Review On Soil Mechanics

REVIEW SOIL MECHANICS
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
ACADEMIC YEAR 2022-2023
YEAR4-LEVEL 8
PREPARED BY MUJAWIMANA
VIOLETTE
ANALYZE SOIL
 To an engineer, Soil is a material that can be:

Built on: foundations of buildings, bridges.
Built in: basements, culverts, tunnels.
Built with: embankments, roads, dams.
Supported: retaining walls
 Most structures of all types rest either directly or indirectly

upon soil and proper analysis of the soil and design of the
structure’s foundation are necessary to ensure a safe
structure free of undue settling and/or collapse.
 Thus, study of soils should be an important component in

the education of civil engineers.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
L.0.1.1 CLASSIFY SOIL
 Soil classification is a useful engineering tool to
assess qualitatively the behavior of a soil and its
use as a construction material.
 These soil classification systems help engineers
to make decisions about the suitability of
different soils for different uses and applications.
Transported soils: The transported soils may be
classified into several groups, depending on their mode
of transportation and deposition:
 Glacial soils: formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers
 Alluvial soils: transported by running water and
deposited along streams
 Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes
 Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas
 Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by wind o

Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during landslide
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
Soil may be classified based on:
 Based on the method of formation soil may be
categorized as :
 Residual soils: are formed from the weathering
of rocks and practically remain at the location of
origin with little or no movement of individual
soil particles.
 Transported soils: are those that have formed
at one location (like residual soils) but are
transported and deposited at another location.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
Transported soils: The transported soils may be
classified into several groups, depending on their mode
of transportation and deposition:
 Glacial soils: formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers
 Alluvial soils: transported by running water and
deposited along streams
 Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes
 Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas
 Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by wind o

Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during landslide
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
 Based on their chemical composition:
 Organic soil: these soils contain large amounts
of decomposed animal and vegetable matter.
They are usually dark in color and give off a
distinctive odor.
 Inorganic soil: it is produced by
Mechanical/chemical weathering of rocks into
fragments forms inorganic matter in soil.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
 Based on grain size:
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
CLASSIFICATION OF COHESIVE SOIL
o The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained
soils is linked to four distinct states: solid, semi-solid,
plastic, and liquid, in order of increasing water
content
o Liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil
changes from a plastic state to a liquid state.
o Plastic limit (PL) is the water content at which a soil
changes from a semisolid to a plastic state.
o Shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content at which a
soil changes from a solid to a semisolid state by PL.
o The range of water contents over which the soil

deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index,
PI:
PI=LL-PL
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
o The shrinkage limit is useful for the
determination of the swelling and shrinking
capacity of soils
o The liquid and plastic limits are called the
Atterberg limits after their originator, Swedish
soil scientist Atteberg
 As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final
state called the solid state. At this state, no
further volume change occurs since nearly all the
water in the soil has been removed
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
 A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg

limits is known as the liquidity index (LI)
 The liquidity index is the ratio of the difference in
water content between the natural or in situ
water content of a soil and its plastic limit to its
plasticity index.
𝑤−𝑃𝐿
LI=
𝑃𝐼
w is water content
PL is plastic limit
PI is plasticity index
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
 Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a

particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction
 He coined a term called activity (A) to describe
the importance of the clay fractions on the
plasticity index.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
 . The Atterberg limits depend on the type of

predominant mineral in the soil.
 If montmorillonite is the predominant mineral, the
liquid limit can exceed 100%.
 Why? Recall that the bond between the layers in
montmorillonite is weak and large amounts of water
can easily infiltrate the spaces between the layers.
 In the case of kaolinite, the layers are held relatively
tightly and water cannot easily infiltrate between the
layers in comparison with montmorillonite.
 Therefore, the Atterberg limits for kaolinite are
expected to be, in general, much lower than those for
either montmorillonite or illite.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
ATTEBERG LIMITS
Example
A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a
plastic limit of 55%. The natural water content of
the soil in the field is 80% and the clay content is
60%
(a) Determine the plasticity index, the liquidity
index, and the activity.
(b) What is the soil state in the field?
(c) What is the predominant mineral in this soil?

L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
Solution
 PL=LL-PL=300%-55%=245%
𝒘−𝑷𝑳 𝟖𝟎−𝟓𝟓
LI= = =0.1
𝑷𝑰 𝟐𝟒𝟓
𝑷𝑰 𝟐𝟒𝟓
A= = =4.1
𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(%) 𝟔𝟎
 Based on Table 1.1, the soil with LI = 0.1 is at the
low end of the plastic state.
 From Tables 1.3 and 1.4, the predominant
mineral is montmorillonite (most likely, Na-
montmorillonite)
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
DETERMINATION OF THE LIQUID, PLASTIC, AND SHRINKAGE
LIMITS
Liquid limit determination

o Casagrande Cup Method—ASTM D 4318
The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus

that consists of a semispherical brass cup that is
repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base from a
height of 10 mm by a cam-operated mechanism.
o Arthur Casagrande (1932) developed this
apparatus, and the procedure for the test is
called the Casagrande cup method
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
Cup apparatus for the

determination of liquid limit.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
Procedures
 A dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water into a paste and
placed in the cup to a thickness of about 12.5mm
 The soil surface is smoothed and a groove is cut into the soil using a
standard grooving tool
 The crank operating the cam is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per
second
 the number of blows required to close the groove over a length of 12.5 mm
is counted and recorded
 A specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for determination
of the water content
 The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which the groove cut
into the soil will close over a distance of 12.5 mm following 25 blows
 . Four or more tests at different water contents are usually required for
terminal blow are usually required for terminal blows (number of blows to
close the groove over a distance of 12.5 mm) ranging from 10 to 40
 The results are presented in a plot of water content (ordinate, arithmetic
scale) versus terminal blows (abscissa, logarithmic scale)
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL WEIGHT-VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
 The soil is composed by Solids singly or in

combination with Water and Air.
 Soil is a three phase material which consists of
solid particles that make up the soil skeleton and
voids which may be full of water if the soil is
“saturated”, may be without water if the soil is
“dry”, or may be “partially saturated” if the three
elements are represented.
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
PLASTIC LIMIT TEST—ASTM D 4318
 The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay
sample into threads
 finding the water content at which threads approximately 3
mm in diameter will just start to crumble
 Two or more determinations are made, and the average
water content is reported as the plastic limit
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
SHRINKAGE LIMIT
 The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, M1, is placed in
a porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven-dried.
 The volume of oven-dried soil is determined by using mercury (ASTM D 427) to
occupy the vacant spaces caused by shrinkage
 The mass of the mercury is determined, and the volume decrease caused by
shrinkage can be calculated from the known density of mercury. The shrinkage
limit is calculated from
where M1 is the mass of the wet soil, M2 is the mass of the oven-dried soil, w is
water content (not in percentage), V1 is the volume of wet soil
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
 The range of water  The shrinkage limit

content from the plastic can be estimated from
limit to the shrinkage the liquid limit and
limit is called the plasticity index by the
shrinkage index (SI), following empirical
SI=PL-SL expression:
The linear shrinkage
ratio, LS, is
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
UNIfiED SOIL CLASSIfiCATION SYSTEM (BASED ON MATERIAL
PASSING 76.2-MM SIEVE)
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
AASHTO CLASSIfiCATION SYSTEM
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
 To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway
subgrade material, one must also incorporate a
number called the group index (GI) with the
groups and subgroups of the soil.
 This index is written in parentheses after the
group or subgroup designation. The group index
is given by the equation
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
Example: The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows
• Percent passing the No. 10 sieve =100
• Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 80
• Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 58
The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil
are 30 and 10, respectively. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.
Solution
Since 58% of the soil is passing through the No. 200 sieve, it falls
under silt-clay classifications—that is, it falls under group A-4, A-5,
A-6, or A-7. Proceeding from left to right, it falls under group A-4
So, the soil will be classified as A-4(3)

L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
Air, Water and Solid phases in a soil

L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
Phase Volume Mass Weight
Air VA MA=0 WA=0
Water VW MW WW
Solid VS MS WS
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
soils can be:

1.Dry:
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
2. Full saturated :
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
3.Partially saturated
L.U.1: ANALYZE SOIL
RELATIONSHIPS
Soil properties:
 Moisture Content
 Specific Gravity
 Voids Ratio and Porosity
 Degree of saturation
 Unit weights
 Density of soil.
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
1.2.2.MOISTURE CONTENT
 It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to

the weight of solid material or mass of water to
the mass of solid of material.
 The water content may be determined by a

number of methods:
Oven-drying method
Sand Bath method

L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.2.WATER CONTENT
 Oven-drying method
This is the usual standard laboratory method in
which the soil is dried in an oven at 105ºC to 110ºC.
This is the most accurate method.
Drying time may extend up to 24 hours or more
depending upon the amount and type of soil.
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.2.WATER CONTENT
 Sand Bath method.

It is a field method requiring only about one hour’s
drying period. A sand bath (a basin containing
about 50mm thick sand layer) is heated over a gas
burner or stove. Wet soil sample kept in a
container, is placed on the sand bath and heated
until dry.
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.2.WATER CONTENT
Example
Determine the moisture content for the following soil sample
Soil samples 1
Moisture can number B11
Weight of moisture can in grams 1.5
Wet weight + moisture can in grams 18.9
Dry weight + moisture can in grams 14.7
Weight of wet soil in grams ????

weight of dry soil in grams ?????
weight of water in grams ?????
Moisture content % ??????
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.2.WATER CONTENT (ANSWER)
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.1 .SPECIFIC GRAVITY (G)
 The specific gravity of a substance is defined as
the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal
volume of water at reference temperature 40C

L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1. Mass of soil solids = M2-M1

2. Mass of water in step three = M3-M2
3. Mass of water in step four = M4-M1
Md= M2- M1= Mass of soil
where Md= Mass of solids

L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 Example:
An oven-dried sample having mass of 195g was put
inside a pycnometer which was then completely
filled with distilled water. The mass of pycnometer
with soil and water was found to be 1584g. The
mass of pycnometer filled with water alone was
1465g. Calculate the Specific Gravity of soil solids.
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 Solution:
Mass of solids, Md = 195g
Mass of pycnometer + soil + water = 1584g (M3)
Mass of pycnometer + water = 1465g (M4)
Md
Gs =
Md −(M3 − M4 )
195 g
Gs = = 2.56
195 g − (1584 g − 1465 g)
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 Specific gravity of solids (Gs): ratio of unit weight
of solids (weight of solids divided by volume of
solids) to unit weight of water or
 Specific gravity of solids (Gs): unit mass of solids (mass
of solids divided by volume of solids) to unit mass of
water.
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 The Specific Gravity, G, is the most frequently used

quantity and is defined by
Density of material ρ
Gs = =
Density of water ρw
unit weight of material γ
Gs = =
unit weight of water γw
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 We can use Gs to calculate the density or unit

weight of the solid particles
 ρs = Gs ρw And γs = Gs γw
 And hence the volume of the solid particles if the
mass or weight is known
Ms Ws
 Vs = =
Gs ρw Gs γw
 Where γ𝑤 and ρ𝑤 are the unit weight and unit mass of
water, respectively. The unit weight of water varies slightly
with temperature, but at normal temperature it has value
of 9.82kN/m3. The unit mass (density) of water is 1000
kg/m3
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. VOIDS RATIO AND POROSITY
The total volume of given soil sample can be expressed as:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑊 + 𝑉𝐴
Where:
 Vs : volume of solid
 Vw : volume of water in voids
 Vv : volume of voids
 VA : volume of air in voids

L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
Void ratio.
This is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids,
Vv to the volume of solids Vs.
e=
𝐕𝒗
𝐕𝐬
 Where 𝑽𝒗 = volume of air + volume of water

𝑽𝒔 = volume of solids particles.
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
POROSITY
This is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids,
Vv to the total volume of soil, V.
𝐕𝒗
𝐧 =
𝐕
Where
 V𝑣 = volume of air + volume of water
 V = Total volume of Soil
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 The relation between e and n can be determined by

noting that:
𝐕𝒗
𝐕𝒗 𝐕𝒗 𝐕𝐬 𝐞
𝐧 = = = 𝐕𝐬 𝐕𝒗 =
𝐕 𝐕𝐬 +𝐕𝒗 + 𝟏+𝐞
𝐕𝐬 𝐕𝐬
o Similarly The voids ratio can be expressed as:
𝐧
𝐞 =
𝟏−𝐧
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. DEGREE OF SATURATION
 Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation, Sr or S, has an important
influence on the soil behaviour. It is defined as the ratio of
the volume of water to the volume of voids.
𝑉𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 𝑆= × 100
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. DEGREE OF SATURATION
 The degree of saturation may be expressed in

terms of voids ratio, specific gravity and moisture
content.
𝜔Gs
𝑆=
𝑒
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. UNIT WEIGHTS
 Unit weight (𝛾) is total weight (weight of solid plus

weight of water) divided by total volume (volume of solid
plus volume of water plus volume of air),Several unit
weights are used such as:
 The bulk unit weight,

 Saturated unit weight,
 Dry unit weight,

L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. UNIT WEIGHTS
 The bulk unit weight is simply defined as the weight per unit volume
𝐖
𝛄𝐛𝐮𝐥𝐤 = 𝐕
 When all the voids are filled with water the bulk unit weight is identical to the
saturated unit weight, γsat, and when all the voids are filled with air the bulk unit
weight is identical with the dry unit weight, γdry( dry unit weight is defined as the
weight of solids divided by total volume.)
𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉
𝛾𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝜔
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. UNIT WEIGHTS
1.Determination of bulk unit weight in terms of water content, specific gravity, unit
weight of water, voids ratio:
𝑊 Ws +Ww Gs γw +ωGs γw (1+𝜔)Gs γw

 𝛾𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 = = = =
𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒
Where:
 𝜔= water content
 Gs = specific gravity
 γw = unit weight of water
 𝑒= voids ratio
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. UNIT WEIGHTS
2.Determination of bulk unit weight in terms of

degree of saturation, specific gravity, unit weight of
water, voids ratio.
𝜔Gs
Consider 𝑆=
𝑒
𝑠𝑒
(1 + 𝜔)Gs γw (1 + Gs )Gs γw (Gs + 𝑠𝑒)γw
𝛾𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 = = =
1+𝑒 1+𝑒 1+𝑒
Gs: Specific gravity

S: degree of saturation
e=void ratio
γw = unit weight of water
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. UNIT WEIGHTS
3.Determination of dry unit weight in terms of specific

gravity, unit weight of water, voids ratio . If degree of
saturation is equal to zero s=0 the bulk unit weight becomes
dry unit weight
G s γw
 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
1+𝑒
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =dry unit weight

Gs =specific gravity
γw =unit weight of water
𝑒=void ration
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. UNIT WEIGHTS
Determination of saturated unit weight in terms of specific

gravity, unit weight of water, voids ratio. If the soil sample is
saturated, that is the void spaces are completely filled
with water, that means the degree of saturation is
equal to one(s=1)
𝑊 Ws +Ww (Gs +𝑠𝑒)γw (Gs +𝑒)γw

 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = = =
𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒 1+𝑒
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
1.2.3. DENSITY OF SOIL
 The density of soil or the Unit mass ( ρ) is defined as

total mass (mass of solid plus mass of water) divided by
total volume (volume of solids plus volume of water as
𝑀
well as volume of air) noted by ρ =
𝑉
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 There are several density used in this course such as:

Moist unit mass or bulk density of soil ( ρ) is defined as
mass of soil divided by total volume
𝑀 γbulk (1+𝜔)Gs γw (1+𝜔)Gs ρw
 ρ = 𝑉
= 𝑜𝑟 ρbulk = = =
𝑔 (1+𝑒)𝑔 1+𝑒
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
Dry unit mass or dry density of soil ( ρd ) is defined as

mass of soil solids particles divided by total volume
𝑀𝑠 ρbulk γd Gs γw Gs ρw
 ρd = 𝑉
= 𝑜𝑟 ρd = =
1+𝜔 = 𝑔 (1+𝑒)𝑔 1+𝑒
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 Saturated unit mass or saturated density of soil (

ρsat ) is defined as mass of soil (when all the voids
are occupied with water ) divided by total volume
𝑀
 ρsat
= 𝑉
𝑜𝑟
γsat (Gs +e)γw (Gs +e)ρw
 ρsat = =
= 𝑔 (1+𝑒)𝑔 1+𝑒
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
EXERCISES
EXERCISE No1
The moist mass of a soil specimen is 20.7 kg, the
specimen’s volume measured before drying is 0.011 m3,
the specimen’s dried mass is 16.3 kg if the specific gravity
of solids is 2.68.
 Determine the following parameters:
1. Void ratio
2. Degree of saturation
3. Wet unit mass and Dry unit mass
4. Wet unit weight and Dry unit weight
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 EXERCISE NO2
 The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 0.387
is 1600kg/m3. Find the void ratio of the soil and
the specific gravity of soil solids.

L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 EXERCISE NO 3:
L.O.1.2. APPLY SOIL
 EXERCISE No 4
L.O.1.3. PERFORM SOIL PARTICLE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION
The soil grading or the distribution of particle size
is quantitatively determined by performing the
particle-size analysis, also called mechanical
analysis, which is carried out in two parts: sieve
analysis and sedimentation analysis.

L.O.1.3. PERFORM SOIL PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Mechanical analysis is the determination of the

size range of particles present in a soil, expressed
as a percentage of the total dry weight. Two
methods are generally used to find the particle-size
distribution of soil:
 Sieve analysis for particle size larger than 0.075
mm in diameter
 Hydrometer analysis for particle sizes smaller
than 0.075 mm in diameter
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample

through a set of sieves that have progressively smaller
opening.
 Distribution of grain size can be determined by sieve
analysis. It is an apparatus containing a wire mesh with
square or circular openings the same size and shape.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
The soil sample is passed through a sieve, soil particles smaller than the opening size of
the sieve will pass through whereas those larger than its opening size will be retained,
certain sieve size openings between 4.75 and 0.075 mm are designated by U.S. Standard
Sieve Numbers
S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sieve
no
170
100
140
200
80
10
16
20
30
40
50
60
4
6
8
Open
ing
0.180
0.088
4.750
3.350
2.360
2.000
1.180
0.850
0.600
0.425
0.300
0.250
0.150
0.106
0.075
mm
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 Apparatus for conducting Sieve Analysis

SIEVE ANALYSIS
 Apparatus for conducting Sieve Analysis

 A:Sieve aperture
 B:Dry oven
 C: Sieve shaker
 D:Mortar & tray
 E:Rubber pestle
 F:Balance
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 Steps for conducting the test in Lab
 Wash the sample.
 Oven-dry sample.
 Determine mass of sample and label as W total in (g).
 Then prepare a stack of sieve aperture sizes with larger
opening sizes at the top and down to the last one with
smaller opening sizes.
 Pour the soil slowly into the stack of sieves from the top and
place the cover, put the stack onto the sieve shaker
(vibrator), tighten the clamps, adjust the time with 5 to 10
minutes and turn it on.
 When time is out, take out and measure the mass of retained
soil inside, from the top sieve until the pan.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Calculations
SIEVE ANALYSIS
SIEVE ANALYSIS
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 W Well graded material

 U Uniform material
 P Poorly graded material
 C Well graded with some clay
 F Well graded with an excess of fines
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 A soil is poorly graded if there is an excess or a

deficiency of certain particle sizes within the limits of the
minimum and maximum sizes, or if most of the particles
are of about the same sizes (uniformly graded).We can
compute the Coefficient of Uniformity Cu and
Coefficient of Curvature Cc by obtaining D10, D30 and
D60 values from the curves .
SIEVE ANALYSIS
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 D10 -10% Passing point on the curve

 D30 – 30% passing point on the curve
 D60 – 60% passing point on the curve
 To be well graded, Cc must lie within 1 and 3 and in

addition, Cu must be greater than 4 for gravels and greater
than 6 for sands. If all particles are of the same size, Cu is
unity.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 A poorly graded soil s Cu must be less than 2.
 A low value of Cu indicates a uniform soil and a high value of cu indictes a well graded soil.
Note that:
 The coefficient of uniformity is also called Hazen coefficient (it is a measure of particle sizes
range)
 The coefficient of uniformity Cu <5: indicate a very uniform sizes of aggregates

 The coefficient of uniformity Cu =5: indicate a medium uniform sizes of aggregates
 The coefficient of uniformity Cu >5: indicate a non-uniform sizes of aggregates
 The coefficient of gradation is also called coefficient of curvature Cc (it is a measure of shape
of particle size curve)
 Cu and Cc have little or no meaning when more than 5% of the soil is finer than a No. 200
sieve opening (0.075 mm).
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 The coefficient of gradation is also called coefficient of

curvature Cc (it is a measure of shape of particle size
curve)
 Cu and Cc have little or no meaning when more than 5%

of the soil is finer than a No. 200 sieve opening (0.075
mm).
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 Poorly graded soil Curve : represent the soil in which

most of particles are of the same size
 Well graded soil Curve: represent the soil in which
particle sizes are distributed over a wide range
 Gap graded soil Curve: represent a soil that have a
combination of two or more uniformly graded fractions (
i.e there are some soil sizes which are not present within
the sample )
SIEVE ANALYSIS
 EXERCISE1
From the results of a sieve analysis, shown below,
determine:
a) The percent finer than each sieve and plot a
grain-size distribution curve, (b)
b) D10, D30, D60 from the grain-size distribution
curve,
c) The uniformity coefficient, Cu, and (d) the
coefficient of gradation, Cc.
PERFORM SOIL PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
SIEVE ANALYSIS (EXERCISE)
L.O.1.4. PERFORM SOIL COMPACTION
 Compaction is the process of increasing the Density of a

soil or aggregate by driving out air. For any soil, at a given
compactive effort, the density obtained depends on the
moisture content. An “Optimum Moisture Content” exists
at which it will achieve a maximum density.
 Compaction is the method of mechanically increasing the
density of soil.
 The densification of soil is achieved by reducing air void

space. During compaction, air content reduces, but not
water content, it is not possible to compact saturated soil.
It should be noted that higher the density of soil mass,
stronger, stiffer, more durable will be the soil mass. In
brief: compaction is the application of mechanical
energy to a soil to rearrange the particles and reduce the
void ratio .
Compaction:
 Increases density
 Increases strength characteristics
 Increases load-bearing capacity
 Decreases undesirable settlement
 Decreases permeability
Applications of Compaction
The following are the situations in which compaction will

improve the existing field condition.
 Compaction of foundation soil for house construction.
 Compaction of soil/gravel/crushed rock/asphalt in road
& pavement construction.
 Compaction of soil in earth embankments
 Compaction of soil behind retaining walls
 Compaction of soil backfill in trenches.
 Dam construction and Ground improvement.
 MECHANISM OF COMPACTION
 Optimum moisture content (OMC) is the moisture

content at which the maximum possible dry density is
achieved for a particular compaction energy or compaction
method. The corresponding dry density is called maximum
dry density (MDD). Water is added to lubricate the contact
surfaces of soil particles and improve the compressibility
of the soil matrix.
 It should be noted that increase in water content
increases the dry density in most soils up to one stage (dry
side).
 LABORATORY TEST ON COMPACTION
 Standard Proctor’s Test

 Modified Proctor’s Test
Objectives of Laboratory Compaction Tests
are:
 To provide data for placement conditions in field
 To determine proper amount of mixing water
 STANDARD PROCTOR’S COMPACTION

TEST
 Soil is placed in mould and compacted in three uniform

layers, with 25 blows in each layer. Blows are maintained
uniform and vertical and height of drop is controlled.
 After each layer, top surface is scratched to maintain
integrity between layers.
 The height of top layer is so controlled that after
compaction, soil slightly protrudes in to collar.
 MODIFIED COMPACTION TEST
 In early days, compaction achieved in field was
relatively less. With improvement in knowledge
and technology, higher compaction became a
necessity in field. Hence Modified Compaction
Test became relevant. It was developed during
World War II by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineering to better represent the compaction
required for airfield to support heavy aircraft.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN STANDARD & MODIFIED COMPACTION
Standard proctor test Modified proctor test
305 mm height of drop 450 mm height of drop
25 N hammer 45 N hammer
56 blows /layer
25 blows /layer
3 layers 5 layers
 Useful formulas for compaction curve.

 The theoretical dry unit weight decreases
as the degree of saturation decreases.
 The mass of air is negligible, so as air
replaces water in the void space, the
volume of soil remains constant but its
mass decreases.
 Thus, the dry unit weight decreases. The
curve corresponding to S = 100% is the
saturation line, sometimes called the zero
air voids curve. The achievement of zero
air voids by compaction is rare
 Example1:
The following table shows result from a compaction

test:
Volume of Mould=1000000 mm3 weight of mould 10N,

specific gravity of soil solids=2.7
Plot the compaction curve and find OMC and MDD
Draw zero air line.
 Answer:
𝒌𝒈
𝐌𝐃𝐃 = 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟓
𝒎𝟑
𝐎𝐌𝐂 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓%
The curve corresponding to S = 100% is the saturation

line, sometimes called the zero air voids curve. The
achievement of zero air voids by compaction is rare

Review On Soil Mechanics

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Review On Soil Mechanics

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REVIEW SOIL MECHANICS

 To an engineer, Soil is a material that can be:

 Most structures of all types rest either directly or indirectly

 Thus, study of soils should be an important component in

 Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas

 Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by wind o

 Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas

 Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by wind o

o The range of water contents over which the soil

 A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg

 Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a

 . The Atterberg limits depend on the type of

(c) What is the predominant mineral in this soil?

Liquid limit determination

The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus

Cup apparatus for the

 The soil is composed by Solids singly or in

 The range of water  The shrinkage limit

So, the soil will be classified as A-4(3)

Air, Water and Solid phases in a soil

Phase Volume Mass Weight

Air VA MA=0 WA=0

soils can be:

 It is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to

 The water content may be determined by a

Sand Bath method

 Sand Bath method.

Moisture can number B11

Weight of moisture can in grams 1.5

Wet weight + moisture can in grams 18.9

Dry weight + moisture can in grams 14.7

Weight of wet soil in grams ????

 The specific gravity of a substance is defined as

the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal

volume of water at reference temperature 40C

1. Mass of soil solids = M2-M1

Md= M2- M1= Mass of soil

where Md= Mass of solids

Mass of pycnometer + soil + water = 1584g (M3)

Mass of pycnometer + water = 1465g (M4)

 Specific gravity of solids (Gs): ratio of unit weight

of solids (weight of solids divided by volume of

solids) to unit weight of water or

 Specific gravity of solids (Gs): unit mass of solids (mass

of solids divided by volume of solids) to unit mass of

 The Specific Gravity, G, is the most frequently used

 We can use Gs to calculate the density or unit

The total volume of given soil sample can be expressed as:

 VA : volume of air in voids

 Where 𝑽𝒗 = volume of air + volume of water

 The relation between e and n can be determined by

 The degree of saturation may be expressed in

 Unit weight (𝛾) is total weight (weight of solid plus

 The bulk unit weight,

 Dry unit weight,

𝑊 Ws +Ww Gs γw +ωGs γw (1+𝜔)Gs γw

2.Determination of bulk unit weight in terms of

Gs: Specific gravity

3.Determination of dry unit weight in terms of specific

𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =dry unit weight

Determination of saturated unit weight in terms of specific

𝑊 Ws +Ww (Gs +𝑠𝑒)γw (Gs +𝑒)γw

 The density of soil or the Unit mass ( ρ) is defined as