IIR026
DEEP
insight
GLOBAL MARKETING
Tailoring Your Strategy
to Fit the Culture
W hen a company goes global,
it often doesn’t realize that
By MARIEKE DE MOOIJ
its strategy is a product of its
own culture. Culture influ-
ences every aspect of a company’s strategy,
whether at the corporate level or the product/
brand level. For this reason, companies cannot
simply convert a national strategy into a global
strategy without first understanding the vari-
ous cultural dynamics at play.
In this article, I will discuss three aspects
of global strategy: the company’s mission, vi-
sion and identity, brand strategies, and com-
munications. Drawing upon Geert Hofstede’s
dimensions of national culture (see Five Cul-
tural Dimensions) and my own extensive re-
search and consultancy work, I will consider
the convergence and divergence of consumer
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t
behavior across countries, in order to help
managers better understand the relationship
between culture and strategy. Recognizing the
differences will lead to increased efficiency in
a company’s global marketing effort and will
ultimately condition the success of any multi-
national enterprise.
Mission, Vision & Corporate
Identity A crucial element in the strategic
planning of any organization starts with its
mission statement, an explicit formulation of
what a company stands for, and linked to this,
a vision statement indicat- ing where the
company wants to be in the future, sometimes
expressed as its strategic intent. Mis- sion and
vision should give focus to everyone who is
involved with the company, be it directly (em-
ployees) or indirectly (shareholders).
ISSUE 5 SECOND QUARTER 2010 1
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Although the concept of the mission and Canon’s corporate philosophy of kyosei. Apart
vision are Western inventions, the practice from the collectivistic values such statements
has been universally embraced by compa- express, they also indicate a high degree of
nies worldwide. Providing a statement that power distance, as in the case of Toyota,
expresses a company’s strategic intent, its whose mission is headed: “Message from Top
philosophy, values, ethics or operational ef- Management.”
fectiveness has become standard global man- Also, contrast Microsoft’s mission, “To
agement practice. Yet closer analysis of such help people and business throughout the
statements reveals telling differences in con- world to realize their full potential,” with
tent and form across the world. Philips’ to “Improve the quality of people’s
The mission statements of U.S. compa- lives through timely introduction of meaning-
nies, for example, tend to be strong state- ful innovations.” The former reflects the Ang-
ments of identity and reflect the need for lo-Saxon value of self-actualization, while the
con- sistency, performance, leadership, latter reflects the quality-of-life preferences
greatness and growth – values that are shared more in keeping with the Dutch character.
among cultures that score high on In all these cases, it is vital that a company
individualism and cultural masculinity, and review its mission statement in light of its own
low on long- term orientation, like the cultural biases. A company’s view of itself ul-
United States does. So, General Electric timately reflects the values of its leaders, and
states: “Being a reliable growth company if these values are not shared across cultures,
requires consistent execu- tion on strategic then stakeholders elsewhere may have diffi-
principles that drive perfor- mance every culties identifying with the company. A truly
quarter and every year.” global company would include values that are
Meanwhile, in collectivistic cultures, shared by more cultures than just its own.
such as those found in Asia, social harmony Based on its mission and vision, a company
is prized and companies function more like then distills its corporate identity, which also
families. What the company stands for is reveals its core values. Usually the task of
more often expressed as “Harmony with Peo- creating a corporate identity begins with the
ple, Society and the Environment,” as in the selection of an appropriate corporate name.
case of Toyota. Or “All people, regardless of Other factors that contribute to corporate
race, religion or culture, harmoniously living identity include the logo of the organization
and working together into the future,” as in and marketing communications. All this, in-
cluding language, lettering and associations,
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
is logically a reflection of the home country of
the organization.
Many widely accepted lenges managers to let go of The British communications consultant
management theories re- their preconceived ideas and Nicholas Ind has defined corporate identity
lated to mission statements, insistence on consistency and as “an organization’s identity in its sense of
branding and advertising are standardization, which they self, much like our own individual sense of
Western inventions that do may think is being cost-effec- identity. Consequently, it is unique.” If we
not translate when companies tive, but in reality will never consider this definition carefully, we see that
go global. What plays well at succeed in scratching consum- it is, in fact, a culturally bound concept. First,
home may not go down so ers where they itch. To be truly the quality of uniqueness resonates primarily
well in foreign environments. effective, global marketing with individualistic cultures. Furthermore,
The author recommends that a strategies must articulate not the insistence by many organizations that
company conduct a full review the culture-bound values of there be worldwide consistency of all the el-
of its entire global marketing one particular company, but ements of corporate ID, so that the company
strategy – from its mission the values of the stakeholders is perceived universally, again derives from
and vision, to its portfolio, in all of the countries where Western notions.
positioning and product usage, the company operates. If not, In reality, corporate identity translates
to its communications and ad- stakeholders elsewhere may differently in different parts of the world.
vertising campaigns. Through- have difficulties identifying Sticking to uniqueness and consistency in
out the discussion, she chal- with the company. corporate identity can be counterproductive,

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Five Cultural Dimensions

n his seminal study, the Dutch sociologist Geert

I
3. In MASCULINE cultures, the dominant values are
Hofstede categorized national cultures according
achievement and success, whereas the dominant values
to five key dimensions, which have become widely
in FEMININE cultures are caring for others and quality of
accepted.
life. In MASCULINE cultures, performance, achievement
and status are important to show success. FEMININE
1. POWER DISTANCE is the extent to which less
cultures are more people-oriented, “small is beautiful”
powerful members of a society accept that power is
and status is not so important. Examples of MASCULINE
distributed unequally. In large power-distance cultures
cultures are Britain, Germany, Italy, Japan and the
(e.g., China, Malaysia, Mexico and Saudi Arabia)
United States. Examples of FEMININE cultures are the
everybody knows their rightful place in society and their
Netherlands, Portugal, Scandinavia and Spain.
status corresponds with the importance of their
position, versus cultures of smaller power distance
4. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE is the extent to which
(e.g., Britain, Germany, the Netherlands and
people feel threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity
Scandinavia) where equality is favored.
and try to avoid these situations. In cultures with
strong uncertainty avoidance, there is a need for rules
2. In INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures, people look after
and formality to structure life. In weak uncertainty
themselves and their immediate family only; in
avoidance cultures, people tend to be more innovative
COLLECTIVISTIC cultures people belong to in-groups
and entrepreneurial. The countries of southern and
who look after them in exchange for loyalty. In
eastern Europe score high on uncertainty avoidance,
INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures, people want to differentiate
while Britain, Scandinavia and Singapore score low.
themselves from others; they develop unique
personalities. In COLLECTIVISTIC cultures, the need for
5. The fifth dimension distinguishes between LONG-
harmony makes people want to conform to others.
TERM ORIENTATION, which includes elements such as
Americans and northern Europeans tend to be
pragmatism, perseverance and thrift, versus SHORT-
individualists, while southern Europeans are moderately
TERM THINKING, which is associated with respect for
collectivistic. Asia, Latin America and Africa are
tradition, social obligations and saving face.
generally more collectivistic.

Hofstede, G., G.J. Hofstede and M. Minkov. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010.

as not all elements are equally effective in Global Brand Strategies

all countries. Some companies have adapted
successfully. Coca-Cola, for instance, when it
entered the Chinese market, was able to find
matching Mandarin characters that made
the similar sounding “Ko-Kou Ko-Le,” which
roughly translates as “delicious happiness.” In
general, however, companies are not so readi-
ly adaptable and maintain their single-minded
pursuit of across-the-board consistency.
Global companies need to consider the dif-
ferent cultural contexts in which they operate.
Instead of formulating a consistent sense of
self, corporate identities would do better to
include some variations that take account of
more collectivist interpretations, where con-
ceptions of self can change according to vary-
ing social positions and situations.
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Unilever and Procter & Gamble are large com-
panies, but not exactly household names,
mainly because they have chosen to market
their products by their brand names, not the
company name. Why? It all goes back to the
in- dividualistic branding theory that
originated in the United States: Companies
should differ- entiate products and brands, and
position them vis-à-vis competing brands; a
brand, like a hu- man being, should be
positioned as a unique personality with a clear
identity. And that’s typi- cally what Unilever has
done, choosing not to use its corporate name on
any of its different brands and products – until
recently. Driven by the specifics of
collectivistic cultures like Rus- sia, Japan and
China, Unilever now includes its corporate
name on all its brands.
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Look around and you will see companies
have many different ways of using their corpo-
rate name as a brand. Some companies, such
as Sony, Mitsubishi and Daewoo, use their cor-
porate name on almost all of their products.
Some Western companies such as Heineken
(Amstel, Tiger) and Nestlé (Perrier, Nestea,
Kit Kat) keep using the brand names of the
companies that they acquired. For some time,
P&G in China has added its corporate signa-
ture to Head & Shoulders, and Nippon Lever
has done likewise for its products in Japan.
Danone, which masquerades under the brand
name Lu in Europe, announces its corporate
name on the same type of product in Asia.
None of this is chance but is determined
by the different sales process in individualis-
tic versus collectivistic cultures. Whereas in
individualistic cultures the sales process is di-
rect and based on argumentation and persua-
sion, in collectivistic cultures the sales pro-
cess starts with building trust between seller
and buyer. Also, consumer decision making in
collectivistic cultures is based on trust in the
company, not on uniqueness of the brand, so
knowing the company behind the brand is of
utmost importance to consumers.
This is why in Asia, especially, companies
tend to stick to using one corporate brand
name, or the company cosigns its name along-
side product brand names at the very least.
Because brands are most successful if they are
linked to companies that are trusted by con-
sumers, all sorts of products or brand exten-
sions that would never fit in the West, can sit
together comfortably in Asia. For example, a
line of diapers produced by the Japanese cos-
metics company Shiseido would be judged in
the West primarily in terms of whether cosmet-
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Marieke de Mooij is a visiting Willem de Kooning academy
professor at various univer- in Rotterdam, and seminars at
sities, including the Euro-
pean University Viadrina in
Germany and the University
of Navarra in Spain. In the
Netherlands, she teaches
Cultural Perspectives at the
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ics and diapers go together. In Asia, the name
and reputation of Shiseido alone is enough jus-
tification for giving the product a try.
In determining brand-extension fit, global
marketers must consider the variety of ways
in which different cultures categorize other
people and objects. In certain experiments,
Chinese children will group items together
that share a relationship, whereas Canadian
children will group items together that share
a category. Ask an African to sort a few objects
– say, some utensils, food items and clothes –
and he will put a knife in a potato, as a knife is
needed to slice a potato. Japanese and Chinese
languages don’t even have words for the con-
cept of personality in the sense of the person
as a unique entity separate from the social en-
vironment. There, harmony and trust are the
basis of business.
Such cultural differences have profound
im- plications for brand strategy, as studies by
Mon- ga and others have shown. In the United
States, “fit” is judged on the basis of product
class simi- larity, so U.S. consumers would
view a brand ex- tension into a different
product category as not fitting with the
parent brand. In other countries, trust in the
overall reputation of the company is enough,
so they are able to accept bigger leaps across
product categories. This is why Japanese
consumers can hold cosmetics, diapers and
even food categories together under one Shi-
seido label, while European companies such as
Nivea are more careful to limit line extensions
to related personal care products only.
Brand Positioning Across Cultures
When marketing a brand, companies typically
start with a positioning statement, which links
the internal and external aspects of the
brand. Internal aspects include the identity,
values and personality that the company wants
to convey about the brand by which consumers
are sup- posed to recognize it. External aspects
include
Erasmus University and Gron- ingen
University. She is the
author of several publications on the influence
of culture on marketing and advertising,
which are used by practitio- ners and
universities world- wide. She is also a
business consultant in cross-cultural
communications.
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 THE POWER
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the image – how the
consumer perceives the brand
– and usage – how the brand’s
products are used in daily
life. A brand is considered
well positioned when there is a
proper match- up between
these aspects. Of this mix of
ele- ments, the product itself
and the communica- tion are
the most culturally sensitive
elements. INTERNAL ASPECTS.
Many international companies
aspire to go beyond just
presenting product at- tributes
or consumer benefits, and
they attempt

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Opting for consistency stems from an obsession for
control. It would be a fundamental error to attempt to
project your own value of consistency into strategies
targeted at consumers of different cultural values.
to inject personality characteristics and values
associated with the product in the mind of
the consumer. Moreover, they want these
values to be communicated consistently across
target groups and across countries. Anglo-
American companies, in particular, have
adopted this ap- proach. Thus, happiness is
used to sell fast food, success to sell cars,
unlimited human potential to sell running shoes.
Yet such values are not of equal importance
to all cultures. One Levi’s commercial showed
two people running fast, to communicate a
positive brand value – freedom of movement. In
Spain, however, viewers saw not freedom but
competition, which they don’t much like.
Opting for consistency in global branding
strategies stems from an obsession for con-
trol. Companies know what plays well with
the home crowd, and the idea that consumers
elsewhere might perceive their products as
having different values from those the com-
pany intended causes brand managers to be
out of control.
Ideally, the values the marketer injects
into the brand should be reflected in what the
consumer takes away. But there is no getting
around the fact that the gap between identity
and image only grows wider the more you
move across cultures. What consumers take
out is often very different from what the
company puts in. In a six-nation study of the
impact of culture on brand perceptions,
Foscht et al. made this point, citing Red Bull
as an example of a brand that has been
marketed with a con- sistent brand identity,
yet consumer take-out varies across cultures.
Brands that have been successful globally
may be more a function of their high quality
and intensive distribution channels than any
consistent brand identity put across by a
mar- keting manager, because consumers
ultimate- ly attribute their own identities to
brands that fit their own values, rather than the
other way around. As certain brands become
important
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to consumers, they convert them into per-
sonalities that fit their own culture. So, the
same product may be viewed as trustworthy in
high uncertainty-avoidance cultures, where
people want to reduce anxiety; as prestigious
in high power-distance cultures, where
people need status symbols; and as innovative
in low uncertainty-avoidance cultures, where
people like change. Also, many of the most
successful global brands are older products,
which have become so ingrained in the daily
lives of con- sumers around the world that
they have em- braced them as their own, and
thus, they have become embedded in local
cultures.
This is what I mean by being out of control.
Global marketing managers deceive them-
selves if they make consistency their goal. It
would be a fundamental error to attempt to
project your own value of consistency into
strategies targeted at consumers of different
cultural values.
An alternative option, and one that may
serve to restore a certain degree of control, is
to define culturally specific brand characteris-
tics for each of the countries in which you op-
erate. Try to discern what is meaningful with
respect to the brand and its role in people’s
lives in different cultures, and load the brand
with various core values, so that even though
the product may be the same worldwide, con-
sumers in each market believe they are being
spoken to by someone who understands them
and who talks and feels just as they do.
EXTERNAL ASPECTS. The second part of the posi-
tioning equation is how consumers deal with
the brand and the products being presented to
them. Knowing how a brand is perceived and
how the brand’s products are being used is
essential for defining the brand identity. In-
depth consumer research is needed to prevent
the development of products that don’t serve
culturally specific needs. For years, Western
companies have been selling irons to Japanese
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and Korean consumers, only to discover, at a very late
stage, that they do

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FIGURE 1
The Future of Global Strategy
THE NEW PARADIGM IS CULTURAL SEGMENTATION: DEFINE MARKETS BASED ON CULTURAL SPECIFICS, AND THE
DEVELOP CULTURE-FIT STRATEGIES.

Mission, Vision &

Branding & Positioning Communications &
Corporate Identity
Advertising
INTERNAL ASPECTS EXTERNAL ASPECTS

Review in light
Define culturally specific brand Conduct in-depth Communicate values that
of your own company’s
characteristics for each of the consumer research to match those of the receiver
cultural biases
countries in which you operate make sure you are rather than the producer
Include values shared serving culturally
Discern what is meaningful Information gathering may
by more cultures than specific needs
and its role in people’s lives not be the top aim of your
your own
in different cultures Use past or current advertising
Instead of insisting on a behavior to predict the
Load the brand with different Use other planning models
consistent sense of self, future
core values in different that put feelings rather than
include conceptions that
cultures, so that consumers in Map your target thinking first
can change according to
each market believe they are countries for varying
varying social positions Define according to each
being spoken to by someone approaches
and situations and every market
who speaks their language
Recognize limitations of
Vary identities by culture and measuring brand equity
recognize that, in most parts of across countries
the world, consumers
associate not with abstract
identity terms but real people,
like celebrities

Leverage existing reputations

in different countries if your
brand is older and established
as “new” consumer
behavior is, in fact, a fresh

not iron standing up but sitting down. This obvi-

ously asks for different ergonomic requirements.
In general, product usage does not change
overnight, although marketing and advertis-
ing people tend to think it does. People’s be-
havior is quite stable, and contrary to what the
media would have us believe, it changes much
less than we think. Much of what is regarded

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 THE POWER
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manifestation of old, existing behavior.
Because people’s behavior is more or less stable, past or
current behavior can be used to predict the future – something
to bear in mind when developing and marketing new products.
Western companies may have thought they were witnessing a
fundamental shift when the Japanese increasingly donned
Western-style clothing following World War II, but the start of
the 21st century sees a new generation of Japanese
reclaiming the kimono and other traditional garb. Cultures may
choose to try out new things because it delivers social status for
a time, but eventu- ally people revert to their old culturally con-
ditioned habits and preferences.
The fact that cultural behavior is rela- tively fixed also
means there is very little

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 THE POWER
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convergence of behavior happening across
cultures, even with the greater wealth and
development that globalization brings. The
wealthier that countries become, the more
the influence of culture on consumption
and consumer behavior manifests itself.
More discretionary income gives people
more freedom and choice to express them-
selves, and that expression will be based,
in part, on their indigenous value systems.
They may choose more leisure time or more
status goods or more self-improvement, but
no matter what they choose, it will be his-
torically and culturally defined. Wealth es-
sentially makes it easier for people to select
brands according to their preferred cultur-
ally determined behaviors. This underscores
the importance of developing a multifaceted
marketing approach, because the same brand
will represent something very different to a
Portuguese as opposed to a Vietnamese con-
sumer.
This relates to the image of the brand
that is held in the mind of the consumer. For
some, the brand will have human-like quali-
ties that they may even associate with a real
person; for others, it boasts specific product
features and forms part of a trusted family of
products. When formulating the brand iden-
tity, be aware that not every culture will make
the same associations, and this affects how
you measure brand equity.
Global companies like to measure the eq-
uity of their brands in the various countries
in which they operate. One way they do this
is by measuring brand associations. Many
of these associations are abstract, and col-
lectivistic cultures generally do not relate
well to brands in the abstract sense, more in
terms of specific product features. Studies
by Koçak and others have shown significant
variations in brand evaluations depending
on the cultural conditions. Hsieh calculated
brand value based on associations for 18 car
brands in 16 countries. He found that the av-
erage brand value was higher in the European
countries than in the Asian ones, and these
differences appear to correlate with individ-
ualism. With this in mind, it is important that
your benchmarking measures take account
of national weighting factors like this when
seeking to determine a brand’s relative value
in a global market.
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Communications & Advertising
When it comes to global communications and
advertising, once again multinational compa-
nies want to opt for a standardized approach
because of the obvious benefits of economies
of scale. However, what they gain by econo-
mies of scale, they lose in effectiveness.
For a long time, international advertising
strategists believed that emotional or feelings-
based appeals would travel better than think-
ing-based appeals, because of the assumed
universality of human values such as love and
happiness. Analysis of advertisements in inter-
national media such as Newsweek, BusinessWeek
and CNN shows that this is the approach that
has been taken by U.S. companies in particular.
In reality, however, the messages being com-
municated are less universal than is commonly
assumed, more a reflection of the home coun-
try’s own value system. As with a company’s
identity and its brand strategies, advertising
must also communicate values that match
those of the receiver rather than the culture
of the producer. Advertising is most effective
when it succeeds in reflecting the culture of
the consumer it is trying to reach.
Underlying many of our assumptions about
how advertising works we find more Anglo-
Saxon-derived theories related to how people
supposedly process information – how they
acquire it, how they organize it, how they use
it. People of collectivistic or high-context cul-
tures are more accustomed to symbols, signs
and indirect forms of communication, which
is very different from the way people of indi-
vidualistic, low-context cultures process in-
formation, which is more verbal, explanatory,
persuasive and rhetorical. In individualistic,
low power-distance cultures, people actively
acquire information via the media – books,
newspapers and so on – to prepare themselves
for purchases. In collectivistic, high power-
distance cultures, on the other hand, people
base their buying decisions more on feelings
and trust in the company, which they acquire
via frequent social interactions in which
knowledge is absorbed unconsciously.
Study after study bears this out. A 2002
consumer survey by Eurobarometer asked
people to what degree they viewed themselves
as “well-informed” consumers. Those who
regarded themselves as “well-informed” all
correlated with low power-distance, low un-
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certainty-avoidance, individualistic cultures. response of the

In 2008, Mediascope gathered data about the
effect of online research on the brand chosen:
this, too, correlated with low power-distance
and low uncertainty-avoidance cultures.
Whenever people are asked to think about
how well they are informed about all sorts of
is- sues – from the environment to politics –
the findings follow this same pattern.
Basically, it is the configuration of
individualism, low power-distance, low
uncertainty-avoidance and low-context
cultures, which are essen- tially the northern
and western European countries and Anglo-
Saxon cultures, in which people consciously
search for information and are verbally
oriented.
But what happens when advertising de-
signed for one of these audiences is targeted
at Chinese consumers, who rely more on word
of mouth because of their higher rate of group
contact? What about southern and eastern
European countries? Europe, despite its at-
tempt at union, is by no means monolithic. A
2007 Eurobarometer poll across 24 different
European countries found that uncertainty
avoidance explained 63 percent of differences
between countries with respect to reading
books. This also applies to newspaper reading.
Given such wide variance across cultures, why,
then, do mainstream models of how advertis-
ing works regard information gathering as the
No. 1 aspect?
Consider the well-known advertising
planning model developed by Richard Vaughn
and his associates at the Foote, Cone & Beld-
ing agency. The FCB matrix suggests four se-
quences in the process by which advertising
influences consumers: LEARN, FEEL, DO; FEEL,
LEARN, DO; DO, LEARN, FEEL; DO, FEEL, LEARN. Many
advertisers use this as a rule of thumb to help
them in deciding which aspects to emphasize
when marketing their products: facts for car
insurance, price for routine purchases like
toothpaste. But these distinctions and catego-
ries fall largely into the “thinking” camp, with
purchase decisions made according to rational
economic motives.
Gordon Miracle has argued that, for the
Japanese consumer at least, another sequence
is valid: FEEL, DO, LEARN. Japanese advertising, he
explains, is based on building a relationship of
trust between the company and the
consumer. As a result, “feel” is the initial
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IESE insig Permissions@hbsp.harvard.edu or 617.783.7860 ISSUE 5 SECOND QUARTER 2010
 THE POWER
GLOBA Tailoring Your Strategy to Fit the
L
Japanese consumer, after which action is tak- en: a visit to the
shop to purchase the product. Only after this comes knowledge.
When deal- ing with different cultures, more strategies are needed
than fit neatly into a single box.
A communications and advertising strat- egy that is defined
according to each and every distinct market may make Western
marketers nervous, but in the end, it earns money by be- ing
more effective than taking a one-size-fits- all approach. If you
want to reach consumers in different parts of the world, my
advice is al- ways the same: Speak to them in a way they un-
derstand, that fits their communication style. The new
paradigm is cultural segmenta-
tion: defining markets based on their cultural specifics, and then
developing culture-fit strategies. A strong corporate identity
needs to go hand in hand with cultural sensitivity. In- stead of
being “consistent,” companies should be pragmatic and adapt to
the cultural mind- sets of consumers. This is the future of global
strategy.

■
De Mooij, M. Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding TO KNOW MORE
Cultural Paradoxes, third edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications, 2010.

■
De Mooij, M. Consumer Behavior and Culture: Consequences for Global
Marketing and Advertising. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2003.

■
Monga, A.B., and D. Roedder John. “Cultural Differences in Brand
Extension Evaluation: The Influence of Analytic Versus Holistic
Thinking.” Journal of Consumer Research 33 (2007): 529-536.

■
Foscht, T., C. Maloles III, B. Swoboda, D. Morschett and I. Sinha. “The
Impact of Culture on Brand Perceptions: A Six-Nation Study.” Journal of
Product and Brand Management 17, no. 3 (2008): 131–142.

■
Koçak, A., T. Abimbola and A. Özer. “Consumer Brand Equity in a
Cross-Cultural Replication: An Evaluation of a Scale.” Journal of
Marketing Mana- gement 23, no. 1-2 (2007): 157-173.

■
Hsieh, M.H. “Measuring Global Brand Equity Using Cross-National
Survey Data.” Journal of International Marketing 12, no. 2 (2004):
28-57.

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