These supply amino acid necessary for the metabolism of animals. orn ‘The three processes above remove nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it through : z ia (Psemiomonas) are the agents. They live deep in soil Gai in aquatic sediments where conditions arc anaerobic. They use nities as an altecoative to oxygen for the final electron acceptor in their respiration. Thus they close inly, as example: the "blooms" of algae in lakes and rivers as nitrogen fertilizers Jeach from the soil of adjacent famms (ond lawns). The accurmlation of dissolved nutrients in a body of water is called Eutrophication. élPhysics Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: “Tis branch of science whieh deals vt Main B Solid-State Physic Mechanics: Tedeals wit the motion SS Pine action of given forces. serial Iris concemed with pr niectromagnetism: this conoemed with the observations and laws relating to cleetrsity and magnetism, 62Lsofepes ae Hiferen Ment soinich tek He tome obra, reasibe bat different mar anambex? Isotopes’ Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: z “Isotopes are different types of en element which have the Explanation: Some isotopes are radionotive (emit: radiations) so, Isoto; Ec 0 oe a : ne rma Patio QE nuteriam = Trifum ‘ordinary Hydrogen which is present in the atmosphere and in water. i one proton end no neutron. SSFem: oe It has ong electron, ane proton. and two {ts atomie mumiber is ont Wile atom ‘gumber) is three. eis not present in almagpbere but it je kee Prepares. Jt is the radio active isotope of Hydro}Hy “li fhe vent amass cream toen” Isotopes Prepared by Muhammad Atif Ali Definition: “Isotopes are different types of an element which have the Explanation: — Isotopes of esas i "tia SS eutevium = Toth umn ‘ordinary Hydrogen which is present in the atmosphere and in water. ‘one proton and no neutron. Soin: Ithes one electron, one proton and one heutron. Itis present in heavy water.suniber) is three. ro tsotepes Some abomic iuaver bot pigerent moe NenN uclear Fissiondtion to take place is that two positive 10 cause the reaction. ‘a hugo kinetic energy to overcome the process. F 11 So, for the start of nuclear fasion process one must have to start nuclear fission ‘process, because in nuclear fission process, more than one million °C temperature canbe 12 Nuclear fusion process is taking place on the surface of the earth 13 Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of nuclear fusion process. 14 The first hydrogen bomb was exploded in 1952 by America 661 2 3 4 5 6, 7 They are 2 lighter than many materials of comparable strength, because they have low density (0.9 to 2.2 g/om®) Plastics do not rust or rot. : ‘They can be produced in any color. They can be molded in any farm. ‘They can also be manufactured as clearas glass. They are waterproof. They are chemically resistant. They are insulators.' Disadvantages: . «They are non-resistance to heat. When bumed, some plastics produce poisonous furnes. Plastios do not easily break down into ‘simpler components. As a result, disposal of plastics creates a solid waste problem. Types of Plastics: ica SIL 4 D ‘Aliplastios can be divided Into two groups: thenmoplastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics: on “Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling. Follawing are the main types of thermoplastics. ee lelkaus CH, ee lay och PRM oe 22 , spichdeas mot Bie ale, aller at topos. , Polyethylene (PE) resins aré milly whit, ranstuoent substangss derived from ethylene (CH.9CHA) there are two types of polyethylene, Low density polyethylene (LOPE) and high density Paljethyiene (HDPE). LDPE is the most widely used ofall plastics, because it's inexpensive, flexible, extremely tough, and chemical-resistant. LDPE is molded into potties, garment bags, frozen food packages, and plastic toys. » snt and is molded into bags, car fue! Met port bud mat Rawseparront High-density polyethylene (HDPE) less dransi tanks, packaging, and piping. Y” All Ble 2 Polyvinyl Ghioride | Polyinyl chloride (PVC) is prepared trom the organic compound (vinyl eho (CHACHC). PVC is lightweight, durable, and waterproof, hard and flame-resistant used to form pipe, clear bottles, compact dises and computer casings. Cylolsp At 5 3 Polypropylene //. lymerized from the’ organic compound propylene (CH28CHSCH,). It is roducis, such as rope, fiber, luggage, carpet, and packaging film. Polypropylene is pol “used to form many pI 4 Polystyrene st oatPolystyrene, produced from styrene (CsHsCH9CH,), it is widely used because of its ~ rigidity and superior insulation properties. It Is used te form to form products such 2s _; foys, utensils, model aircraft kits, and ballpoints ete. Polystyrene. is also expanded into foam plasties such as packaging materials, egg cartons, and flotation devices. ef “lass Glsal O39) ; Terephthalate (.~> ~ 5 Polyethylen Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is formed from the reaction of terephthalic acid (HOOC8CsHs8COOH) and ethyiene glycol (HOCH:8CH,0H). PET is used to produce“ films and polyester fibers, trademarked texfles Dacron, Fibre V, Fortrel, and Kodel. — Tough, transparent PET films (marketed under the brand name Mylar) are magnetically_ coated to make beth audio and video recording tape. 6 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Ls Gay CoG Mone Penal gle! ® ES Aeryionitile butadiene styrene (ABS) js made by polymerization Of acryionivile | (CHsGHCN) and styrene (CeHsCH@CH,). ABS plastic is molded to make telephones, ” helmets, washing machine, and pipe joints, luggage, golf carts, toys, and car grills, and ~ pipes. ores : 7 Polyamide == NYLON z: Polyamides (PA), known by the trade name Nylon, consist of highly ordered molecules, ~~ ‘which give. polyamides high tensile strength. Polyamides are made by reacting. dicarboxylic acid with diamines. Some types of nylon are synthesized by the condensation of amine acids. 1 : iE and they are slippery. The most commonly nylon are Z ‘They are high abrasion resistance, brushes, and heavily used in textile Industries. used to form fibers, ropes, fishing lines, Thermosetting Plastics: ‘These are those plastics which are molded only once and cannot be remolded again. | Following are the types of these plastics. Gays) ds yy Fe J Polyurethane U Palg- evertnane - a Polyurethane is a polymer consisting of the repeating unit of [BRBOOCNHERE), where R may represent a different alkyl group. It is ‘used to make seat cushions, mattresses, and packaging, also used as insulation in refrigerators, freezers, and homes. = Bi