Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Active roof-contact: The future development of cemented paste backfill

Shenghua Yin a, c, Zepeng Yan a, c, *, Xun Chen b, Rongfu Yan a, c, Dapeng Chen a, c, Junwei Chen a, c,
Gongcheng Li b
a
School of Civil and Resources Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
b
School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
c
Key Laboratory of High-Efficient Mining and Safety of Metal Mines, Ministry of Education, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Cemented paste backfill (CPB) technology may significantly change and enhance the role of tailings in the mining
Cemented paste backfill industry. However, poor roof-contact of backfill can pose a serious threat to personnel. The expansion agent (EA)
Roof-contact in civil engineering can make CPB actively contact the roof. Therefore, we intend to evaluate the potential
Expansion backfill technology
application of expansion CPB technology. This paper reviews the development history of CPB technology and the
Expansion agent
problems in filling roof-contact, with particular emphasis on the principle of expansion backfill technology, i.e.,
the mechanism of “expansion-extrusion-bonding”. The mechanism of some concrete EA and the properties of the
expansion matrix are compared and analyzed. Finally, the future research directions of the expansion backfill
technology are foreseen. The results of various studies demonstrate that MgO-based EA makes up for the defect of
excessive water demand in the expansion matrix and has little effect on the compressive strength. Moreover, the
comprehensive analysis of the expansion material characteristics in this review may form the basis for future
industrial application research on the expanded backfill.

1. Introduction
Mineral resources provide the basic raw materials for the material
needs of human society, and modern development has been inseparable
from the development and utilization of mineral resources [1–3]. The
mining industry is essential in China’s economic growth, among which
the output value of the mining industry accounts for 7 % of the GDP. The
survey shows that by the end of 2020, China had discovered 173 min­
erals, among which 59 kinds of metallic and 95 types of non-metallic
minerals [4].
Metal minerals of use need to be extracted from the ore through a
series of activities that will generate large amounts of solid waste. In the
mining industry, the waste-to-product ratio is typically 100:1 [5], and
this ratio increases when encountering minerals with a high loss rate.
Solid waste in mining activities mainly comes from excavation and
beneficiation operations. The excavation operation is to excavate
various shapes, sections, or crisscross wells, roadways, and chambers in
the rock (soil) layer or ore layer to ensure the smooth progress of mining,
which will produce a large amount of waste rock [6]. Tailings are usu­
ally produced in the separation of concentrate in beneficiation opera­
tions. According to statistics, the total amount of solid waste produced
by mines worldwide exceeds 25 billion tons, with tailings accounting for
about 2/5 of the total and increasing by 600 million tons annually [7,8].
Due to low cost, tailings are usually discharged into tailings ponds for
storage (Fig. 1). However, the existence of tailings ponds conflicts with
environmental protection because it needs to occupy many land re­
sources. According to statistics, for every 10,000 t of solid waste stored,
0.067 hm2 of land needs to be occupied [9]. Moreover, the continuous
discharge causes the tailings pond to become a hazardous source with
high potential energy, which can generate mudflows in case of dam
failure and pose a severe threat to the safety of downstream residents
and facilities, bringing significant casualties and property damage
[10,11]. Fig. 2 shows the number and classification of tailings ponds by
the province in China. Meanwhile, other harmful effects of tailings
ponds include, but are not limited to, atmospheric pollution through
oxidation and weathering, land pollution through tailings leakage, and
groundwater pollution through the leaching of heavy metals [12–14].
Therefore, the development and utilization of tailings will be the field
with the broadest scope and most significant potential for the compre­
hensive utilization of minerals in the 21st century.
The emergence of cemented paste backfill (CPB) technology may
significantly change and enhance the role of tailings in the mining

* Corresponding author at: School of Civil and Resources Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
E-mail address: yan_zepeng@xs.ustb.edu.cn (Z. Yan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130657
Received 22 December 2022; Received in revised form 22 January 2023; Accepted 5 February 2023
Available online 14 February 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

Fig. 1. Structural diagram of the tailings pond.

Fig. 2. Number of tailings ponds in China: (a) by province, (b) by type of mineral (The data is collected from https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/169331249).

2
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

(gravity transport or pumping). The slurry will form a structure with

Fig. 3. Statistics on the number of mines using CPB technology in China.
Fig. 4. Maximum mises stress intensity in the roof with the different roof-
contacted rates (Modified after [28]).
strength at a predetermined time [20,21], which will effectively limit
the deformation of the surrounding rock in the extraction area, helping
to reduce surface subsidence and protect mining activities. In addition,
the CPB will not release toxic substances and produce secondary
pollution after underground solidification [22,23]. Therefore, CPB
technology is recognized as the ’terminator’ of mine waste globally and
is receiving more and more attention. According to statistics, 250 mines
in China have adopted CPB technology for tailings disposal from 1996 to
2018 [8], as shown in Fig. 3.
The overall quality is an essential factor in characterizing the effec­
tiveness of CPB [24]. Improving the overall quality of the filling body is
an insurmountable part of CPB technology [25–28]. Among them, the
roof-contacted of the CPB is the premise for it to exert its structural
function and ensure the overall quality, which is also a complex problem
plaguing mining workers. The roof-connect effect of filling is often
expressed by the roof-connected rate, which can be intuitively under­
stood as the ratio of the area of the filling body contacting the roof to the
area of the whole roof. The roof-connect rate is directly related to the
support ability of the CPB to the roof. Lu [28] used Super-Sap software to
simulate the maximum mises stress intensity of roof strata under the
condition of roof contact rate from 0 % to 100 % (as shown in Fig. 4),
which found a linear relationship between the roof-contact rate and the
maximum mises stress intensity. Some investigations show that mines
with high roof contact rates have fewer problems than ordinary mines
because the effect of filling roof contact rates is poor, which will make
the roof exposure area too large [29]. When the exposed area reaches or
exceeds the allowed critical value, disasters such as roof fall, sur­
rounding rock flake, and filling body collapse will follow, posing a more
significant threat to the safety of workers [27,30,31].
Inspired by concrete expansive agent (EA), some scholars put for­
ward the idea of expansion backfill. Through volume expansibility, the
active roof-contact of the filling body can be realized, guaranteeing the
safe production of underground mines. Therefore, we intend to evaluate
the potential application of the expansion backfill technique. Briefly
reviews the current status of CPB technology and its application in the
mining industry and summarizes the safety risks without roof-contact
and the influencing factors of roof-contact. The principle of expansion
CPB technology is introduced. The effects of EA types on the expanded
matrix’s workability, expansibility, and mechanical properties were
compared. Finally, directions and suggestions for future theoretical
research and engineering practice are proposed for the expansion CPB
technology.

industry. CPB is a composite material composed of dense tailings (water
content less than 20 %), cementitious materials (cementing powder,
cement, etc.), and overflow water [15–17]. In some cases, admixtures
and fibers are also used to improve slurry workability, early strength,
and toughness [18,19]. CPB is first prepared at the surface filling station.
Then, CPB is transported to the designated location by a pipeline system
2. Literature review method
The literature review searched for peer-reviewed research articles
from 1990 to 2022 using the keywords “paste backfill”, “roof-contact”,
“expansion filling”, “expansion agent”, “use of expansion agent in paste
backfill”, “expansion agent in concrete”, and “properties of expansion
concrete”. Literature searches were conducted through articles in

Table 1
Application of paste backfill mining method [46].
Country Mine Backfill material Cement content or Cement-sand Transportation Solid content/ Backfill
ratio method % ability

Canada Williams mine Tailings, Fly-ash 2 %~3% Gravity transmission 73 110 m3/h
Chile El Toqui mine Tailings 1 %~7% Pressure transmission 72 80 t/h
Germany Bad Grund mine Tailings 6% Pressure transmission 75 ~ 88 30 m3/h
Tanzania Bulyanhulu mine Tailings, Waste-rock – Gravity transmission 74 –
Sweden Garpenberg mine Tailings 5 %~10 % Gravity transmission 76 ~ 80 90 ~ 140 t/h
Australia Cannington mine Tailings 2 %~4% Gravity transmission 79 158 t/h
Zambia Chambishi Copper Mine Tailings 1:16 Pressure transmission 71 60 m3/h
China Jinchuan Group Co. No. 2, Rod mill sand, Tailings 1:8 Pressure transmission 71 ~ 79 70 ~ 80 m3/h
mine
China Huize lead and zinc mine Water-quenched slag, 1:8 Pressure transmission 78 ~ 81 60 m3/h
Tailings

3
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

application of new filling technologies [41]. The development of filling

Fig. 5. The paste material used in the Huize Pb-Zn mine, China.
ScienceDirect, Google scholar, and CNKI. After the manual exclusion of
literature not in the field, the total number of valid literature retrieved
was 589.
3. Backfill technology
mining technology in China has gone through the following stages
[42–45]: dry filling of waste rock, hydraulic filling, cemented filling, to
the present high concentration filling, paste filling, waste rock cemented
filling, and so on.
CPB systems usually consist of three parts: preparation, trans­
portation, and quality control [47–49]. The preparation system is
generally located at the surface. Its principal function is to form a
flowable composite material by mixing aggregates, cementitious mate­
rials, admixtures, and water in a predetermined proportion [11,50].
Fig. 5 shows the paste material used in the Huize Pb-Zn mine (Yunnan,
China). Mines using CPB technology generally take materials from
nearby, such as coal mines using coal gangue as coarse aggregate, while
metal mines use excavation waste rock and tailings as aggregate. Rela­
tively, the preparation system of coal gangue or waste rock as coarse
aggregate also increases the crushing function. The transportation sys­
tem comprises filling pump, borehole, and pipeline. CPB slurry is pres­
surized by filling pump and transported to goaf through the pipeline
[20,51,52]. Fig. 6 shows a typical CPB system structure with waste rock
and tailings as aggregate. Quality control mainly includes slurry

3.1. Development of backfill technology

Goaf
Backfilling has been proven to be an environmentally friendly waste
management method with high economic and social benefits [32],
which is the only way to realize green mine planning. According to Grice
[33], “mine backfill” is the placement of waste material into a mining
void to facilitate management or perform certain engineering functions.
In 1930, Hoorn Mine Company carried out the dry filling for the first
time. In the following decades, mine backfilling developed from dry
filling and water sand filling to cemented filling with cement as
cementing material [34,35]. Paste backfill technology is only the
emergence of nearly 20 years, but the development is very rapid
[36–38]. Some countries with developed mining industries, such as
Australia, used a paste backfill system for the Cannington mine, a large
underground mine completed in August 1997. The Mount Isa Mining
Company completed a paste backfill system at the end of 1998 to mine
the 3500 ore body at depth [39]. Table 1 summarizes the application
cases of the partial paste backfill mining method. China has many mines, Wall rock
and many filling processes and technologies have been developed and
applied [40]. Especially in the last decade or so, significant progress has Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the interaction between CPB and surrounding
been made in the research and development and promotion and rock (Modified after Yan [55] and Yin [8]).

Fig. 6. Schematic of paste backfilling process.

4
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

Table 2 3.2.2. Filling mechanism

Financial change of a mine after switching from caving to filling [77]. The filling function of the CPB is reflected in the following three
No. Project Caving Backfill Caving subtract aspects [61].
method method Backfill i) Maintain the integrity of the roof.
1 Basic parameter The goaf roof is easily divided into multiple tectonic bodies due to
(1) Construction period/a 5 5 – faults and joints. Some of the tectonic bodies have the possibility of
(2) Production period/a 5 3 – slipping and collapsing under secondary stress. In the case of no backfill
(3) Labor quota /person – 50 – in the goaf, the loose structure is easy to fall and collapses from the roof,
2 Construction investment/million yuan
(1) Mine development 18 000 – 18 000
resulting in the instability of the overlying strata or the fracture of the
(2) Mining equipment 26 748 55 439 − 28 691 critical strata [62–64]. CPB can provide a connection between the roof
(3) Tailings disposal 10 000 10 000 slab with a potential tendency to fall and the mining area, delaying or
Total 54 748 55 439 − 691 restraining the tendency of the roof slab to produce displacement, thus
3 Operation cost/(million 24 599 45 193 − 20 594
increasing the self-bearing capacity of the surrounding rock [65,66].
yuan/a)
4 Product output and value ii) Mitigate the hazards of rock explosion.
(1) Geological grade/% 30.289 30.289 – The shock waves caused by rock bursts can produce significant
(2) Raw ore production/ 2 000 2 000 – tensile stresses on the roof and bottom plates in the void area, affecting
(million t /a) the goaf’s stability [67]. After the CPB fills the goaf, the shock wave
Loss rate/% 18 16 2
Dilution ratio/% 22 10 12
generated by the rock explosion is only reflected at the rock and CPB
Crude ore grade/% 23.625 27.260 − 3.635 interface, reducing the effect of tensile stress on the wall rock [68].
(3) Iron concentrate 545 645 − 100 iii) As a filling material for rock joints and fissures.
production/(million t /a) CPB can enter the fractures and joints in the surrounding rock and act
(4) Concentrate product 598 598 –
as a bond [69]. CPB can also prevent the loss of fine materials in joints
price/(yuan/t)
(5) Product value/(million 325 910 385 710 − 59 800 due to the disturbance of mining activities, promote the closure of cracks
yuan/a) and improve the stability of surrounding rock.
5 Production profit/ (million 301 311 340 517 − 39 206
yuan/a) 3.2.3. Pressure relief mechanism
The deformation of CPB under the action of ground pressure is much
larger than that of the roof, so CPB plays the role of flexible support to
Table 3 the surrounding rock [70]. CPB slowly unloads the pressure while
Effect of chemical reaction-type SEA type on water demand and concrete slump. maintaining the overall structure of the surrounding rock, thus limiting
SEA type Content/ Water requirement/(kg⋅m− 3) Slump/ the rate of energy release from the surrounding rock and reducing the
(kg⋅m− 3) cm subsidence value at the ground surface.
Control group – 153 21
MgO-based 20 153 20 3.3. Benefits of CPB technology
30 153 22
40 163 21
3.3.1. Environmental and social benefits
Ettringite- 20 163 19
based 30 163 18 The environmental damage caused by resource exploitation is inev­
40 163 18.5 itable. The current CPB technology has the following advantages
CaO-based 20 163 18 [71–76]. i) Protection of precious metal loss. ii) The extensive utilization
30 163 19
of tailings reduces the area of tailings ponds and the potential risk of
40 163 18
dam break. iii) Minimizing solid waste deposition around the mine, the
mining area environment will significantly improve. iv) Curbing the
concentration control, flocculant feeding control, filling body strength occurrence of geological disasters such as ground collapse, cracks, and
monitoring, filling material flow performance, and bleeding rate con­ soil erosion are conducive to protecting the lives and property of resi­
trol. CPB quality monitoring and control can reduce production costs dents around the mining area. Therefore, the widespread use of CPB
while meeting the safety production requirements. technology benefits environmental protection and has more significant
social benefits.
3.2. Mechanism of CPB
3.3.2. Economic benefits
According to the theories of Brady [53] and Yu [54], the action The application of CPB technology requires a certain amount of in­
mechanism of the filling body is divided into three levels, namely, the vestment in the construction of the filling system, and the mining cost is
mechanical mechanism, the filling mechanism, and the pressure release higher than that of the open-stope and the caving methods. However,
mechanism. The interaction between the filling body and the sur­ filling mining can increase the mineral resource recovery rate, extend
rounding rock is shown in Fig. 7. the service life of the mine and save resource tax, dam construction fee,
impermeable treatment fee, operation and management costs, etc. In
3.2.1. Mechanical mechanism addition, the filling mining can also effectively stop the movement of the
CPB changes the stress state of the roof slab and surrounding rock in rock layer, significantly reducing the amount of underground mine
the goaf from the original one-way or two-way stress to two-way or drainage, saving a lot of drainage costs economic benefits highlighted.
three-way stress [56,57]. CPB can improve the strength of surrounding Table 3 shows the change in financial benefits after a mine changed from
rock and enhance the self-supporting ability to surrounding rock by caving to filling. Table 2 indicates that filling mining can increase the
imposing constraints on the displacement movement of the roof and total profit for the mining enterprise by 392 million yuan/a compared
surrounding rock. Moreover, it reduces the progressive damage of the with the caving method, which has significant economic benefits.
wall rock in the stop around the neighboring mining activity under the
action of the original rock stress [58–60]. 4. Development status of roof-contact

With the expansion of the mining scale, filling without roof-contact

5
S. Yin et al.
Filling pipeline
Fig. 8. Influencing factors of backfill slurry roof-contacted: (a) stope conditions, (b) human factors.
Fig. 9. Water secretion and filling body delamination of underground roadway in Jinchuan No. 2 Mine: (a) water secretion, (b) filling body delamination.
has gradually become a phenomenon that cannot be ignored in the
development of mines, which is directly related to the safety of the
mining activity [78,79]. Each 1 % increase in the CPB’s roof-contact
rate, the rock explosion’s energy release rate is reduced by about 8 %,
which fully illustrates the significant impact of filling roof-contact on the
energy release rate. Theoretically, the energy release rate of the rock­
burst will be reduced by about 28 % compared with the current filling
mining method when the roof-contact rate reaches 100 % [80]. It is
tough to achieve a 100 % roof-contact rate in actual production, and
most of the mines are in the shallow part, where the ground pressure
phenomenon caused by poor roof-contact is not prominent. With the
development of mining to the deep, mining activities will face severe
ground pressure disasters, and the high roof-contact rate is critical.
4.1. Influencing factors of roof-contact
Many factors affect the roof-contact rate. We classify the factors
affecting the topping rate into three broad categories based on literature
and practical experience: stope conditions, slurry properties, and human
factors [25], which mainly include the following factors: blind or open
stope configurations, pipeline networking system, paste backfill water
contents during the delivery to the stopes, stope filling configurations,
field placement, and curing conditions, etc.
4.1.1. Stope conditions
i) The goaf roof is uneven. Due to the uneven goaf roof, it is easy to
form a filling blind area in the depressed roof area and produce an
empty cavity.
6
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
Goaf roof
50cm
Next layer of backfill
ii) Low location of the discharge port. Constrained by stope conditions,
the filling pipeline is usually erected lower than the roof (Fig. 8(a)),
making it difficult to roof-contact of the slurry.
4.1.2. Slurry properties
After the CPB slurry is transported through the pipeline to the goaf,
the coarse aggregate will settle and form a self-flowing slope from the
feed opening to the edge of the barricade. And the worse the slurry
fluidity, the greater the artesian slope [81], which means that the edge
of the goaf cannot maintain synchronous roof-contact with the feed
opening. The physical properties of the raw materials, such as aggregate
particle size distribution, cement admixture, additives, etc., also influ­
ence the self-flowing slope. Moreover, dehydration and consolidation
can lead to CPB settlement, resulting in a gap between the filling body
and the roof.
4.1.3. Human factors
Mine operators are limited by their experience level, imprecise
control of filling time, and limited use of roofing techniques, which
inevitably affect the roof-contact rate. Fig. 8(b) shows the problem of the
roof-uncontact caused by workers disconnecting the pipeline in
advance.
4.2. Roof-contact technology
Currently, forced roof-contact is commonly used to improve the roof-
contact rate of CPB. This technique uses a unique process to roof-contact
the slurry during the filling process without changing the composition
and mixing ratio of the slurry material [24]. Forced roof-contact in­
cludes multiple filling, roof collapse, slurry pressurization, contact roof
by slurry gravity, etc.
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

Fig. 10. Action mechanism of expansive material filling goaf: (a) expansive action, (b) extrusion action, (c) bonding action.

Fig. 11. Voids structures and distributions of voids for (a) control mix and (b) foamed concrete prepared with quarry dust (Adapted from [97]).

4.2.1. Multiple filling
Due to the limitation of filling capacity, it is often necessary to go
through multiple (2 to 6 times) filling processes when backfilling large
mining areas. However, multiple filling requires repeated tube washing
and wetting operations, resulting in a heavy workload and complicated
operations for downhole drainage. Meanwhile, the filling body is formed
by multi-layer accumulation, and there are several structural surfaces
inside, so the filling body delamination is severe, resulting in the filling
body losing the overall strength advantage. For example, in June 2014, a
large collapse of the roof of the filler occurred (8 m long, 6 m wide, 1.2 m
thick, 57.6 m3 in volume) in the V-pan area of sub-section 978 of Jin­
chuan No. 2 mine, resulting in casualties. Fig. 9 shows the water
secretion and filling body delamination in the underground roadway of
the Jinchuan II mine.
4.2.2. Roof collapse
Rock will expand after crushing (the expand factor is about 1.35 ~
1.6) [82]. Blasting is used at the end of the filling work to avalanche the
local roof so that the immediate roof area can exceed the exposed area
required for roof bubbling to ensure the goaf is closed [83]. However,
the roof collapse increased the blasting process, resulting in uncoordi­
nated coordination between the different processes. Moreover, roof
crumbling can also cause local subsidence of the ground surface, which
does not apply to situations where the ground surface needs to be

7
S. Yin et al.
Fig. 12. The expansion process of chemical reaction SEA (Adapted
from [102]).
protected and can negatively impact the recovery of the ore column.
4.2.3. Slurry pressurized
Slurry pressurized roof-connect means that the filling pump is used
to pressurize transport the slurry into the goaf, and this technique re­
quires additional filling pumps and transfer warehouses [69,83]. How­
ever, this technology requires strict control of the pumping pressure and
the closure of access to the goaf (roadways, boreholes, penetration fis­
sures, etc.) to prevent safety incidents.
4.2.4. Slurry gravity
Make the slurry self-leveling under its gravity or use the height dif­
ference to squeeze the slurry until the roof-connect. This method re­
quires additional project measures, such as drilling filling holes in the
upper part of the goaf, erecting retaining wall partitions, and designing
an inclined roof and arc roof. However, the construction safety in the
near-goaf is poor, and there is still the problem of not being able to fully
roof-connect away from the project measures.
Forced roof-contact technology also includes enhanced drainage-
dehydration, setting multiple discharge gates, etc., but all have a se­
ries of problems, such as complicated construction processes and poor
results. Moreover, the engineering conditions in each goaf are different,
and forced roofing techniques with an empirical tendency alone are
often very blind.
5. Expansive filling
In addition to the traditional filling materials, some mines at home
Fig. 13. The expansion process of montmorillonite (Modified after [112]).
8
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
and abroad began to study the application of concrete admixture in mine
filling. For example, accelerated agents are applied to shorten the setting
time [84], retarder agents are used to prolonging the setting time [85],
water-reducing agents are used to improving the workability and in­
crease the early strength [86,87], and pumping agents are used to
reduce the resistance to transport of highly concentrated slurry [88].
The previous actions aim to improve the performance of the CPB,
including strength, stability, workability, etc., which should meet the
requirements of filling and mining engineering.
EA has been introduced in some mines to improve the roof-contact of
CPB. For example, EA was added to the slurry at the Jinchuan III mine in
2010, and field experiments were conducted [89]. The field sampling
results showed that the strength index met the technical requirements.
Compared with traditional filling, expansive filling increases the cost of
cementitious materials but reduces the filling amount. Balancing the
cost of expansion filling will be an essential research topic in the follow-
up work. Moreover, the application of EA in mine filling is still in the
experimental stage. We need to explore the application of EA in mine
filling to ensure that the filling work can be carried out efficiently and
safely. Therefore, this section aims to provide a systematic under­
standing of EA and its associated properties commonly used in civil
engineering. Analyze the expansion mechanism of various types of EA,
focusing on the review of key properties such as volume expansion rate,
compatibility, and mechanical strength of the expansion matrix.
5.1. Expansion filling theory
The effect of “expansion-extrusion-bonding” will be produced after
the expansion CPB is transported to the goaf (as shown in Fig. 10), which
can be summarized as follows: i) at the beginning of the intumescent
filling material filling into the goaf, the volume expansion will occur
under the action of the EA, which will fill the whole goaf and signifi­
cantly improve the roof contact effect; ii) due to the expansion effect of
the slurry, in the space-constrained underground goaf, the filling body
will produce reverse expansion force on the surrounding rock, which can
squeeze the broken surrounding rock around the goaf and put it in a
more stable three-way stress state; iii) the expansion CPB can also flow
into the cracks of the surrounding rock, which will form a kind of overall
structure with pre-stress after the slurry’s final set and improve the
goaf’s stability.
5.2. Mechanism of expansion material
5.2.1. Gas-phase EA
Gas-phase EA (GEA), commonly known as blowing agents, which can
be divided into chemical and physical blowing agents, are key materials
for preparing foam concrete in civil engineering [90–92]. The decom­
position of chemical blowing agents releases gases such as carbon
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

Fig. 14. The expansion of cement matrix containing MgO-based EA under different conditions: (a) the reactivity value is 65 s, and the dosage is 4 %; (b) the reactivity
value is 65 s, and the dosage is 6 %; (c) the reactivity value is 65 s, and the dosage is 8 %; (d) the reactivity value is 65 s, and the dosage is 10 %; (e) the reactivity
value is 145 s, and the dosage is 6 % (Modified after [119]).

dioxide and nitrogen and forms fine pores in the matrix (as shown in
Fig. 11). While physical blowing agents can form porous structures by
expanding compressed gases, volatilization of liquids, or dissolution of
solids.
Physical blowing agents mainly include four types of rosin resins,
surfactants, animal and plant proteins, and composite [93,94]. In
addition to the four common physical blowing agents, chemical-type
blowing agents such as hydrogen peroxide, calcium carbide, and
ammonium salts are also widely used. The bubble mechanism of
chemical blowing agents is shown in Eqs. (1)~(4) [95]. The reaction
product (Na2CO3, Ca(OH)2, etc.) of Chemical-type blowing agents will
promote the hydration process of cement. Studies have shown that the
bubbles formed by physical foaming agents are more uniform than
chemical ones and are more suitable for application in foamed concrete
[96].
2Al + 6H2 O2 →2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3H2 ↑ (1)

9
S. Yin et al.
Fig. 15. The vertical expansion rate of the expansion matrix under the water-cement ratio of 0.5: (a) curing time of 3 h and (b) curing time of 24 h (Modified
after [123,124]).
Fig. 16. Relationship between equivalent montmorillonite content and free
expansion rate (Modified after [126]).
2(2Na2 CO3 3H2 O2 )→4Na2 CO3 + 6H2 O + 3O2 ↑ (2)
CaC2 + H2 O→Ca(OH)2 + C2 H2 ↑ (3)
NH 4 + OH − →H2 O + NH3 ↑ (4)
5.2.2. Solid-phase EA
Solid-phase EA (SEA) usually reacts with water and other cementi­
tious components to cause the matrix to expand in volume. The most
widely used types of SEA are CaO-based, MgO-based, Ettringite-based,
and expanded clay [98]. Upon exposure to water, the swelling source
of the chemical reaction class SEA undergoes reactions as shown in Eqs.
(5)~(7) [99]. The expansion occurs along with the hardening, eventu­
ally forming an expansion-cured material with certain strength. In
addition, the expansion source will also have a synergistic reaction with
the cement. For example, the CaO dissolved in water will increase the
Ca2+ concentration in the pore solution and promote the hydration
process of the adhesive [100]. Sulfoaluminate can promote ettringite
production in the cement hydration system and fill the water-filled space
in the original system to make it dense [101]. MgO hydration generates
Mg(OH)2 to fill the void and can also reduce the water requirement of
the reaction system. The expansion process of SEA is shown in Fig. 12,
10
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
which can be divided into three stages [102–105], namely the free
expansion stage, expansion-extrusion development stage, and
solidification-bonding development stage. Among them, the matrix’s
volumetric expansion rate and expansion stress increase rapidly during
the expansion-extrusion development phase. Moreover, because the
cement hydration products (C–S–H gels) are not fully cured, the hy­
dration products of EA come into contact with the aggregate and
generate extrusion stresses.
CaO + H2 O→Ca(OH)2 (5)
MgO + H2 O→Mg(OH)2 (6)
6CaO + 3Al2 O3 + 3SO3 + 26H2 O→3CaOAl2 O33CaSO4 32H2 O (7)
Montmorillonite is the main component of expanded clay [106], a
physical reaction-type expansion source. Montmorillonite has a power­
ful ability to absorb water (as shown in Fig. 13), and its intrinsic driving
force for water absorption is mainly divided into kinds [107–109]: i)
electrostatic gravitational force. Montmorillonite has a strong electro­
static gravitational force due to the electric charge and broken bonds at
the edges of the crystals, which can draw polar water molecules between
them and make them swell. ii) Double electric layer repulsion. Osmosis
causes water to enter the spaces between the montmorillonite crystals,
increasing the crystal spacing and allowing more water molecules to
enter between the layers [110]. As a result, the cations adsorbed be­
tween the crystalline layers of montmorillonite diffuse on the crystalline
layers and formed a double layer, resulting in excess negative charge on
the crystalline layers. And the two crystalline layers repel each other
because of the same negative charge, which is the double-layer repul­
sion, and the formation of the double-layer repulsion further accelerates
the expansion of the layer spacing [111].
5.3. Properties of expansion materials
This section provides an overview of the fundamental properties
such as workability, expansibility, and mechanical properties of various
types of the expanded matrix to facilitate the selection of EA suitable for
use in mine backfill. Related studies show that the expansion of GEA
mainly occurs before the final set of the slurry, and the expansion
development time is short [98,113,114]. While the CPB often takes 30
~ 60 min to be transported to the goaf, GEA will cause the slurry to
expand in the pipe, increasing the probability of plugging and pipe
bursting. Therefore, the subsequent analysis focuses on the four com­
mon types of SEA.
S. Yin et al.
Fig. 17. Effect of curing time on the microstructure of CPB (Adapted from [137]).
5.3.1. Expansibility
The effect of SEA type on the expansion properties of the matrix has
been extensively studied. The reactivity, addition amount, and external
curing conditions of chemical reaction-type SEA will affect the expan­
sion process of the matrix [115–117]. Chemical reaction-type SEA with
high reactivity leads to faster matrix expansion in the early stage but
slower and less expansion in the later stage [118], as shown in Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 also indicates that highly reactive SEA has better sensitivity to
temperature. High temperatures can promote faster hydration of SEA,
and the matrix exhibits a faster expansion rate and reaches greater ul­
timate expansion in a shorter period [119]. Moreover, the expansion
rate increases with the increasing admixture of SEA, which is under­
standable because the higher the content of SEA, the greater the content
of hydration products and the corresponding expansion rate [120–122].
The early expansion capacity of the three chemical reaction-type SEA
was compared and analyzed, as shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 15 indicates that
all the slurries with SEA exhibit expansion performance under conven­
tional curing conditions, and the vertical expansion rate increases with
the curing age. Compared with the other two SEA, the CaO-based EA
matrix has the best expansion properties.
The content of montmorillonite plays a decisive role in the swelling
properties of expanded clay. Zhang [125] prepared eight groups of
samples with montmorillonite content of 20 %, 25 %, 30 %, 35 %, 40 %,
45 %, 50 %, and 55 % for the free expansion rate test. The results show
that the free expansion rate of expansive artificial soil has a linear
relationship with the montmorillonite content. Shao [126] studied the
expansion characteristics of expansive soil in different provinces and
found a linear relationship with the equivalent montmorillonite content
(Fig. 16). However, the complex groundwater environment makes the
expansion rate difficult to control.
5.3.2. Workability
The matrix must have good compatibility before solidification to
ensure transportability and filling quality [127]. EA rapidly reduces
matrix workability because hydration consumes large amounts of water
[128]. The test results of water demand and slump of concrete for
11
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
different chemical reaction-type SEA are given in Table 3.
It is generally considered that the CPB slump can meet the fluidity
requirements when maintained between 18 and 22 cm. Table 3 shows
that the water requirement of concrete with MgO-based EA is lower than
that with CaO-based and ettringite-based EA. The water requirement of
the concrete with MgO-based EA was 10 kg/m3 lower than the other two
groups, which improved the strength and the adhesion between the
aggregates. It indicates that MgO-based EA is more conducive to the
stability of workability. In addition, there are very few studies on the
fluidity of expanded clay in the literature, mainly due to its water ab­
sorption characteristics. If expanded clay is to be used to prepare CPB
slurry, it needs to meet the minimum fluidity performance requirements
for mine backfill, which will be the direction of subsequent research.
5.3.3. Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties are slurry expansion-filled materials’ most
basic and important properties [129,130]. Mechanical properties
include compressive strength, flexural strength, and so on. Compressive
strength refers to the maximum pressure a material can bear to maintain
its shape per unit area. Flexural strength, also known as flexural
strength, is the ultimate stress when a bending load damages a material.
The characteristic parameters of mechanical properties with curing age
are one of the most important technical indicators of expansion-filling
materials [131–133]. The effect of curing age on the mechanical prop­
erties of expanded CPB is that the pores of CPB are gradually filled with
more and more hydration products as time increases [134,135]. The
hydration products between the pores overlap and intertwine(as shown
in Fig. 17), forming connecting channels composed of dense hydration
products [136], resulting in increased strength.
A certain amount of EA has no effect on the early strength of concrete
or slightly increases, and can even increase the long-term strength of
concrete, but with further increase of the EA content, the strength will
rapidly decline. Zhou [138] studied the effect of EA type, curing tem­
perature, and humidity on the strength of concrete using an orthogonal
test method (e.g., Fig. 18(a)) and found that the effects of curing hu­
midity and EA type on the strength of supplementary concrete at all ages
S. Yin et al.
Fig. 18. Shows the effect of chemical reaction-type sea on concrete strength: (a) range comparison of each influencing factor, (b) strength of concrete mixed with
MgO-based EA, (c) strength of concrete mixed with CaO-based EA, (d) strength of concrete mixed with Ettringite-based EA (Modified after Zhou [138] and
Zhang [139]).
were more significant.
Fig. 18(b)~(d) shows the effect of three different EAs on the strength
of the matrix. It can be seen that compared with the control group, all
three decreased. For short-term strength (7 d), the strength of concrete
with MgO-based EA is better, with an average strength of 40.6 MPa. The
strength of concrete with Ettringite-based EA is the lowest, and the
average strength is only 36.5 MPa. The long-term strength (28 d) meets
the strength requirements of the matrix, and the strength of the matrix
with MgO-based EA is the highest. In addition, Han [140] and Zhang
[141] found that the long-term strength (28 d) of CPB could reach 4.90
MPa when expanded clay was mixed with 40 % of the cement mass, but
the expansion rate was only about 2 %. Li [108] prepared an expansive
filling material using ordinary silicate cement and expansive clay as raw
materials. The long-term strength of CPB was only 1.41 MPa, and the
expansion rate was only 3.76 % when the cement-sand ratio was 1:8, the
slurry concentration was 70 %, and the admixture of expansive soil was
15 %. The low strength, expansion rate, and fluidity make it difficult to
use expanded clay in filling roof-contact.
6. Perspectives for future research
6.1. Optimization of expansion CPB mix proportion based on deep
learning
EA alone is not sufficient [142]. It is usually necessary to add
12
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
external additives to the matrix, such as shrinkage-reducing agents
[143], fibers [144], and mineral admixtures [145], to ensure that the
expansion material shows better results in terms of strength, durability,
and workability. However, fully understanding the mechanism of
different external additives on expansion CPB requires extensive indoor
tests, both tedious and expensive. With the growth of computational
power, deep learning has started to predict the matrix’s characteristic
parameters. Qi [146] and Sevim [147] used PSO-ANN and GA-ANFIS
models in the mining industry to predict unconfined compressive
strength, respectively. Therefore, the author believes deep learning can
also optimize the mixed proportion of expansion-filling materials to
achieve a better application effect.
6.2. Rheological mechanics of expansion CPB under deep high-stress
environment
Many mines have turned to deep mining, but deep mining faces the
problem of “three highs and one disturbance”, which inevitably makes
higher requirements on the strength of the filler [148]. There are more
pore structures inside the expansion filling body, and with the increase
of mining depth, whether it can still support the top plate under the
influence of ground stress is a key issue facing the expansion CPB
technology. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conduct a triaxial
rheological test study of expansive CPB to explore the effect on the
stability of the goaf under the time effect.
S. Yin et al.
6.3. Mechanism of instability and early warning of damage precursors in
expanded CPB-surrounding rock assemblage
Studying the deformation damage of CPB, revealing the precursor
characteristics of its damage, and quantifying its pre-damage warning
stage can provide a theoretical guarantee for the safe conduct of mining
work. To obtain information on the precursors of specimen damage,
researchers have achieved good early warning results based on
abnormal changes in various physical parameters [149]. And they have
used monitoring methods such as acoustic emission (AE), thermal
infrared, and electromagnetic radiation [150–152]. Moreover, the cusp
mutation model was shown to achieve accurate prediction of filling
body instability [153–155]. Based on the mutation theory, it is signifi­
cant to conduct an in-depth analysis of the mutation of various types of
energy in the expanding filling body to reveal the fundamental reasons
for the mutation and quantify the CPB’s early warning state.
7. Summary
The discharge of solid waste from mines has become the most critical
factor affecting the ecology around the mine site. Although CPB has
gradually become an irreplaceable part of green mining, the low filling
roof-contact rate is still an important obstacle to deep mining.
This paper reviews the safety risks and factors affecting filling
roofing without roofing, i.e., goaf conditions, slurry properties, and
human factors. In addition, various filling forced roof-contact tech­
niques are analyzed, including multiple filling, roof collapse, slurry
pressurized, etc. The author believes that forced roof-contact technology
is usually used by various technical means, and the construction process
is complex. And only relying on forced roof-contact technology often has
great blindness.
Adding EA to the filling slurry is considered an effective roof-contact
method. The expansion slurry is transported to the initial stage of the
goaf and produces volume expansion under the action of the expansion
agent, which significantly improves the roof-contact effect of CPB.
Moreover, the benefits of using expansion backfill technology include
improving the stress state of the surrounding rock, binding fractures in
the surrounding rock, and reducing production costs. The expansion
mechanism of various types of expansion materials was reviewed,
emphasizing the key characteristics such as volume expansion, work­
ability, and mechanical properties of the four expansion matrixes
compared. The data show that MgO-based EA makes up for the defect of
excessive water requirement of the expansion matrix and has little effect
on compressive strength.
Opportunities exist to further promote the application of expansion
CPB technology by embracing deep learning-assisted mix proportion
optimization. In addition, exploring the rheological-mechanical prop­
erties, destabilization mechanism, and damage precursor warning of
expansive fillers contributes to advancing the basic theory of expansion
CPB. The obtained from these studies provide great potential for the
development of expansion CPB technology.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Key Program of National Natural
Science Foundation of China (52034001); the 111 Project (B20041); the
13
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFC2904103); the Innova­
tion Ability Promotion Project of Sci-Tech SMEs in Shandong Province
(2022TSGC2077), and thanks to all reviewers’ precious comments to
promote this paper significantly.
References
[1] S. Yin, J. Liu, Y. Shao, H. Zhang, B. Armelle, Y. Kou, Influence rule of early
compressive strength and solidification mechanism of full tailings paste with
coarse aggregate, J. Cent. South Univ. 51 (2020) 478–488.
[2] G. Xue, E. Yilmaz, W. Song, S. Cao, Compressive strength characteristics of
cemented tailings backfill with alkali-activated slag, Appl. Sci. 8 (2018) 1537.
[3] M.S. Meddah, S. Zitouni, S. Belâabes, Effect of content and particle size
distribution of coarse aggregate on the compressive strength of concrete, Constr.
Build. Mater. 24 (2010) 505–512.
[4] Ministry of Natural Resources of China, China Mineral Resources Report, 2021.
[5] A. Dudeney, B. Chan, S. Bouzalakos, J. Huisman, Management of waste and
wastewater from mineral industry processes, especially leaching of sulphide
resources: State of the art, Int. J. Mining, Reclam. Environ. 27 (2013) 2–37.
[6] Z. Yan, S. Yin, X. Chen, L. Wang, Rheological properties and wall-slip behavior of
cemented tailing-waste rock backfill (CTWB) paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 324
(2022), 126723.
[7] H. Lu, C. Qi, Q. Chen, D. Gan, Z. Xue, Y. Hu, A new procedure for recycling waste
tailings as cemented paste backfill to underground stopes and open pits, J. Clean.
Prod. 188 (2018) 601–612.
[8] S. Yin, Y. Shao, A. Wu, H. Wang, X. Liu, Y. Wang, A systematic review of paste
technology in metal mines for cleaner production in China, J. Clean. Prod. 247
(2020), 119590.
[9] N. Zhu, Solid waste treatment and utilization, Peking University Press, Beijing,
2006.
[10] D. Wu, B. Yang, Y. Liu, Transportability and pressure drop of fresh cemented coal
gangue-fly ash backfill (CGFB) slurry in pipe loop, Powder Technol. 284 (2015)
218–224.
[11] L. Liu, P. Yang, C. Qi, B. Zhang, L. Guo, K.I.I.L. Song, An experimental study on
the early-age hydration kinetics of cemented paste backfill, Constr. Build. Mater.
212 (2019) 283–294.
[12] A. Fourie, Preventing catastrophic failures and mitigating environmental impacts
of tailings storage facilities, Procedia Earth Planet. Sci. 1 (2009) 1067–1071.
[13] X. Li, J. Du, L. Gao, S. He, L. Gan, C. Sun, Y. Shi, Immobilization of
phosphogypsum for cemented paste backfill and its environmental effect,
J. Clean. Prod. 156 (2017) 137–146.
[14] H. Wei, Z. Wen, L. Ba, Q. Gao, Study on strength test and hydration mechanism of
phosphogypsum based cemented backfill, in: IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.,
2021: p. 012100.
[15] H. Jiang, Z. Qi, E. Yilmaz, J. Han, J. Qiu, C. Dong, Effectiveness of alkali-activated
slag as alternative binder on workability and early age compressive strength of
cemented paste backfills, Constr. Build. Mater. 218 (2019) 689–700.
[16] Q. Chen, Q. Zhang, C. Qi, A. Fourie, C. Xiao, Recycling phosphogypsum and
construction demolition waste for cemented paste backfill and its environmental
impact, J. Clean. Prod. 186 (2018) 418–429.
[17] M. Fall, D. Adrien, J.C. Célestin, M. Pokharel, M. Touré, Saturated hydraulic
conductivity of cemented paste backfill, Miner. Eng. 22 (2009) 1307–1317.
[18] R. Fu Yan, J. Ming Liu, S. Hua Yin, L. Zou, Y. Yuan Kou, P. Qiang Zhang, Effect of
polypropylene fiber and coarse aggregate on the ductility and fluidity of
cemented tailings backfill, J. Cent. South Univ. 29 (2022) 515–527.
[19] S. Yin, Y. Hou, X. Chen, M. Zhang, Mechanical, flowing and microstructural
properties of cemented sulfur tailings backfill: Effects of fiber lengths and dosage,
Constr. Build. Mater. 309 (2021), 125058.
[20] A. Kesimal, E. Yilmaz, B. Ercikdi, I. Alp, H. Deveci, Effect of properties of tailings
and binder on the short-and long-term strength and stability of cemented paste
backfill, Mater. Lett. 59 (2005) 3703–3709.
[21] S. Hua Yin, J. Ming Liu, W. Chen, L. Zou, Y. Yuan Kou, X. Wen Li, Optimization of
the effect and formulation of different coarse aggregates on performance of the
paste backfill condensation, Chinese J. Eng. 42 (2020) 829–837.
[22] E. Yilmaz, M. Benzaazoua, B. Bussière, S. Pouliot, Influence of disposal
configurations on hydrogeological behaviour of sulphidic paste tailings: A field
experimental study, Int. J. Miner. Process. 131 (2014) 12–25.
[23] T. Yılmaz, B. Ercikdi, H. Deveci, Utilisation of construction and demolition waste
as cemented paste backfill material for underground mine openings, J. Environ.
Manage. 222 (2018) 250–259.
[24] Y. Shao, Flow characteristics of paste slurry in the underground stope and control
technology of backfilling roof-contact, University of Science and Technology
Beijing, 2020.
[25] K.J.A. Kouame, Y. Feng, F. Jiang, S. Zhu, A Study of Technical Measures for
Increasing the Roof-Contacted Ratio in Stope and Cavity Filling, J. Mater. Sci.
Res. 5 (2015) 54.
[26] D. Wu, Discussion about relation between the rate of supporting pit roof and
supporting effect of backfilling mass, Ind. Miner. Process. 4 (2006) 20–23.
[27] C. Yang, L. Guo, W. Xu, Z. Min, Experimental research on self-expanding
materials for roof-contacted filling, Gold. 39 (2018) 26–30.
[28] Y. Lu, L. Li, R. Jiang, Discussion on raising the rate of supporting pit roof,
Nonferrous Met. Sect. 61 (2009) 2–4.
[29] J.R. Ford, S.J. Price, A.H. Cooper, C.N. Waters, An assessment of lithostratigraphy
for anthropogenic deposits, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 395 (2014) 55–89.
S. Yin et al.
[30] J.A. Wang, H.D. Park, Comprehensive prediction of rockburst based on analysis of
strain energy in rocks, Tunn. Undergr. Sp. Technol. 16 (2001) 49–57.
[31] S. Wang, Q. Li, G. Zhao, Research on technical measures for raising the rate of
supporting pit roof, Min. Metall. Eng. 31 (2011) 3–6.
[32] Y. Potvin, E. Thomas, A. Fourie, Handbook on mine fill, Perth, Australia, 2005.
[33] A.G. Grice, Stability of Hydraulic Backfill Barricades, in: Proc. Sixth Int. Symp.
Min. with Backfill, AusIMM, Melbourne, 1998: pp. 117–120.
[34] R.M. Rankine, N. Sivakugan, Geotechnical properties of cemented paste backfill
from Cannington Mine, Australia, Geotech. Geol. Eng. 25 (2007) 383–393.
[35] X. Sha, Mechanical properties of expansive filling material and its influence on
stratum control in stope, China University of Mining and Technology, 2019.
[36] X. Li, B. Liu, Review and Exploration of Current Situation of Backfill Mining in
Hard Rock Mines, Gold, Sci. Technol. 26 (2018) 492–502.
[37] T. Belem, M. Benzaazoua, Design and application of underground mine paste
backfill technology, Geotech. Geol. Eng. 26 (2008) 147–174.
[38] N. Sivakugan, R.M. Rankine, K.J. Rankine, K.S. Rankine, Geotechnical
considerations in mine backfilling in Australia, J. Clean. Prod. 14 (2006)
1168–1175.
[39] B. Xiao, M. Fall, A. Roshani, Towards Understanding the Rheological Properties of
Slag-Cemented Paste Backfill, Int. J. Mining, Reclam. Environ. 35 (2021)
268–290.
[40] R. Yu, Development and innovation of cemented filling technology in China,
China Mine Eng. 39 (2010) 1-3+9.
[41] A. Wu, Y. Wang, H. Wang, Status and Prospects of the Paste Backfill Technology,
Met. Mine. (2016) 1–9.
[42] G. Sun, Y. Wang, W. Ren, Application status and development trend of cemented
filling technology in metal mines, Nonferrous Met. (Mining Sect. 4 (2557)
88–100.
[43] C. Qi, X. Yang, G. Li, Q. Chen, Y. Sun, Research status and perspectives of the
application of artificial intelligence in mine backfilling, J. China Coal Soc. 46
(2021) 688–700.
[44] L. Guo, G. Liu, X. Chen, Research Progress on Mining with Backfill Technology of
Underground Metalliferous Mine, J. China Coal Soc. (2022).
[45] C. Qi, A. Fourie, Cemented paste backfill for mineral tailings management:
Review and future perspectives, Miner. Eng. 144 (2019), 106025.
[46] H. Wang, A. Wu, Paste Backfill Theory and Technology of Metal Mine, Science
Press, Beijing, 2015.
[47] Q. Chen, Q. Zhang, X. Wang, C. Xiao, Q. Hu, A hydraulic gradient model of paste-
like crude tailings backfill slurry transported by a pipeline system, Environ. Earth
Sci. 75 (2016) 1099.
[48] Z. Yan, S. Yin, R. Yan, L. Zou, Y. Kou, P. Kou, Effect of mixing time on
homogeneity and early strength of coarse aggregate paste, Chinese J. Nonferrous
Met. 32 (2022) 1164–1174.
[49] A. Roshani, M. Fall, Rheological properties of cemented paste backfill with nano-
silica: Link to curing temperature, Cem. Concr. Compos. 114 (2020), 103785.
[50] G. Feng, X. Jia, Y. Guo, T. Qi, D. Li, Z. Li, J. Feng, G. Liu, K. Song, L. Kang,
Influence of the wasted concrete coarse aggregate on the performance of
cemented paste backfill, J. China Coal Soc. 40 (2015) 1320–1325.
[51] T. He, M. Cai, C. Shi, Z. Zhang, Q. He, Effect of Naphthalene-based
Superplasticizer on the Performances of Different Types of Tailings Backfill
Materials, Bull. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 34 (2015) 280–285.
[52] Z. Xue, D. Gan, Y. Zhang, Z. Liu, Rheological behavior of ultrafine-tailings
cemented paste backfill in high-temperature mining conditions, Constr. Build.
Mater. 253 (2020), 119212.
[53] B. Bhg, ET, Brown, Rock mechanics for underground mining, Springer Science &
Business Media, New York, 2013.
[54] X. Yu, T. Liu, Filling mechanism and mining theory of jinchuan, in: Rock Mech.
Eng. 21 CenturyProceedings Fourth Acad. Conf. Chi- Nese Soc. Rock Mech. Eng.,
Science Press, Beijing, 1996: pp. 366–370.
[55] B. Yan, W. Zhu, C. Hou, C. Wei, Interaction between Backfill and Rock during
Metal Mining, A Review, Met. Mine. (2020) 7–25.
[56] Y. Tan, K. Zhang, X. Yu, W. Song, J. Wang, C. Hai, The mechanical and
microstructural properties of composite structures made of a cement-tailing
backfill and rock core, Minerals. 10 (2020).
[57] T. Kostecki, A.J.S. Spearing, Influence of backfill on coal pillar strength and floor
bearing capacity in weak floor conditions in the Illinois Basin, Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. 76 (2015) 55–67.
[58] D.R. Tesarik, J.B. Seymour, T.R. Yanske, Long-term stability of a backfilled room-
and-pillar test section at the Buick Mine, Missouri, USA, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. 46 (2009) 1182–1196.
[59] X. Zhu, G. Guo, Q. Fang, Coupled discrete element–finite difference method for
analyzing subsidence control in fully mechanized solid backfilling mining,
Environ, Earth Sci. 75 (2016) 1–12.
[60] X. Feng, Q. Zhang, M. Ali, 3D modelling of the strength effect of backfill-rocks on
controlling rockburst risk: a case study, Arab. J. Geosci. 13 (2020).
[61] P. Lu, A few points about the mechanics of back filling which restrain the
development of cementing back-filling method, Gold. 7 (1994) 18–22.
[62] C. Jiang, X. Gao, B. Hou, S. Zhang, J. Zhang, C. Li, W. Wang, Occurrence and
environmental impact of coal mine goaf water in karst areas in China, J. Clean.
Prod. 275 (2020), 123813.
[63] H. Lu, S. Yan, G. Pan, Stability comprehensive analysis model of iron deposit
retained goaf, Appl. Mech. Mater. 256–259 (2013) 2688–2691.
[64] C. Zhang, S. Tu, Y.X. Zhao, Compaction characteristics of the caving zone in a
longwall goaf: a review, Environ, Earth Sci. 78 (2019) 1–20.
14
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
[65] L. Jiang, P. Chen, A. Wu, Roof self-stabilizing arching effect of goaf based on
different roof-contacted filling rate, Zhongguo Youse Jinshu Xuebao/Chinese,
J. Nonferrous Met. 29 (2019) 187–193.
[66] N. Zhou, J. Zhang, H. Yan, M. Li, Deformation behavior of hard roofs in solid
backfill coal mining using physical models, Energies 10 (2017) 1–20.
[67] X. Li, E. Wang, Z. Li, Z. Liu, D. Song, L. Qiu, Rock Burst Monitoring by Integrated
Microseismic and Electromagnetic Radiation Methods, Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 49
(2016) 4393–4406.
[68] M. Tao, Y. Zhao, J. Guo, Arch model of roof and optimization of the roof-
contacted filling rate in two-step mining, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 16
(2006) 1163–1170.
[69] J. Zhang, Study on physical and mechanical characteristics of paste filling
material with swelling properties, Taiyuan University of Technology, 2014.
[70] X. Xie, J. Li, X. Dong, T. Tian, Stability analysis of cemented filling body and roof,
Rock Soil Mech. 39 (2018) 4183–4190.
[71] D. Deb, T. Sreenivas, G.K. Dey, S. Panchal, Paste Backfill Technology: Essential
Characteristics and Assessment of its Application for Mill Rejects of Uranium
Ores, Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 70 (2017) 487–495.
[72] T. Belem, M. Benzaazoua, B. Bussière, A.M. Dagenais, Effects of settlement and
drainage on strength development within mine paste backfill, Tailigns Mine,
Waste Manag. (2002) 139–148.
[73] M. Edraki, T. Baumgartl, E. Manlapig, D. Bradshaw, D.M. Franks, C.J. Moran,
Designing mine tailings for better environmental, social and economic outcomes:
A review of alternative approaches, J. Clean. Prod. 84 (2014) 411–420.
[74] B. Yan, W. Zhu, C. Hou, E. Yilmaz, M. Saadat, Characterization of early age
behavior of cemented paste backfill through the magnitude and frequency
spectrum of ultrasonic P-wave, Constr. Build. Mater. 249 (2020), 118733.
[75] S. Cao, G. Xue, E. Yilmaz, Flexural Behavior of Fiber Reinforced Cemented
Tailings Backfill under Three-Point Bending, IEEE Access 7 (2019)
139317–139328.
[76] X. Ji, X. Gu, Z. Wang, S. Xu, H. Jiang, E. Yilmaz, Admixture Effects on the
Rheological/Mechanical Behavior and Micro- Structure Evolution of Alkali-
Activated Slag Backfills, Minerals. 13 (2023).
[77] C. Xia, X. Sun, Application and developing trend of filled stops method and filling
technology, China Mine Eng. 43 (2014) 61–64.
[78] W. Liu, W. Lai, X. Wang, S. Jiang, Study on filling roof-contacting technology in
underground mine, Min. Technol. 17 (2017) 14–16.
[79] X. Wang, Y. Zhu, Z. Jiang, Q. Liu, X. Wan, Stability of Filling Materials with
Different Roof-contacted Filling Ratios in Upward Filling Stoping Method, Sci.
Technol. Rev. 32 (2014) 37–43.
[80] W. Xiao, Research on deep well filling technology, Central South University,
2004.
[81] L. Zhang, Effects of thixotropy on beach slope of thickened tailings in central
tailings discharge, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 2022.
[82] F. Shi, N. Fantuzzi, Y. Li, P. Trovalusci, Z. Wei, Modeling of dilatancy effect in
layered rock with rough interfaces using micropolar continuum, Mech. Res.
Commun. 125 (2022), 103994.
[83] Y. Zhang, Research on Roof-Contacted Filling Based on Expanding Material,
Northeastern University, 2014.
[84] L. Xu, Z. Sun, C. Tang, K. Yang, B. Li, Y. Zhang, Z. Yang, K. Wu, Mitigation effect
of accelerators on the lead–zinc tailing induced retardation in autoclaved
concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 352 (2022), 128929.
[85] Y. Gao, T. Guo, Z. Li, Z. Zhou, J. Zhang, Mechanism of retarder on hydration
process and mechanical properties of red mud-based geopolymer cementitious
materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 356 (2022), 129306.
[86] K. Karakuzu, V. Kobya, A. Mardani-Aghabaglou, B. Felekoğlu, K. Ramyar,
Adsorption properties of polycarboxylate ether-based high range water reducing
admixture on cementitious systems: A review, Constr. Build. Mater. 312 (2021).
[87] P.R. de Matos, D. Jiao, F. Roberti, F. Pelisser, P.J.P. Gleize, Rheological and
hydration behaviour of cement pastes containing porcelain polishing residue and
different water-reducing admixtures, Constr. Build. Mater. 262 (2020), 120850.
[88] G. Li, H. Wang, A. Wu, P. Yang, G. Li, H. Wang, Experimental study and
mechanism analysis on the effect of pumping agents on the compressive strength
of paste slurries, Chinese J. Eng. 38 (2016) 595–601.
[89] S. Zhai, Q. Gao, M. Zhang, Z. Chen, Research on the application of light foamed
backfilling material with high strength on mine, Ind. Miner. Process. 12 (2010)
30–34.
[90] B.A. Salami, M. Iqbal, A. Abdulraheem, F.E. Jalal, W. Alimi, A. Jamal,
T. Tafsirojjaman, Y. Liu, A. Bardhan, Estimating compressive strength of
lightweight foamed concrete using neural, genetic and ensemble machine
learning approaches, Cem. Concr. Compos. 133 (2022), 104721.
[91] N.P. Tran, T.N. Nguyen, T.D. Ngo, P.K. Le, T.A. Le, Strategic progress in foam
stabilisation towards high-performance foam concrete for building sustainability:
A state-of-the-art review, J. Clean. Prod. 375 (2022), 133939.
[92] X. Zhang, X. Feng, Z. Wang, J. Jian, S. Chen, W. Luo, C. Zhang, Experimental
study on the physico-mechanical properties and microstructure of foam concrete
mixed with coal gangue, Constr. Build. Mater. 359 (2022), 129428.
[93] C. Brondi, M.R. Di Caprio, G. Scherillo, E. Di Maio, T. Mosciatti, S. Cavalca,
V. Parenti, M. Corti, S. Iannace, Thermosetting polyurethane foams by physical
blowing agents: Chasing the synthesis reaction with the pressure, J. Supercrit.
Fluids 154 (2019), 104630.
[94] M.R. Mohd Hasan, Z. You, H. Yin, L. You, R. Zhang, Characterizations of foamed
asphalt binders prepared using combinations of physical and chemical foaming
agents, Constr. Build. Mater. 204 (2019) 94–104.
[95] Q. Song, P. Zhang, J. Bao, S. Xue, S. Mu, X. Han, Research Progress and
Application of Foam Concrete, J. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 49 (2021) 398–410.
S. Yin et al.
[96] Z. Zhang, J.L. Provis, A. Reid, H. Wang, Geopolymer foam concrete: An emerging
material for sustainable construction, Constr. Build. Mater. 56 (2014) 113–127.
[97] S.K. Lim, C.S. Tan, B. Li, T.C. Ling, M.U. Hossain, C.S. Poon, Utilizing high
volumes quarry wastes in the production of lightweight foamed concrete, Constr.
Build. Mater. 151 (2017) 441–448.
[98] Y. Ye, C. Chen, N. Yao, Q. Wang, X. Cui, Z. Huang, Research Progress on Several
Problems of Expansive Materials for Expansive Slurry, Met. Mine. (2021) 71–93.
[99] X. Zhang, The experimental study of expansion backfill material, Northeastern
University, 2014.
[100] H. Zhao, Y. Xiang, J. Liu, X. Chen, W. Xu, H. Li, Influences of calcium oxide-
magnesium oxide blended expansive agent and temperature rising inhibitor on
hydration characteristic of early-age cement paste, J. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 49
(2021) 2509–2517.
[101] Lin Xiqiang, D. Wang, L. Chen, L. Huo, T. Zhang, Research of performance and
expansion mechanism of the C80 high performance concrete with CSA expansive
agent, Concrete (2013) 91–94.
[102] N. Yao, J. Chen, N. Hu, Y. Ye, Y. Xiao, Y. Huang, Experimental study on expansion
mechanism and characteristics of expansive grout, Constr. Build. Mater. 268
(2021), 121574.
[103] H. Li, Y. Wang, Y. Wang, J. Liu, Q. Tian, Effect of CaO and MgO based expansive
agent on deformation and mechanical properties of concrete-filled steel tubes,
Constr. Build. Mater. 250 (2020), 118723.
[104] G. Zhang, D. Qiu, S. Wang, P. Wang, Effects of plastic expansive agent on the
fluidity, mechanical strength, dimensional stability and hydration of high
performance cementitious grouts, Constr. Build. Mater. 243 (2020), 118204.
[105] H. Zhao, X. Li, X. Chen, C. Qiao, W. Xu, P. Wang, H. Song, Microstructure
evolution of cement mortar containing MgO-CaO blended expansive agent and
temperature rising inhibitor under multiple curing temperatures, Constr. Build.
Mater. 278 (2021), 122376.
[106] G. Xie, P. Luo, M. Deng, J. Su, Z. Wang, R. Gong, J. Xie, S. Deng, Q. Duan,
Investigation of the inhibition mechanism of the number of primary amine groups
of alkylamines on the swelling of bentonite, Appl. Clay Sci. 136 (2017) 43–50.
[107] J. Nie, R. Tanaka, J. Chai, Effect of polymerization on the swelling properties of a
sodium bentonite and its mechanism, Mater. Sci. Forum. 1003 MSF (2020)
228–232.
[108] S. Li, Experimental study on filling characteristics of Bentonite, Jiangxi University
of Science and Technology, 2018.
[109] J. Yang, H. Fan, Z. Piao, B. Li, Swelling behavior of montmorillonite rheological
behavior of montmorillonite aqueous suspension and blend of suspension and
emulsion, J. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 33 (2005) 1457–1463.
[110] C. Igwe Idumah, U.C. Okonkwo, C.M. Obele, Recently emerging advancements in
montmorillonite polymeric nanoarchitectures and applications, Clean. Mater. 4
(2022), 100071.
[111] H. Yan, Z. Zhang, Effect and mechanism of cation species on the gel properties of
montmorillonite, Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 611 (2021),
125824.
[112] Z. Han, Y. Cui, Q. Meng, M. He, X. Yan, The effect of inorganic salt on the
mechanical properties of montmorillonite and its mechanism: A molecular
dynamics study, Chem. Phys. Lett. 781 (2021), 138982.
[113] L. Donghua, X. Zuqiang, W. Yuli, L. Xufeng, Research on influence of air
entraining agent and polypropylene fiber on properties of high-water-content
material, J. Saf. Sci. Technol. 12 (2016) 54–59.
[114] Y. Qin, J. Hu, D. Yang, Y. Kuang, F. Zhao, T. Zhou, Optimization of transport
performance and strength of the filling slurry in tailings reservoir waste by adding
air entraining agent, Minerals. 10 (2020) 1–16.
[115] H. Zhao, Y. Xiang, X. Chen, J. Huang, W. Xu, H. Li, Y. Wang, P. Wang, Mechanical
properties and volumetric deformation of early-age concrete containing CaO-MgO
blended expansive agent and temperature rising inhibitor, Constr. Build. Mater.
299 (2021), 123977.
[116] J.L. García Calvo, P. Carballosa, F. Pedrosa, D. Revuelta, Microstructural
phenomena involved in the expansive performance of cement pastes based on
type K expansive agent, Cem. Concr. Res. 158 (2022), 106856.
[117] J. Zhang, Recent advance of MgO expansive agent in cement and concrete,
J. Build. Eng. 45 (2022), 103633.
[118] L. Mo, M. Deng, M. Tang, A. Al-Tabbaa, MgO expansive cement and concrete in
China: Past, present and future, Cem. Concr. Res. 57 (2014) 1–12.
[119] L. Mo, J. Fang, W. Hou, X. Ji, J. Yang, T. Fan, H. Wang, Synergetic effects of
curing temperature and hydration reactivity of MgO expansive agents on their
hydration and expansion behaviours in cement pastes, Constr. Build. Mater. 207
(2019) 206–217.
[120] F. Cao, P. Yan, Effects of Reactivity and Dosage of Magnesium Oxide Expansive
Agents on Long-Term Volume Variation of Concrete, J. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 46
(2018) 1126–1132.
[121] S. Li, Z. Zhang, D. Tnag, W. Huang, L. Yu, K. Yang, Investigation of the Effect of
CaO Expansive Agent on the Restricted Expansion Rate of Alkali Activated Slag
Mortar, Bull. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 37 (2018) 1747–1752.
[122] D. Wang, S. Jiang, Z. Wang, Performance of light expansive cement mortar,
Sichuan, Build. Sci. 36 (2010) 183–195.
[123] Y. Liu, Y. Ren, W. Tian, Y. Hou, J. Zhang, Effect of Different Expanders on
Properties of Cement Based Grouting Material, J. Build. Mater. 25 (2022)
307–313.
[124] Y. Wang, H. Li, J. Yang, Study on effects of curing conditions and MgO expansion
agent on properties of sleeve grouting material, Exp. Res. (2021) 61–64.
[125] J. Zhang, J. Jiang, F. Xu, J. Wang, Y. Feng, Experimental Study of
Montmorillonite Content on Expansive Soil Properties, Sci. Technol. Vis. 18
(2014) 7–8.
15
Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657
[126] W. Shao, L. Tan, M. Zhang, L. Hua, The Relation between Mineral Composition
and Swelling Character of Swelling Soil, Rock Soil Mech. 15 (1994) 11–19.
[127] S. Gao, Z. Wang, W. Wang, H. Qiu, Effect of shrinkage-reducing admixture and
expansive agent on mechanical properties and drying shrinkage of Engineered
Cementitious Composite (ECC), Constr. Build. Mater. 179 (2018) 172–185.
[128] M.V. Phillips, G.E. Ramey, D.W. Pittman, Bridge deck construction using type K
cement, J. Bridg. Eng. 2 (1997) 176–182.
[129] T. Chen, K. Zhao, Y. Yan, Y. Zhou, Z. He, L. Guo, Mechanical properties and
acoustic emission response of cemented tailings backfill under variable angle
shear, Constr. Build. Mater. 343 (2022), 128114.
[130] Z. He, K. Zhao, Y. Yan, F. Ning, Y. Zhou, Y. Song, Mechanical response and
acoustic emission characteristics of cement paste backfill and rock combination,
Constr. Build. Mater. 288 (2021), 123119.
[131] Z. Wang, Y. Wang, L. Cui, C. Bi, A. Wu, Insight into the isothermal multiphysics
processes in cemented paste backfill: Effect of curing time and cement-to-tailings
ratio, Constr. Build. Mater. 325 (2022), 126739.
[132] L. Liu, C. Zhu, C. Qi, M. Wang, C. Huan, B. Zhang, K.I.I.L. Song, Effects of curing
time and ice-to-water ratio on performance of cemented paste backfill containing
ice slag, Constr. Build. Mater. 228 (2019), 116639.
[133] E. Yilmaz, T. Belem, B. Bussière, M. Mbonimpa, M. Benzaazoua, Curing time
effect on consolidation behaviour of cemented paste backfill containing different
cement types and contents, Constr. Build. Mater. 75 (2015) 99–111.
[134] Z. Liu, D. Gan, Z. Gan, Dynamic regimes of cemented backfill at early-age, J. Cent.
South Univ. 28 (2021) 2079–2090.
[135] Z. Xiu, S. Wang, Y. Ji, F. Wang, F. Ren, P. Wang, An analytical model for the
triaxial compressive Stress-strain relationships of Cemented Pasted Backfill (CPB)
with different curing time, Constr. Build. Mater. 313 (2021), 125554.
[136] L. Liu, J. Xin, C. Qi, H. Jia, K.I.I.L. Song, Experimental investigation of
mechanical, hydration, microstructure and electrical properties of cemented paste
backfill, Constr. Build. Mater. 263 (2020), 120137.
[137] L. Yang, C. Hou, W. Zhu, X. Liu, B. Yan, L. Li, Monitoring the failure process of
cemented paste backfill at different curing times by using a digital image
correlation technique, Constr. Build. Mater. 346 (2022), 128487.
[138] X. Zhou, W. Zhang, F. Yu, The influence of expansion agent type and curing
system on the compressive strength of shrinkage-compensating concrete, China
Concr. (2021) 72–75.
[139] X. Zhang, Experimental Study on Influence of Expansive Agent on Expansion -
Shrinkage Deformation and Strength Characteristics of Concrete, Railw. Constr.
Technol. 10 (2022) 106–110.
[140] X. Han, W. Liang, J. Zhang, Numerical Analysis of Mining Subsidence Control by
Special Paste Material Backfill, Chinese J. Undergr. Sp. Eng. 11 (2015) 5–12.
[141] J. Zhang, W. Liang, J. Han, X. Han, Y. Yu, Study on Physical and Mechanical
Characteristics of Paste Filling Material with Swelling Properties, Min. Res. Dev.
35 (2015) 15–20.
[142] A. Mahmood, A.B.M. Amrul Kaish, S.N. Raman, M. Jamil, R. Hamid, Effects of
Different Expansive Agents on the Properties of Expansive Cementitious
Materials, IOP Conf. Ser Mater. Sci. Eng. 1200 (2021), 012002.
[143] M. José Oliveira, A.B. Ribeiro, F.G. Branco, Combined effect of expansive and
shrinkage reducing admixtures to control autogenous shrinkage in self-
compacting concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 52 (2014) 267–275.
[144] Y. Su, Z. Xiong, Z. Hu, W. Zhu, K. Zhou, J. Wang, F. Liu, L. Li, Dynamic bending
study of glass fiber reinforced seawater and sea-sand concrete incorporated with
expansive agents, Constr. Build. Mater. 358 (2022), 129415.
[145] Z. Yu, Y. Zhao, H. Ba, M. Liu, Relationship between buck electrical resistivity and
drying shrinkage in cement paste containing expansive agent and mineral
admixtures, J. Build. Eng. 39 (2021), 102261.
[146] C. Qi, A. Fourie, Q. Chen, Neural network and particle swarm optimization for
predicting the unconfined compressive strength of cemented paste backfill,
Constr. Build. Mater. 159 (2018) 473–478.
[147] U.K. Sevim, H.H. Bilgic, O.F. Cansiz, M. Ozturk, C.D. Atis, Compressive strength
prediction models for cementitious composites with fly ash using machine
learning techniques, Constr. Build. Mater. 271 (2021), 121584.
[148] Y. Hou, S. Yin, S. Yang, M. Zhang, Y. Cao, Strength characteristics of mixed
aggregate cemented backfill and reasonable matching with excavated ore body,
Zhongguo Youse Jinshu Xuebao/Chinese, J. Nonferrous Met. 31 (2021)
3750–3761.
[149] J. Hao, L. Qiao, Q. Li, Study on cross-scale pores fractal characteristics of granite
after high temperature and rock failure precursor under uniaxial compression,
Powder Technol. 401 (2022), 117330.
[150] H. Sun, L. Ma, H. Konietzky, D. Yuanyuan, F. Wang, Characteristics and
generation mechanisms of key infrared radiation signals during damage evolution
in sandstone, Acta Geotech. 17 (2022) 1753–1763.
[151] X. Li, S. Chen, E. Wang, Z. Li, Rockburst mechanism in coal rock with structural
surface and the microseismic (MS) and electromagnetic radiation (EMR)
response, Eng. Fail. Anal. 124 (2021), 105396.
[152] H. Sun, L. Ma, W. Liu, A. Spearing, J. Han, Y. Fu, The response mechanism of
acoustic and thermal effect when stress causes rock damage, Appl. Acoust. 180
(2021), 108093.
S. Yin et al. Construction and Building Materials 370 (2023) 130657

[153] X. Xu, G. Sun, X. Yao, X. Liang, L. Shao, A cusp catastrophe warning model for [155] X. Xu, Y. Zhou, S. Pang, Analysis of catastrophic instability of plastic supporting
instability of backfill based on energy dissipation and release, Rock Soil Mech. 41 system in old goaf of gypsum mine, Chinese J. Rock, Mech. Eng. 37 (2018)
(2020) 3003–3012. 2548–2554.
[154] Y. Zhao, J. Zhang, S. Yuan, Safety evaluation for stability of underground
powerhouse surrounding rock based on catastrophe theory, Chinese J. Rock,
Mech. Eng. 33 (2014) 3973–3978.

16