BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY

Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Lesson Title: Basic Concepts of Mycology Materials:

SAS # 1
Pen, Paper
Learning Targets:
At the end of the module, students will be able to: References:
1. Differentiate between yeasts and molds. 1. Fisher, Fran & Cook, Norma, B.
2. Explain the difference between germ tubes and Fundamentals of Diagnostic
pseudohyphae. Mycology. Maryland Heights, MO.
3. Describe the different types of hyphae. Saunders.
4. Explain the dimorphic and polymorphic nature of some 2. Mahon, C. R., Lehman, D.C., &
fungi. Manuselis, G. Textbook of Diagnostic
5. Compare asexual and sexual reproduction of fungi. Microbiology. Maryland Heights, MO.
6. Distinguish among the four classes of fungi that infect Saunders Elsevier.
humans. 3. Forbes, B.A., Sahm, D.F., &
Weissfeld, A.S.. Bailey & Scott’s
Diagnostic Microbiology. St. Louis,
MO. Mosby Elsevier.

A. LESSON PREVIEW

Introduction (2 minutes)
If you have this module, it means you passed Bacteriology! CONGRATULATIONS and welcome to
Mycology and Virology! Be on a good start by reading the syllabus and be guided with the following:
1. Course description
2. General course objectives
3. Course outline
4. Computation of term grades

What I Know Chart (3 minutes)

What I Know Question: What I Learned

How are fungi different from bacteria?

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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

B. MAIN LESSON (40 minutes)

CONTENT NOTES

OVERVIEW OF CLINICAL MYCOLOGY

Fungi constitute an extremely diverse group of organisms - nonmotile, eukaryotes that have
definite cell walls, are devoid of chlorophyll, and produce spores or conidia. Fungi seen in the
clinical laboratory can generally be separated into two groups based on the appearance of the
colonies formed. The yeasts produce moist, creamy, opaque or pasty colonies on media, whereas
the filamentous fungi or molds produce fluffy, cottony, woolly, or powdery colonies.

More than 50,000 valid species of fungi exist, but only 100 to 150 species are generally
recognized as causes of human disease. Some have been recognized as classic pathogens,
whereas others are recognized only as environmental saprobes, living on nonliving material.
Fungi can cause mild infections, trigger allergic reactions, including asthma, and produce serious
life-threatening disease. With the advent of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and diseases such
as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) that affect the immune system, the line between
pathogen and saprobe has been blurred. The isolation of all organisms, especially in the
immunocompromised patient, must initially be considered a significant finding and evaluated in
light of the patient’s history and physical examination results.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

Fungi are composed of a vast array of organisms that are unique compared with plants and animals. Included among
these are the mushrooms, rusts and smuts, molds and mildews, and the yeasts. Despite the great variation in
morphologic features of the fungi, most or all share the following characteristics:
1. The presence of chitin in the cell wall
2. The presence of ergosterol in the cell membrane
3. Reproduction by means of spores, produced either asexually or sexually
4. The lack of chlorophyll
5. Lack of susceptibility to antibacterial antibiotics
6. Their heterotopic (derive nutrition from organic materials) nature
7. Thallophytes - they lack roots, stem, leaves, and other parts of vascular plants
8. Most are obligate or facultative anaerobes

CELLULAR STRUCTURES OF FUNGI

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with a complex cellular organization.
1. Cell wall
2. Cell membrane
3. Cytoplasmic contents
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________
CELL WALL
Composed of chitin (polysaccharide of N-acetylglucosamine) and beta-glucan – long polymer of D-glucose; site
of action of the antifungal agent capsofungin; other contents include: chitosan, cellulose, α-glucan, β-glucan, and
mannan. Fungal cell wall is thicker in yeasts (200-300 nm) than in molds (200nm).

Medical Importance of Fungous Cell Walls. Cell wall governs fungous pathogenicity.
1. Mediates attachment to host cells including phagocytes, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells.
2. Fungous cell walls are potent antigens – humans develop immune responses to a number of wall
determinants. Humans lack the enzymes that degrade many cell wall polysaccharides, as a result,
fungal walls are cleared very slowly; thereby contributing to fungal pathogenicity.
3. Cell surface ligands, receptors and other components promote colonization, invasion, and subversion
of host defenses.

Functions of the Cell Wall

1. provides rigidity and strength,
2. protects cell from osmotic shock, and
3. determines fungal shape

Staining Properties of the Cell Wall

1. Stains well with Periodic acid – Schiff (PAS) and methenamine silver – true wall stains, since internal
contents and capsular material are not stained
2. Calcofluor white is highly sensitive for fluorescence microscopy – binds cellulose and chitin
3. Gram stain – not applied but useful for Candida smears

CELL MEMBRANE
Bilayered membrane similar in structure and composition to eukaryotes. Contains sterols - ergosterol and
zymosterol. Amphotericin B (major antifungal antibiotic) has a greater affinity for ergosterol than cholesterol.
Triazole and imidazole antifungals interfere with the synthesis of ergosterol; they block the cytochrome P-450-
dependent 14 α-demethylation of LANOSTEROL (precursor of ergosterol and cholesterol)

CYTOPLASMIC CONTENTS
1. Hyphae – multinuclear as cytoplasmic continuity is maintained
2. Mitochondria – similar to plant and animal cells; important for sporulation and dimorphism
3. Vacuoles - contain hydrolytic enzymes; serve as storage of: ions, and metabolites
4. Secretory and transport apparata
5. Toxins – “killer toxins” produced by dsRNA mycovirus; these toxins have a narrow pH range, are made up
proteins or glycoproteins, and require binding to the cell wall of the target yeast. These toxins can be found
among Saccharomyces cerevisae, Candida, and Cryptococcus.
6. Secondary metabolites - small compounds that are not essential to the cell’s viability. Examples are
carcinogens (aflatoxins), toxins (amaniti), antibiotics, anticancer substances, and pharmacologically active
compounds (ergotamine).
CAPSULE
External coating of slime, composed of polysaccharides that may be mucilaginous and
cause the cells to adhere and clump together. Capsular polysaccharides may influence
growth of fungus by preventing dissociation of buds from yeast cells or the dispersion of
yeasts in air or water. Capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans has antiphagocytic
properties
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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________
GROWTH FORMS OF FUNGI
Fungi are separated into two groups based on their morphology – they exist as yeasts or molds.

YEASTS
Yeasts are single vegetative cells that form a smooth, creamy, bacterial-like colony. Their macroscopic and
microscopic morphologies are similar, hence, their identification is based primarily on biochemical testing.
 Microscopic morphology – unicellular round or oval cells; size ranges from 2 to 60 μm
 Culture morphology - moist, creamy colonies on culture resembling staphylococci

Yeasts reproduce by budding or fission.

1. Budding (blastoconidia formation) involves
maturation of the bud to an independent
blastoconidium (daughter cell). This process
involves lysis of the yeast cell wall. As the bud
enlarges, the nucleus of the parent cell
undergoes mitosis. Once the new nucleus is
passed into the daughter cell, a septum forms
and the daughter cell breaks free forming a
residual defect occurs at the site of the
budding (i.e., a bud scar)

2. During fission, two cells of equal size are

formed. These cells continue to grow from the
tips of the cell and divide only after a medial
fission is formed.

Germ Tube VS Pseudohyphae

An outpouching of the cell wall that becomes tubular and does not have a constriction at its base is termed
a germ tube; it represents the initial stage of true hyphae formation. Alternatively, if buds elongate, fail to
dissociate, and form subsequent buds then pseudohyphae are formed; these have a “links of sausage”
appearance. Pseudohyphae have cell wall constrictions rather than true intracellular septations delineating
the fungal cell borders. The two cells may either separate after the septum is formed or remain attached
through subsequent rounds of mitosis.

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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

MOLDS
Mold form of growth refers to the production of multicellular, filamentous colonies.
The basic structural units of the molds are tubelike projections known as hyphae
(hypha – singular). As the hyphae grow, they become intertwined to form a loose
network, the mycelium, which penetrates the substrate from which it obtains the
necessary nutrients for growth. Hyphal growth occurs by apical elongation; some
hyphae are divided into cells by crosswalls (septa), w/c are typically formed at
regular intervals during filamentous growth.

Vegetative hyphae comprise the body of the fungus, in contrast to specialized

reproductive hyphae. The nutrient-absorbing and water-exchanging portion of the
fungus is called a vegetative mycelium. The portion extending above the
substrate surface is known as aerial mycelium; fertile mycelia give rise to fruiting
bodies from which asexual spores are borne.

Nonreproductive Vegetative Hyphae

The microscopic appearance often aids in the identification of molds. In some species, antler, racquet,
rhizoids, or spiral hyphae are formed, instead of spores (sterile hyphae).
1. Favic chandeliers or antler hyphae have swollen, branching tips that resemble moose antlers.
Diagnostic for Trichophyton schoenleinii.
2. Nodular organs appear as knots of twisted hyphae
3. Racquet hyphae contain enlarged, club-shaped areas resembling tennis racquets.
4. Spiral hyphae are tightly coiled, may appear as flat or corkscrew; usually observed in older cultures.
5. Rhizoids, rootlike structures, might be seen in some of the Zygomycetes
6. Pectinate hyphae appear comb-like.

Types of Hyphae
a. Septate VS Aseptate/Sparsely Septated Hyphae.
Septate hyphae have cross-walls, whereas sparsely
septate hyphae (coenocytic) have few cross-walls at
irregular intervals. Aseptate, meaning the absence of
septations, has historically been used to describe the
hyphae of the Zygomycetes. Microscopic examination
revealed however, occasional septations; therefore
these hyphae are more correctly termed sparsely
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septate as opposed to aseptate.

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Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________
b. Hyaline Vs Dematiaceous Hyphae. Hyaline (moniliaceous) hyphae are nonpigmented or lightly
pigmented, whereas phaeoid (dematiaceous) hyphae are darkly pigmented due to melanin in their cell
wall. Depending on the amount of melanin, the hyphae will appear pale to dark brown. The stain that
is often used to determine hyphal pigmentation in tissue is the Fontana-Masson stain. This will
specifically stain melanin, causing phaeoid hyphae to appear brown, whereas hyaline hyphae stain
pink to red.

DIMORPHISM AND POLYMORPHISM

Dimorphism refers to the ability of some fungi to exist in two forms – yeast or mold. Dimorphic fungi include a mold
phase and a yeast or spherule phase. The yeast or tissue state is seen in vivo or when the organism is grown at 37°C
with increased CO2. The mold phase is seen when the fungus is grown at RT (22° to 25°C). Thermally dimorphic fungal
species associated with human disease include Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma
capsulatum var. capsulatum, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Sporothrix schenckii, and Penicillium marneffei.

Polymorphic fungi have both yeast and mold forms in the same culture. This characteristic occurs despite growth
conditions and is best observed in Exophiala spp., in which the yeast phase is typically observed initially, followed by
the mold phase as the colony ages

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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
Module #1 Student Activity Sheet

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

MODES OF FUNGAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual, sexual, and parasexual modes of reproduction.
1. Asexual reproduction results in the formation of conidia (singular, conidium) following mitosis. Asexual
reproduction is carried out by conidiogenous cells. These structures form conidia, which contain all the genetic
material necessary to create a new fungal colony. Conidia are the reproductive structures produced by an asexual
mode from conidiophores, that is, spores develop directly from vegetative mycelium. The exception that is generally
recognized is the sporangiospore produced by the Zygomycetes. Sporangiospores are asexual spores produced in
a sac, the sporangium, by mitosis.

Sporangiospores from
sporangium in Zygomycetes
Conidia from
conidiophore

Conidia are formed in two ways: thallic and blastic conidiogenesis.

a. Thallic. Conidia develop from the thallus; septum forms first, and new
growth beyond the septum becomes the daughter cell. Examples are
arthroconidia, blastoconidia, and chlamydoconidia. Dermatophytes
develop thallic conidia, which may be unicellular (microconidia) or
multicellular (macroconidia).

b. Blastic. Conidia develop first before delimited by a septum. Example

is budding in yeasts. Examples are tretic conidia, phialides and,
annelides.

2. Sexual reproduction requires the joining of two compatible nuclei, followed by meiosis. Spores are the
reproductive structures formed sexually, from a sac. A fungus that reproduces sexually is known as a teleomorph.
Occasionally, these fungi will also reproduce asexually. When this occurs, the asexual form is termed the
anamorph. If more than one anamorph is present for the same teleomorph, the anamorphic strains are termed
synanamorphs. Spores in sexual reproduction:
a. Class Ascomycetes form ascospores from a sac-like ascus; others produce asci within an asoccarp
b. Class Basidiomycetes form basidiospores from a club-shaped sac, basidium
c. Class Zygomycetes form zygospores from a sac, zygosporangium
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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________
3. Parasexual Reproduction. The parasexual cycle is a nonsexual mechanism for transferring genetic material
without meiosis. Parasexuality occurs when two different hyphae fuse to form a heterokaryon. The two different
nuclei may exchange portions of chromosomes b/n nuclei. Plasmogamy, karyogamy and haploidization take place
but not in a particular part of a thallus nor at any specific period in its cycle. This occurs in imperfect fungi: several
species of Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Deuteromycetes.

TAXONOMY OF FUNGI
Fungi are categorized into four well-established phyla: the Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and
Deuteromycota.
1. Zygomycota - The traditional Zygomycota have undergone taxonomic changes. The most clinically significant
species now belong to the phylum Glomeromycota in the order Mucorales and include the genera Lichtheimia
(formerly Absidia), Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus. Members of the order are rapidly growing organisms
normally found in the soil. They are often opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised hosts. Mucorales
generally produce profuse, gray to white, aerial mycelium characterized by the presence of hyaline, sparsely septate
hyphae.
2. Ascomycota - Includes many fungi that reproduce asexually. The filamentous ascomycetes are ubiquitous in
nature, and all produce true septate hyphae. All exhibit a sexual form (teleomorph) but also exist in an asexual form
(anamorph). Examples: Pseudallescheria boydii, in addition to having the Scedosporium apiospermum anamorph
may exhibit a Graphium anamorph; Histoplasma capsulatum and Blastomyces dermatitidis, which have a
teleomorph, Ajellomyces. Some species of Aspergillus have a teleomorph, Eurotium.
3. Basidiomycota - Includes those fungi that reproduce sexually by the formation of basidiospores on a specialized
structure called the basidia. The basidiomycetes are generally plant pathogens or environmental organisms that
rarely cause disease in humans. Included are the smuts, rusts, mushrooms, and the Cryptococcus neoformans.
The teleomorphic form of Cryptococcus neoformans is Filobasidiella neoformans.
4. Deuteromycota - Includes those fungi that lack a sexual reproductive cycle and are characterized by their asexual
reproductive structures, primarily conidia. It is possible that the sexual forms of organisms in this group exist but
have not yet been described.

Table 1. Comparison of the Four Fungal Phyla

PHYLUM CLASS HYPHAE SEXUAL ASEXUAL
SPORES SPORES
Basidiomycota Basidiomycetes Septate Basidiospores Conidia
Ascomycota Ascomycetes Septate Ascospores Conidia
Deuteromycota Deuteromycetes Septate None Conidia
Zygomycota Zygomycetes Aseptate/Coenocytic Zygospores Sporangiospores

Classification of Fungi
1. Imperfect Fungi – fungi in which their sexual reproduction has not been demonstrated (Deuteromycota). Only
exists in the asexual form.
2. Perfect Fungi - fungi with an anamorph (asexual) and a teleomorph (sexual)
 Teleomorph – fungi that reproduce sexually E.g. Filobasidiella neoformans
 Anamorph – fungi that reproduce asexually E.g. Cryptococcus neoformans
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Notes:
• If a teleomorph has more than one anamorph, the anamorphs are called as SYNANAMORPHS.
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• The complete fungus, teleomorphs and related anamorphs, is the HOLOMORPH.

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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

SKILL – BUILDING ACTIVITIES (10 minutes)

Answer Accordingly.
1. Construct a table to differentiate between fungi and bacteria as to the: nature of their nucleus, cellular arrangement,
cell wall content, cell membrane content, spores, and mode of reproduction.
2. Identify and describe the five ascocarp types of Class Ascomycetes.

WHAT I KNOW CHART (5 minutes)

It is time to answer the question in the What I Know Chart. Log in your answer in the 3rd Column – What I Learned –
of the table in Page 1.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (20 minutes)

Instruction: Each of the questions or incomplete statements that follow comprises four or more suggested responses.
Select the correct answer or completion statement in each case and write a brief explanation/rationale for your answer.
One (1) point for each correct answer and one (1) point for the correct rationale.

1. Blastoconidia are the beginning of which structures?

A. Arthroconidia
B. Germ tubes
C. Pseudohyphae
D. True hyphae

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Dimorphic molds are found in infected tissue in which form?

A. Mold phase
B. Yeast phase
C. Encapsulated
D. Latent

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Which group of molds can be ruled out when septate hyphae are observed in a culture?
A. Dematiaceous
B. Zygomycetes
C. Dermatophytes
D. Dimorphic molds

Answer: ______
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Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

4. Fungi that undergo asexual reproduction are termed ______________.

A. Imperfect
B. Aseptate
C. Perfect
D. Septate

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

5. A fungus that reproduces sexually is called a/an _______________.

A. Anamorph
B. Holomorph
C. Teleomorph
D. Synanamorph

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

6. The following are characteristics of yeasts, EXCEPT _________________.

A. Round or oval cells
B. Form cottony or fluffy colonies
C. Reproduce by budding
D. Unicellular

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

7. Fungi that have both yeast and mold forms in the same culture are ____________________.
A. Dimorphic fungi
B. Hyaline fungi
C. Dematiaceous fungi
D. Polymorphic fungi

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

8. The following fungal classes exhibit both asexual and sexual modes of reproduction, EXCEPT _____.
A. Basidiomycetes
B. Deuteromycetes
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C. Ascomycetes
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D. Zygomycetes

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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

9. Which among the following is NOT a product of fungal sexual reproduction?

A. Ascospores
B. Sporangiospores
C. Basidiospores
D. Zygospores

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

10. An organism that that demonstrates budding yeast cells with wide capsules in an India ink preparation of spinal
fluid is most probably __________________.
A. Cryptocccus neoformans
B. Blastomyces dermatitidis
C. Histoplasma capsulatum
D. Candida albicans

Answer: ______
Rationale:____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

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 BIO 031: MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ______________________________________ Date: _______________

C. LESSON WRAP-UP (5 minutes)

Thinking about Learning

A. Work Tracker. You are done with this session! Let us track your progress. Shade the session number you just
completed.
Term 1 Term 2 Term 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

B. Think about your learning by filling up “My Learning Tracker”. Students write the learning targets, their scores,
learning experience for the session and deliberately plan for the next session.
Date Learning Target/Topic Scores Action Plan

What is the What module number did you do? What was your What contributed to the quality of your
date today? What were the learning targets? score in the performance today? What will you do next
What activities did you do? practice test? session to maintain your performance or
improve it?

Did you have challenges answering the examination this module?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

List the specific topics covered in the missed questions.

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Some question/s I want to ask my teacher about this module is/are:

____________________________________________________________________________
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