Bscpe Sci1 SLM 6

Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University

Province of Laguna
ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Level I Institutionally Accredited
LSPU Self-paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course SCI 1- Chemistry for Engineers
Sem/AY First Semester/2023-2024
Module No. 6
Lesson Title NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Week
1
Duration
Date October 9-13 to October 16-20
This lesson reviews the structure and properties of an atom and discusses radioactive
Description decay, nuclear stability, transmutation, fission and fusion, the nuclear reactor and its
of the components, the ionizing and penetrating powers of alpha, beta and gamma particles,
Lesson nuclear waste, methods of detecting radiation and measuring radiation dose. It also
includes computation on the first order rate equation by determining time and the initial
amount of the reactant, determining the half-life of the radioactive nuclide, and
determining the binding energy and energy released during reaction.
Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning • Discuss the structure of an atom.
Outcomes • Define atomic number and mass number.
• Discuss radioactive decay and the types of radioactive decay.
𝑁
• Calculations using the first order rate equation ln = 𝑘𝑡.
𝑁0
• Discuss trends in the relative stability of nuclei.
• Calculate mass defect and binding energy for nuclei.
• Discuss transmutation, fission and fusion.
• Discuss the nuclear reactor and its components.
• Describe the nuclear chain reaction process utilized in most nuclear reactors
• Compare qualitatively the ionizing and penetration power of alpha particles (α),
beta particles (β), and gamma rays (γ).
• Describe the biological impact of ionizing radiation.
• Discuss nuclear waste, its sources, classification and management.
• Discuss the methods of detecting radiation.
• Discuss the measurement for measuring radiation dose.
LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Prepared by: ELLAINE L. CHING
Province of Laguna
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives
• Discuss the structural properties of an atom.
• Determine the number of neutrons from atomic number and atomic mass.
• Describe the type of decay a radioisotope undergoes.
𝑁
• Compute problems using the formula ln 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑡
0
• Solve problems involving half-life.

• Explain trends relative stability of nuclei
• Differentiate transmutation, fission and fusion.
• Explain the nuclear reactor and its components.
• Compare the ionizing and penetration power of alpha particles (α), beta
particles (β), and gamma rays (γ).
• Enumerate the sources classification and management of nuclear waste.
• Explain the devices used in detecting radiation
• Define the terms used to define radiation exposure, the gray (Gy) and sievert
(Sv)
Student Learning Strategies

Online Activities A. Online Discussion via Google Meet
(Synchronous/ You will be directed to attend in a One-Hour class discussion on nuclear
chemistry. To have access to the Online Discussion, refer to the
Asynchronous) announcement that will be posted in the Google Classroom.
(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)
B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What are the types of radioactive decay?
2. What is the ‘magic numbers” and how is it related to the stability
of the nuclei?
3. Differentiate fission and fusion.
4. Enumerate the components of a nuclear reactor.
5. What particle has the greatest ionizing power and highest
penetrating power?
6. What are the sources of nuclear waste?
7. What is the common device used in detecting radiation?

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Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management
System (LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.
Lecture Guide
Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of all matter. It is the smallest unit
of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element. Atoms
combine to form molecules, which then interact to form solids, gases, or liquids.
Atomic Particles
Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. The
nucleus (center) of the atom contains the protons (positively charged) and the
neutrons (no charge). The outermost regions of the atom are called electron
shells and contain the electrons (negatively charged).
Offline Activities
(e-Learning/Self-
Paced)
Figure 1. Structure of an Atom
Atomic Mass
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67𝑥10−24
grams. Scientists define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit (amu) or
one Dalton. Although similar in mass, protons are positively charged, while
neutrons have no charge. Therefore, the number of neutrons in an atom
contributes significantly to its mass, but not to its charge.
Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, weighing only 9.11𝑥10−28
grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit. Therefore, they do not
contribute much to an element’s overall atomic mass.
Electrons contribute greatly to the atom’s charge, as each electron has a
negative charge equal to the positive charge of a proton. Scientists define these
charges as “+1” and “-1”. In an uncharged, neutral atom, the number of
electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons inside the
nucleus. In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each other
out, leading to an atom with no net charge.

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Atomic Number
The atomic number (represented by the letter Z) of an element is the number
of protons in the nucleus of each atom of that element. An atom can be
classified as a particular element based solely on its atomic number. For
example, any atom with an atomic number of 8 (its nucleus contains 8 protons)
is an oxygen atom, and any atom with a different number of protons would be a
different element.
Since atoms are neutral, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the
number of protons. Hydrogen atoms all have one electron occupying the space
outside of the nucleus. Helium, with two protons, will have two electrons.
Mass Number
An element’s mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons. Knowing the mass number and the atomic number of an
atom allows you to determine the number of neutrons present in that atom by
subtraction.
Number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
The composition of any atom can be illustrated with a shorthand notation
called A/Z format. Both the atomic number and mass are written to the left of
the chemical symbol. The "A" value is written as a superscript while the "Z"
value is written as a subscript. For an example of this notation, look to the
carbon atom shown below:
Radioactive Decay
The symbol of a nuclide, E, with mass number A and atomic number Z can be
written in the following form:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝐸 or 𝑍𝐸
𝐴
The most common isotope of nitrogen is nitrogen-14, for which the symbol is
7𝑁 . If we recognize that the atomic number is really just the charge on the
14
nucleus, we can also write similar symbols for subatomic particles including
neutrons ( 10𝑛), protons ( 11𝑝), and electrons ( −10𝑒). Using this idea, we can
assemble the following equation for the nuclear reaction described above:
14 1 14 1
7𝑁 + 0𝑛 → 6𝐶 + 1 𝑝

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It is easy to see that this equation is not balanced in the same way as an
ordinary chemical reaction. Notice that this equation is balance with respect to
both charge and mass number. The sum of the mass number on each side is 15,
whereas the sum of the charges the sum of the charges on each side is 7. Every
nuclear equation should be balanced with respect to both mass number and
charge.
Ernest Rutherford demonstrated that two distinct types of radiation could be

distinguished emanating from Uranium. One type was stopped by thin pieces of
aluminum, whereas the other penetrated the metal sheets. Those that were
stopped by the metal he called alpha rays, and those that passed through were
called beta rays. In a magnetic or electric field, the two types of radiation were
deflected in different directions, indicating that they had opposite charges. One
of the particles was deflected more than the other, indicating that their charge
to mass ratio were different. This experiment also revealed a third type of
radiation, which passed through the field undeflected. Rutherford called it
gamma ray.
Figure 2. (A). The experimental setup for Rutherford’s gold foil experiment:
(B).Radioactive element that emitted alpha particles was directed toward a
thin sheet of gold foil that was surrounded by a screen which would allow
detection of the deflected particles.
Figure 3. Rutherford also studied the effect of an electric field on radiation and
saw that the β-rays were attracted to the anode, the α-rays were attracted to
the cathode and the γ-rays were not affected by the electric field.
The more massive and positively charged particle is an alpha particle (𝛼 ),

which is actually a helium nucleus, 42𝐻𝑒. The negatively charged particle is an
electron, −10𝑒, but electrons emitted from the nucleus are usually called beta

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particles (𝛽 − 𝑜𝑟 −10𝛽). The particles unaffected by the magnetic field are gamma
rays (𝛾 ), high energy photons of electromagnetic radiation.
Types of Radioactive Decay
Alpha Decay
When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, it ejects an alpha particle so that its
mass number decreases by 4 and its atomic number decreases by 2. Uranium-
238 is one example of a nuclide that decays by alpha emission:
238 234 4
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒
The atomic number of the new nucleus identifies it as thorium, and its mass
number is 234. In radioactive decay, it is common to refer to the reactant
nucleus as the parent and the product nucleus as the daughter. So here we
would say that 238𝑈 is the parent and 234𝑇ℎ is the daughter. To be sure that we
have accounted for every particle, compare the mass on the left and right sides
of the equation (238 = 234 + 4). Repeat the process for the atomic numbers
(92 = 90 + 2)
Example 1. Complete the equations for each of the following nuclear decay
processes:
a. 210 206
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 +?
b. 230 4
90𝑇ℎ →? + 2𝐻𝑒
Solution:
Balance with respect to both total mass and charge.
a. Looking at the two isotopes shown, the difference in atomic number is
84-82=2, and the difference in mass number is 210-206=4. that means
that the missing particle must have a mass number of 4 and an atomic
number of 2, making it an alpha particle. the completed equation is
210 206 4
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻𝑒
b. the difference in atomic number is 90-2=88 and the difference in mass
number is 230-4=226. The atomic number 88 tells us the missing
isotope is radium, Ra, and the mass number tells us it must be radium-
226. the completed equation is
230 226 4
90𝑇ℎ → 88𝑅𝑎 + 2𝐻𝑒
Beta Decay
A 14𝐶 nucleus undergoes spontaneous decay by emitting a beta particle,
𝛽− 𝑜𝑟 −10𝛽, an electron ejected from the nucleus. But how can an electron be
ejected from the nucleus? the answer is that in beta decay, a neutron must
decay into a proton and an electron. Detailed study of the energetics of beta
decay shows that an additional particle, with no charge and virtually no mass,
must also be emitted. This particle, called an antineutrino, is written as 𝑣̅ .
1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝑝 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
The proton remains in the nucleus and increases the atomic number by 1.

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Carbon-14 is radioactive and eventually undergoes beta decay:
14 14 0
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
In any 𝛽 − decay – the atomic number increases by 1 because a proton has
taken the place of the neutron that decayed. Because the emitted beta particle
is released, we can detect it fairly easily.
Example 2. Complete the equations for each of the following 𝛽 − decay

reactions, using −10𝛽 to represent the beta particle:
a. 234 234
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 +? +𝑣̅
b. 91𝑃𝑎 →? + −10𝛽 + 𝑣̅
234
Solution:
a. Both Th and Pa have mass numbers of 234 indicates that the other particle in
the equation must have a mass number of zero. This is consistent with beta
decay. Balancing the charges on the reactant and product sides requires that
the unknown has a charge of 1 – (91-1=90). Because this is a bet decay, an
antineutrino is also emitted. the equation is:
234 234 0
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
b. The beta particle given as a product has no mass number, we know that the
unknown particle has a mass of 234. The beta particle has a charge of 1, so the
unknown particle must have an atomic number of 92 (92-1=91). The missing
particle is 234𝑈, so the equation is:
234 234 0
91𝑃𝑎 → 92𝑈 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
Gamma Decay
Gamma decay is the emission of a high-energy photon and tends to accompany
other types of decay.
Gamma radiation, which changes neither the mass number nor the atomic
number of a nuclide, accompanies the beta decay of most nuclei, including
carbon-14. We can rewrite the decay of carbon-14 as follows, explicitly
showing the emission of gamma radiation:
14 14 0 0
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅ + 0𝛾
Note that the balance of the equation is unchanged by the emission of gamma
radiation: gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, and so they have neither
mass nor charge.
Electron Capture
In electron capture, the nucleus captures an electron from the first (n=1) shell
in the atom. Because that first level is also called the “K shell”, electron capture
is often referred to as K capture. The result is that a proton in the nucleus is
converted to a neutron. In effect, electron capture is the reverse of beta
emission. As beta decay, an additional particle is needed to conserve energy; in
this case, that particle is a neutrino, ν:
1 0 1
1𝑝 + −1𝑒 → 0𝑛 + ν

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The result of electron capture is that the nuclear charge decreases by 1, as
illustrated by the following equation for electron capture by aluminum-26:
26 0 26
13𝐴𝑙 + −1𝑒 → 12𝑀𝑔 + ν
Positron Emission
A positron is a positively charged electron, 𝛽+ 𝑜𝑟 −10𝛽. A positron and an
electron form a matter – antimatter pair; they are identical in mass and spin
but opposite in charge. Collisions of particles and their antiparticles, such as
the electron and the positron, result in the annihilation of both particles and
the conversion of their combined masses to energy. the collision of a positron
with an electron produces two 511-keV gamma-ray photons, travelling in
opposite directions. In 𝛽+ decay, a proton decays into a neutron and a positron:
1 0 0
1𝑝 + −1𝑒 → 1𝛽 + ν
positron decay has the same effect as electron capture: The nuclear charge
decreases by 1.
Example 3. Complete the following equations with the correct particles and
identify the mode of decay.
a. 158𝑂 → 157𝑁 +?
b. 40 0
19𝐾 →? + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
c. 19𝐾 + ? → 18𝐴𝑟 + 𝑣̅
40 40
Solution:
a. 158𝑂 → 157𝑁 +?
There is no change in the mass number from oxygen-15 to nitrogen-15, so the
unknown particle has a mass number of zero. For the sum of the charges on the
product side to equal eight, the unknown particle must have a charge of 1+.
These two facts tell us that the unknown particle s a positron and the event is
positron emission. A neutrino is also needed to complete the equation:
15 15 𝟎
8𝑂 → 7𝑁 + 𝟏𝜷 + 𝛎
b. 40
19𝐾 → ? + −10𝛽 + 𝑣̅
We are looking at beta decay, so the mass number of the decaying isotope does
not change. Thus, the mass number of te product must be 40. The sum, of the
charges of the products must be 19, so the unknown must have a value of 20
(19=20-1). The unknown is 40𝐶𝑎, and the process is beta decay:
40 𝟒𝟎
19𝐾 → 𝟐𝟎𝑪𝒂 + −10𝛽 + 𝑣̅
c. 40 40
19𝐾 + ? → 18𝐴𝑟 + 𝑣̅
There is no change in mass number from potassium to argon in this reaction, so
the mass number of the missing particle must be zero. For the sum of the
charges of the reactants to equal 18 requires a charge of 1-. The missing
particle is an electron, and the vent is electron capture:

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40
19𝐾 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆 → 40
18𝐴𝑟 + 𝑣̅
Example 4. Write a nuclear reaction for each step in the formation of 218
84𝑃𝑜
from 92𝑈 , which proceeds
238
by a series of decay reactions involving the step-wise
emission of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛽, 𝛼, 𝛼, 𝛼 particles, in that order.
Solution:
0 0
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 ; 90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −1𝛽 ; 91𝑃𝑎 → 92𝑈 + −1𝛽 ;
238 234 4 234 234 234 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 ; 90𝑇ℎ → 88𝑅𝑎 + 2𝐻𝑒 ; 88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 2𝐻𝑒 ;

234 230 4 230 226 4 226 222 4
222 218 4
86𝑅𝑛 → 84𝑃𝑜 + 2𝐻𝑒
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

In studying radioactive decay, however, we can generally measure the rate
directly. Each decay produces a high-energy particle of photon, which allows us
to count the decays in a given time period. The rate at which the sample decays
is called the activity of the sample. For a sample of N nuclei, the rate of
∆𝑁
disintegration is given by ∆𝑡 . The SI unit of nuclear activity is the becquerel
(Bq), defined as one nuclear disintegration per second. As older term, the curie
(Ci) is a much larger unit, originally defined as the number of disintegration per
second in 1 gram of radium-226. According to the currently accepted
definition, 1Ci is exactly 3.7𝑥1010 𝐵𝑞
Consider the decay of 131𝐼 , an isotope used in diagnosing thyroid irregularities.
It decays by beta emission:
131 131 0
53𝐼 → 54𝑋𝑒 + −1𝛽 + 𝑣̅
If we start with exactly 100𝜇𝑔 of 131𝐼 and monitor its radioactivity, the initial
reading will be 4.60𝑥1011 𝐵𝑞. But because each decay reduces the number of
131
𝐼 atoms remaining in the sample, the activity will decrease over time.
If we monitor the activity for 40 days (as shown in figure 4), the activity
decreases exponentially with time. Because the activity is proportional to the
number of nuclei present, N also decreases exponentially. Every 8 days, the
value of N drops by one-half, as shown by the dashed lines in the graph (Fig.4).
Figure 4. The half-life of iodine-131 is eight days. Half of a given sample of

iodine-131 decays after each eight-day time period elapses.

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The equation for this curve is
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
where 𝑁0 is the initial number of nuclei and k is the decay constant. Taking the
natural logarithm of each side and rearranging, the equation becomes
ln 𝑁 = ln 𝑁0 − 𝑘𝑡
ln 𝑁0 − ln 𝑁 = 𝑘𝑡
𝑁
ln 𝑁𝑜 = 𝑘𝑡
The radioactive decay is a first order process, and the half-life of 131𝐼 can be
found by finding the time, 𝑡1⁄ , it takes for one-half of a sample to disintegrate.
2
The time it takes for 𝑁0 to decay to one-half its original value is given by
𝑁 2𝑁
ln (1 0 ) = ln ( 𝑁 0 ) = ln(2) = 𝑘𝑡1⁄
𝑁 0 2
2 0
solving this equation for half-life gives
ln 2 0.693
𝑡1⁄ = 𝑘 = 𝑘
2
Determination of the Amount of Radioisotope Remaining after Time "t"
Example 5: How much of a 2.00 g sample of radioisotope (k = 0.15 min-1) will

remain after 2.0 minutes?
Solution:
𝑁
𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝑜 = 𝑘𝑡
2.00 0.15
𝑙𝑛 = (𝑚𝑖𝑛)(2.0𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑁
2.00
𝑙𝑛 = 0.3
𝑁
2.00
= 𝑒 0.3
𝑁
𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟖𝟐 𝒈
Determination of the Initial Amount of Radioisotope at the Beginning of

Time "t"
Example 6. A sample of radioisotope has an activity of 450 microcuries after 2
days. If the rate constant for the isotope is 0.056 /day, what was the activity of
the sample 2 days ago?
Solution.
𝑁
𝑜 𝑁 0.056
𝑙𝑛 450𝜇𝐶𝑖 = ( 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ) (2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠)
𝑜 𝑁
𝑙𝑛 450𝜇𝐶𝑖 = 0.112
𝑁𝑜
= 𝑒 0.112
450𝜇𝐶𝑖
𝑵𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟏𝝁𝑪𝒊

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Determination of the Rate Constant
Example 7. A sample is 70 % as active after 20 hours have elapsed. Determine
the value of the rate constant.
Solution:
𝑁
0 𝑁
𝑙𝑛 0.70𝑁 = 𝑘(20ℎ𝑟𝑠)
0
0.356675 = 𝑘(20ℎ𝑟𝑠)
𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟕𝟓/𝒉𝒓
Determination of the Time to Decay

Example 8. How long will it take a radioisotope to decay to 30% of its original
activity if the rate constant for the isotope is 0.055 s -1?
Solution:
𝑁
0 𝑁 0.055
𝑙𝑛 0.30𝑁 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡
0
0.055
𝑙𝑛 3.333 = 𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟗𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Determination and Use of the Half-Life

Example 9. What is the half-life of a radioisotope that has a rate constant of
0.225 d-1?
Solution:
ln 2 0.693
𝑡1⁄ = 𝑘 = 𝑘
2
0.693
𝑡1⁄ =
2 0.225/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝒕𝟏⁄ = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
𝟐
Example 10. The half-life of carbon-14 used in radiocarbon dating is 5730
years. What is the decay constant for carbon-14?
Solution:
0.693
𝑡1⁄ = 𝑘
2
0.693 0.693
𝑘= = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒚𝒓−𝟏
𝑡1⁄ 5730 𝑦𝑟
2
Example 11. How much of a 60 Ci sample of radioisotope will remain after 10

minutes if the half-life of the radioisotope is 2.75 min?
Solution:
Compute for the decay constant k using the half-life of the radioisotope of 2.75
mins.
0.693
𝑡1⁄ = 𝑘
2
0.693
2.75 = 𝑘

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𝑘 = 0.252/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Computing for N,
60𝐶𝑖 0.252
𝑙𝑛 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (10𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠)
60𝐶𝑖
𝑙𝑛 = 2.52
𝑁
60𝐶𝑖
= 𝑒 2.52
𝑁
𝑵 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟐𝟖 𝑪𝒊
Carbon-14 Dating
Carbon-14 is a radioisotope formed in our atmosphere by the bombardment of
nitrogen-14 by cosmic rays. The amount of carbon-14 in the atmosphere is on
an average, relatively constant. Plants take in carbon-14 through the process of
photosynthesis. Animals eat the plants so they too have carbon-14 in their
tissues. Carbon-14 is decaying constantly with a half-life of 5720 years. As
long as the organism is alive, the amount of carbon-14 remains relatively
constant. However, when the organism dies, the amount will decrease over
time. By comparing the activity of an archeological artifact to that of a sample
of the living organism one can estimate the age of the artifact.
Example 12: A sample of wood taken from an ancient tomb had an activity of
7.0 counts per minute (decays per minute). A similar sample of freshly cut
wood of the same type of tree had an activity of 15.3 cpm. Estimate the age of
the wood taken from the tomb.
Solution:
To compute for k,
0.693
𝑡1⁄ = 𝑘
2
0.693
5720= 𝑘
𝑘 = 1.212𝑥10−4 /𝑦𝑟
To compute for t,
𝑁
𝑙𝑛 𝑁0 = 𝑘𝑡
15.3 𝑐𝑝𝑚 1.212𝑥10−4
𝑙𝑛 = (𝑡)
7.0 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑦𝑟
1.212𝑥10−4
0.782 = (𝑡)
𝑦𝑟
𝒕 = 𝟔𝟒𝟓𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝒚𝒓𝒔
Nuclear Stability
Nuclear Stability is a concept that helps to identify the stability of an isotope.
The two main factors that determine nuclear stability are the neutron/proton
ratio and the total number of nucleons in the nucleus.
An isotope is an element that has same atomic number but different atomic
mass compared to the periodic table. Every element has a proton, neutron, and

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electron. The number of protons is equal to the atomic number, and the
number of electrons is equal the protons, unless it is an ion.
The nucleus of an atom occupies a tiny fraction of the volume of an atom and
contains the number of protons and neutrons that is characteristic of a given
isotope. Electrostatic repulsions would normally cause the positively charged
protons to repel each other, but the nucleus does not fly apart because of the
strong nuclear force, an extremely powerful but very short-range attractive
force between nucleons (Figure 5). All stable nuclei except the hydrogen-1
nucleus (1H) contain at least one neutron to overcome the electrostatic
repulsion between protons. As the number of protons in the nucleus increases,
the number of neutrons needed for a stable nucleus increases even more
rapidly. Too many protons (or too few neutrons) in the nucleus result in an
imbalance between forces, which leads to nuclear instability. If the attractive
interactions due to the strong nuclear force are weaker than the electrostatic
repulsions between protons, the nucleus is unstable, and it will eventually
decay.
Figure 5. Competing Interactions within the Atomic Nucleus.
Neutrons help to separate the protons from each other in a nucleus so that they
do not feel as strong a repulsive force from other.
A plot of the number of neutrons versus the number of protons for stable nuclei
reveals that the stable isotopes fall into a narrow band. This region is known as
the band of stability (also called the belt, zone, or valley of stability). The
straight line in Figure 6 represents nuclei that have a 1:1 ratio of protons to
neutrons (n:p ratio). Note that the lighter stable nuclei, in general, have equal
numbers of protons and neutrons. For example, nitrogen-14 has seven protons
and seven neutrons. Heavier stable nuclei, however, have increasingly more
neutrons than protons. For example: iron-56 has 30 neutrons and 26 protons,
an n:p ratio of 1.15, whereas the stable nuclide lead-207 has 125 neutrons and
82 protons, an n:p ratio equal to 1.52. This is because larger nuclei have more
proton-proton repulsions, and require larger numbers of neutrons to provide

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compensating strong forces to overcome these electrostatic repulsions and
hold the nucleus together.
Figure 6. The stable nuclides are indicated in blue, and the unstable nuclides
are indicated in green. Note that all isotopes of elements with atomic
numbers greater than 83 are unstable. The solid line is the line
where n = Z.
The nuclei that are to the left or to the right of the band of stability are unstable
and exhibit radioactivity. They change spontaneously (decay) into other nuclei
that are either in, or closer to, the band of stability. These nuclear decay
reactions convert one unstable isotope (or radioisotope) into another, more
stable, isotope.
The principal factor for determining whether a nucleus is stable is the neutron
to proton ratio. Elements with (𝑍 < 20) are lighter and these elements' nuclei
and have a ratio of 1:1 and prefer to have the same amount of protons and
neutrons.
Elements that have atomic numbers from 20 to 83 are heavy elements,
therefore the ratio is different. The ratio is 1.5:1, the reason for this difference
is because of the repulsive force between protons: the stronger the repulsion
force, the more neutrons are needed to stabilize the nuclei.
Magic Numbers
Nuclei with even numbers of protons, neutrons, or both are more likely to be
stable. Nuclei with certain numbers of nucleons, known as magic numbers, are

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stable against nuclear decay. These "magic numbers" are natural occurrences
in isotopes that are particularly stable.
The magic numbers are:
proton: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114
neutron: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, 184
These numbers of protons or neutrons make complete shells in the nucleus.
These are similar in concept to the stable electron shells observed for the noble
gases. Nuclei that have magic numbers of both protons and neutrons, such as
2𝐻𝑒, 8𝑂 , 20𝐶𝑎 and 82𝑃𝑏 are called “double magic” and are particularly stable.
4 16 40 208
The double numbers only occur for isotopes that are heavier, because the
repulsion of the forces between the protons.
There is the concept that isotopes consisting a combination of even-even, even-

odd, odd-even, and odd-odd are all stable (see Table 1). There are more
nuclides that have a combination of even-even than odd-odd. Just like there
exist violations to the octet rule, many isotopes with no magic numbers of
nucleons are stable. Although rare, four stable odd-odd nuclides exist: 21𝐻 , 63𝐿𝑖 ,
5𝐵𝑎 , 7𝑁
10 14
Table 1. Stable Nuclear Isotopes

Number of Stable Isotopes Proton Number Neutron Number
157 even even
53 even odd
50 odd even
5 odd odd
Unstable or Stable
• Calculate the total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the
nuclide. If the number of nucleons is even, there is a good chance it is
stable.
• Are there a magic number of protons or neutrons? 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82,
114 (protons), 126 (neutrons), 184 (neutrons) are particularly stable in
nuclei.
• Calculate the N/Z ratio and use the belt of stability (Figure 6) to
determine the best way to get from an unstable nucleus to a stable
nucleus.
Example 13. Identify whether the isotope is stable or unstable.

a. 54
25𝑀𝑛
b. 210
84𝑃𝑜
Solution:
a. 54
25𝑀𝑛 – number of protons=25, number of neutrons= 29, N/Z ratio=1.16

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Unstable
b. 210
84𝑃𝑜 – number of protons= 84, number of neutrons=126, N/Z ratio=1.5
Stable
Nuclear Binding Energy

Nuclear binding energy- is the energy that would be released if the nucleus
were formed from a collection of free nucleons. the greater the binding energy,
the more stable the nucleus.
As a simple example of the energy associated with the strong nuclear force,
consider the helium atom composed of two protons, two neutrons, and two
electrons. The total mass of these six subatomic particles may be calculated as:
(2𝑥1.0073 𝑎𝑚𝑢) + (2𝑥1.0087 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ) + (2𝑥0.00055 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ) = 4.0331 𝑎𝑚𝑢

proton neutron electrons
The experimentally observed mass of helium-4 atom is 4.0026 amu less than
the combined masses of its six constituent subatomic particles. This difference
between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the
mass defect (∆𝑚) of the atom.
∆𝑚 = 4.0331 − 4.0026 = 0.0305 𝑎𝑚𝑢
The loss in mass accompanying the formation of an atom from protons,
neutrons, and electrons is due to the conversion of that mass into energy that is
evolved as the atom forms. The nuclear binding energy is the energy produced
when the atoms’ nucleons are bound together; this is also the energy needed to
break a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons. In comparison to
chemical bond energies, nuclear binding energies are vastly greater.
The conversion between mass and energy is most identifiably represented by
the mass-energy equivalence equation as stated by Albert Einstein:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
where E is energy, m is mass of the matter being converted, and c is the speed
of light in a vacuum equal to 2.9979𝑥108 𝑚⁄𝑠. This equation can be used to find
the amount of energy that results when matter is converted into energy. Using
this mass-energy equivalence equation, the nuclear binding energy of a nucleus
may be calculated from its mass defect. A variety of units are commonly used
for nuclear binding energies, including electron volts (eV), with 1 eV equaling
the amount of energy necessary to the move the charge of an electron across an
electric potential difference of 1 volt, making 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602𝑥10−19 𝐽.
Example 14. Determine the binding energy for the nuclide 42𝐻𝑒 in
a. joules per mole of nuclei
b. joules per nucleus
c. MeV per nucleus

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Solution:
First, express the mass defect in kg/mol. This is done by using the numerical
equivalence of atomic mass (amu) and molar mass (kg/mol). Using the
conversion factor that 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.66054𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔
1.66054𝑥10−27𝑘𝑔
∆𝑚 = 0.0305 𝑎𝑚𝑢 𝑥 ( ) = 5.064647𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢
a. Substituting in the mass energy equivalence equation,
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚2
𝐸 = (5.064647𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔)(2.9979𝑥108 )2 𝑠2
𝐽
𝐸= 4.5518𝑥10−10 𝑚𝑜𝑙
b. The binding energy for a single nucleus is computed from the molar
binding energy using Avogadro’s number:
𝐽 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐽
𝐸 = 4.5518𝑥10−10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 6.022𝑥1023 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 = 7.5585𝑥10−34 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖
c. Recall that 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602𝑥10−19 𝐽. Using the binding energy computed in
part (b)
1𝑒𝑉
𝐸 = 7.5585𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑥 1.602𝑥10−19 𝐽 = 4.71824𝑥10−15 𝑒𝑉
Transmutation, Fission and Fusion
Transmutation is the transformation of one chemical component into another.

A transmutation involves a change in the composition of the atomic nuclei, and
thus, a nuclear reaction can cause it, whether it is caused by trapping neutrons
or naturally occurring through radioactive decay, including beta decay and
alpha decay.
Transmutation is a phenomenon where the nucleus adjusts the number of

protons to create an atom with a different number of atoms. The transmutation
mechanism can be described in terms of a chemical process because it is also a
conversion from one substance to another. This can be achieved artificially and
naturally as well.
In 1911, Lord Rutherford performed the first transmutation. He bombarded the
Nitrogen-14 alpha particles with protons to create Oxygen-17. The process is
written as follows:
14 4 17 1
7𝑁 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 8𝑂 + 1𝐻
This is a reaction of equilibrium in which all the sides, the average number of
mass 18, and the total protons equal 9.
Natural Transmutation
Natural transmutation is the nuclear reaction to radioactive fusion and decay

that take place in the star cores.

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Uranium-238, for instance, naturally transmutes through a sequence of steps
into lead-206. Nuclear transmutations may occur during the naturally
occurring thorium spontaneous radioactive and uranium decay.
For example, electron capture happens when a nucleus absorbs an electron

from those in the inner membranes of an atom. To produce a neutron, the
negatively-charged electron interacts with a proton that is positively charged.
• In relation to this, there is an electron neutrino released.
• When a proton is changed to a neutron, the atom's identity will change.
In this, the atomic number would be reduced by 1.
• The mass number that shows the total number of neutrons and protons
in the nucleus will stay unchanged.
• The equation for a nuclear trapping electron decay of potassium-40
(⁴⁰K) to argon-40 (Ar-40) appears as follows:
40 0 − 40
19𝐾 + −1𝑒 → 18𝐴𝑟 + 𝑣𝑒
• Approximately one in nine potassium-40 (⁴⁰K) atoms decay to argon-40
(Ar-40), while the remainder decays to calcium-40 via beta minus decay.
Artificial Transmutation
Artificial transmutation is the transformation of an element into any other
element by bombarding it with a foundational element.
Example of an artificial transmutation: Nitrogen can also be converted into
oxygen through bombarding the nitrogen nucleus with an α-particle. As a result
of the transformation, a hydrogen atom is formed. A mixture of the nucleus and
an α-particle turn aluminum into phosphorous.
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter ones. Fission
was discovered in 1938 by the German scientists Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and
Fritz Strassmann, who bombarded a sample of uranium with neutrons in an
attempt to produce new elements with Z > 92. They observed that lighter
elements such as barium (Z = 56) were formed during the reaction, and they
realized that such products had to originate from the neutron-induced fission
of uranium-235:
235 1 141 92 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛
This hypothesis was confirmed by detecting the krypton-92 fission product.
The nucleus usually divides asymmetrically rather than into two equal parts,
and the fission of a given nuclide does not give the same products every time.
In a typical nuclear fission reaction, more than one neutron is released by each
dividing nucleus. When these neutrons collide with and induce fission in other
neighboring nuclei, a self-sustaining series of nuclear fission reactions known
as a nuclear chain reaction can result. For example, the fission of 235𝑈 releases
two to three neutrons per fission event. If absorbed by other 235𝑈 nuclei, those
neutrons induce additional fission events, and the rate of the fission reaction

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increases geometrically. Each series of events is called a generation.
Experimentally, it is found that some minimum mass of a fissile isotope is
required to sustain a nuclear chain reaction; if the mass is too low, too many
neutrons are able to escape without being captured and inducing a fission
reaction. The minimum mass capable of supporting sustained fission is called
the critical mass. This amount depends on the purity of the material and the
shape of the mass, which corresponds to the amount of surface area available
from which neutrons can escape, and on the identity of the isotope. If the mass
of the fissile isotope is greater than the critical mass, then under the right
conditions, the resulting supercritical mass can release energy explosively. The
enormous energy released from nuclear chain reactions is responsible for the
massive destruction caused by the detonation of nuclear weapons such as
fission bombs, but it also forms the basis of the nuclear power industry.
Figure 7. Because each neutron released can cause the fission of

another 235𝑈 nucleus, the rate of a fission reaction accelerates
geometrically. Each series of events is a generation.
Nuclear fusion, in which two light nuclei combine to produce a heavier, more
stable nucleus, is the opposite of nuclear fission. The positive charge on both
nuclei results in a large electrostatic energy barrier to fusion. This barrier can
be overcome if one or both particles have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
the electrostatic repulsions, allowing the two nuclei to approach close enough
for a fusion reaction to occur. The principle is similar to adding heat to increase
the rate of a chemical reaction. Fusion reactions are most exothermic for the
lightest element. For example, in a typical fusion reaction, two deuterium
atoms combine to produce helium-3, a process known as deuterium–deuterium
fusion (D–D fusion):
2 21𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛
In another reaction, a deuterium atom and a tritium atom fuse to produce
helium-4, a process known as deuterium–tritium fusion (D–T fusion):
2 3 3 1
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 0𝑛

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Figure 8. In a nuclear fusion reaction, lighter nuclei combine to produce a

heavier nucleus. As shown, fusion of 3𝐻 and 2𝐻 to give 4𝐻𝑒 and a neutron
releases an enormous amount of energy.
In principle, nuclear fusion can produce much more energy than fission, but
very high kinetic energy is required to overcome electrostatic repulsions
between the positively charged nuclei and initiate the fusion reaction. Initiating
these reactions, however, requires a temperature comparable to that in the
interior of the sun (approximately 1.5 × 107 K). Currently, the only method
available on Earth to achieve such a temperature is the detonation of a fission
bomb. For example, the so-called hydrogen bomb (or H bomb) is actually a
deuterium–tritium bomb (a D–T bomb), which uses a nuclear fission reaction
to create the very high temperatures needed to initiate fusion of solid lithium
deuteride. The deuterium-tritium reaction releases energy explosively. In fact,
fusion reactions are the power sources for all stars, including our sun.
To calculate the energy released during mass destruction in both nuclear
fission and fusion, we use Einstein’s equation that equates energy and mass:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
where: m = mass in kilograms
c = speed of light (m/sec)
E = energy in joules (J)
Example 15. Calculate the energy released by a nucleus of uranium-235 if it
splits into a barium-141 nucleus and a krypton-92 nucleus according to the
equation
235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 141
56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36𝐾𝑟 + 310𝑛
The masses of the various particles involved are shown in the table:

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Particle Mass, amu
235
𝑈 235.0439231
141
𝐵𝑎 140.9144064
92
𝐾𝑟 91.9261528
Neutron 1.0086649
Solution:
Compute for the mass defect, ∆m
∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
The sum of particle masses,
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 = 140.9144064 + 91.9261528 + 3(1.0086649)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 = 235.8665539 𝑎𝑚𝑢
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 235.0439231 + 1.0086649
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 236.0525880 𝑎𝑚𝑢
Solving for ∆𝑚,
∆𝑚 = 235.8665539 𝑎𝑚𝑢 − 236.0525880 𝑎𝑚𝑢
∆𝑚 = −0.1860341 𝑎𝑚𝑢
Solving for E,
𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
1.66054𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
𝐸 = (−0.1860341 𝑎𝑚𝑢) ( ) (2.9979𝑥108 )2
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 𝑠2
𝑚2
𝐸 = −2.776406𝑥10−11 𝑘𝑔 = −2.776406𝑥10−11 𝐽
𝑠2
Nuclear Reactors
A nuclear reactor is a device that initiates, moderates, and controls the output
of a nuclear chain reaction. They usually consist of a number of components – a
fuel source, control rods, a moderator, coolant, and an encasement. Nuclear
reactors are used to produce power, for medical science, and to create
materials for nuclear weapons.
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear reactions are generated, and the
chain reaction is controlled to release large amount of steady heat, thereby
producing energy.
Nuclear fission is the process in which the nucleus of an atom is split, forming
nuclei of lighter atoms and neutrons. The mass of these products is less than
the original mass. According to Einstein's equation 𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 , the small

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amount of missing mass is converted into a large amount of energy. The energy
released from nuclear fission can be harnessed to make electricity with a
nuclear reactor. The reactors use nuclear fuel, most commonly uranium-235
and plutonium-239. Uranium 235 is used because it has a fairly large nucleus
which facilitates the process of fission.
The Chain Reaction

When a large, fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239
absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The nucleus splits into two
or more lighter nuclei, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free
neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile
atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so
on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction (see Fig. 7). An explosion could
only occur if the reaction becomes uncontrolled. When one mass of U-235
exceeds the mass of U-235 that is large enough to hold down a chain reaction,
also known as critical mass, an explosion occurs. Critical mass is the minimum
amount of a given fissile material necessary to achieve a self-sustaining fission
chain reaction under stated conditions. In uncontrolled reactions, neutrons
escape too quickly to maintain a chain reaction. This rapid release of nuclear
energy causes an explosion. A great example of this phenomenon would be a
nuclear bomb. However, in a nuclear reactor, energy is being produced at a
controlled, constant rate, so that only a limited number of the neutrons
released are allowed to induce additional decays, controlled fission can be used
to generate electricity.
Components of a Nuclear Reactor
Fuel
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged
in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the
reactor core.
Moderator
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so
that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be graphite or heavy
water, in which the hydrogen has been replaced with deuterium, an isotope of
hydrogen with one proton and one neutron.
Control rods or blades

These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of
reaction, or to halt it. In some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to
enable the core to sustain a low level of power efficiently. (Secondary control
systems involve other neutron absorbers, usually boron in the coolant – its

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concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns up.) PWR control
rods are inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of the
core.
Coolant
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it, usually
ordinary water, which absorbs and transmits heat from the reactor to create
steam for turning the turbines and cools the reactor core so that it doesn't
reach the temperature at which uranium melts (about 6,900 degrees
Fahrenheit, or 3,815 degrees Celsius).
Pressure vessel or pressure tubes

Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and
moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and
conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.
Steam generator
Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR) where
the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to
make steam for the turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger
like a motor car radiator. These are large heat exchangers for transferring heat
from one fluid to another – here from high-pressure primary circuit in PWR to
secondary circuit where water turns to steam.
Containment
The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is
designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from
the effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a
meter-thick concrete and steel structure.
Figure 9. Nuclear reactor components

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The Ionizing and Penetration Power of Radiation
The ability of radiation to damage molecules is analyzed in terms of what is

called ionizing power. When a radiation particle interacts with atoms, the
interaction can cause the atom to lose electrons and thus become ionized. The
greater the likelihood that damage will occur by an interaction is the ionizing
power of the radiation. Ionizing radiation could affect either the whole body
(somatic damage) and/or eggs and sperm (genetic damage).
Much of the threat from radiation is involved with the ease or difficulty of
protecting oneself from the particles or the gamma ray. The ability of each type
of radiation to pass through matter is expressed in terms of penetration
power. The more material the radiation can pass through, the greater the
penetration power and the more dangerous they are. In general, the greater
mass present, the greater the ionizing power and the lower the penetration
power.
Alpha Particles
Alpha particles have the greatest mass, approximately four times the mass of a
proton or neutron and approximately ~8,000 times the mass of a beta particle.
Because of the large mass of the alpha particle, it has the highest ionizing
power and the greatest ability to damage tissue. That same large size of alpha
particles, however, makes them less able to penetrate matter. They collide with
molecules very quickly when striking matter, add two electrons, and become a
harmless helium atom. Alpha particles have the least penetration power and
can be stopped by a thick sheet of paper or even a layer of clothes. They are
also stopped by the outer layer of dead skin on people. This may seem to
remove the threat from alpha particles but only from external sources. In a
situation like a nuclear explosion or some sort of nuclear accident where
radioactive emitters are spread around in the environment, the emitters can be
inhaled or taken in with food or water and once the alpha emitter is inside you,
you have no protection at all.
Radon is a naturally occurring gas, and the amount in any area varies based on
the types of soil and rocks present. Radon is chemically inert, but it s
radioactive and decays by alpha emission:
222 4 218
86𝑅𝑛 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 84𝑃𝑜
218 4 214
84𝑃𝑜 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 82𝑃𝑏
Because radon is a gas it can be inhaled. If inhaled radon atom undergoes
decay, alpha particles will be produced in the lungs. The dissipation of the
energy of those alpha particles can cause serious tissue damage, leading to
increase risk of lung cancer.

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Beta Particles
Beta particles are much smaller than alpha particles, and therefore, they have
much less ionizing power (less ability to damage tissue), but their small size
gives them much greater penetration power. Most resources say that beta
particles can be stopped by a one-quarter inch thick sheet of aluminum. Once
again, however, the greatest danger occurs when the beta emitting source gets
inside of you.
Gamma Particles
Gamma rays are not particles but a high energy form of electromagnetic
radiation (like x-rays except more powerful). Gamma rays are energy that has
no mass or charge. Gamma rays have tremendous penetration power and
require several inches of dense material (like lead) to shield them. Gamma rays
may pass all the way through a human body without striking anything. They
are considered to have the least ionizing power and the greatest penetration
power.
Figure 10. The ability of different types of radiation to pass through material
The safest amount of radiation to the human body is zero. It is not possible to
be not exposed to ionizing radiation so the next best goal is to be exposed to as
little as possible. The two best ways to minimize exposure is to limit time of
exposure and to increase distance from the source. The image below (Fig 11)
summarizes the key concepts of ionization and penetration abilities of alpha,
beta, and gamma radiation.

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Figure 11. Ionization and penetrations abilities of alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation
Nonionizing Radiation
Nonionizing radiation includes visible light, radio waves and microwaves; all
have photon energies smaller than typical ionization energies. Energy absorbed
from nonionizing radiation speeds up the movement of atoms and molecules,
which is equivalent to heating the sample. Although biological systems are
sensitive to heat (as we might know from touching a hot stove or spending a
day at the beach in the sun), a large amount of nonionizing radiation is
necessary before dangerous levels are reached.
Nuclear Waste
The term nuclear waste is often used to refer to spent nuclear fuel. This term is
general, as there are many different types of nuclear waste, but refers to any
radioactive waste substance that is produced from industrial processes,
including nuclear power plants. Nuclear waste is also produced at hospitals
and other medical facilities.
Nuclear fuel loaded into commercial reactors is generally in the form of solid
ceramic pellets that are stacked into metal tubes and bundled together in fuel
assemblies (Fig 12). After the atoms in the pellet split to release their energy,
the pellets in tubes emerge as nuclear waste.

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Figure 12. Nuclear fuel pellets are stacked vertically in long metal tubes to
power commercial nuclear reactors
The splitting of a large atom such as Uranium creates neutrons and a

substantial amount of energy. This energy is created due to the difference in
mass between the two nuclei products and the large nucleus product. However,
the remains of the nuclear reactor become nuclear waste, which is extremely
lethal due to its radioactivity (Fig 13). The key component of nuclear waste is
the leftover smaller nuclei, known as fission products.
Figure 13. The fission process of a single atomic nucleus
Sources of Nuclear Waste

1. Nuclear Weapons: From the weapons to the tools and machinery used in
its production, proportional amounts of radioactivity can be found in all
of them. After their use, these contaminated items must be disposed of
while the radioactivity slowly degrades.
2. Medicine and Research Applications: X-rays and other disease detecting
technology in the medical field also consist of radiation albeit in a less
harmful amount. For example, technetium-99m is an isomer that can be
consumed to allow doctors to take images of the body’s process.
However, even the syringes contribute to the problem of nuclear waste
Nuclear Power: Most radioactive waste comes from the nuclear power
plants situated around the world. There is a 20-30 tons waste that
comes from each nuclear reactor every month it is in use.
3. Agriculture: Nuclear power is also used in eliminating bacteria through
the disruption of their genetic structure. This insures that they can no
longer proliferate and grow in the food.

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Classification of Nuclear Waste
1. Low Level Waste (LLW) – waste that is usually results from medicine or
other industrial uses such as tools, rags, medical tubes, protective
clothing, and others. There are three facilities in the U.S. that handle
low-level waste by land disposal.
2. Intermediate Level Waste (ILW) – waste from processing-plants and
reactors that require some shielding. The waste is usually mixed with
cement and buried.
3. High Level Waste (HLW) – waste that is produced from the nuclear
reactor cores that are highly radioactive. Because of the level of
contamination, the waste must be discarded by some sort of geological
repository. It is not uncommon for spent nuclear fuel to be stored
underwater.
4. Uranium Mill Tailings – this category of waste comes from remains after
extracting uranium from its natural ore. Large amounts are currently
left out in the open of abandoned mining sites. However, if it remains
uncovered and not disposed of correctly, the waste can mix with the
sand and travel to water sources, polluting the environment to a great
extent.
Management of Nuclear Waste

1. Deep Geological Repository: This method is currently still being tested
and facilities are being built. The idea is to seal the radioactive waste
into special casks and to deposit them hundred meters deep into a
geographically stable area for millions of years and to allow it to decay.
The US studied and constructed large portions of Yucca Mountain as the
national spent fuel disposal site, but the community was not consulted
sufficiently beforehand, and the project suffered what can only be called
a political death.
2. Transmutation: at the moment researchers are searching for a method
to transmute the dangerous material into something less harmful,
making it easier to dispose.
3. Re-use: Nuclear waste generally is over 90% uranium. Thus, the spent
fuel (waste) still contains 90% usable fuel. It can be chemically
processed and placed in other reactors to close the fuel cycle. A closed
fuel cycle means much less nuclear waste and much more energy
extracted from the raw ore. Additionally, this process allows you to
convert your waste into chemical forms that are totally immobilized.
France currently recycles their spent fuel. They put the remaining good
nuclear fuel back in their reactors in the form of MOX fuel and
immobilize the remaining waste in vitrified borosilicate glass.
4. Space disposal: This has the best alternative to geological repositories
because the waste can no longer harm the environment on earth. Of
course, there are significant consequences of shooting radioactive waste

Province of Laguna
into space such as damaging space shuttles and pollution. At the same
time, space disposal would have to be agreed upon internationally.
Methods of Detecting Radiation

Radioactivity is determined by measuring the number of decay processes per
unit time. Perhaps the easiest way is simply to determine the number of
count/minute, with each count measuring a single decay process, such as the
emission of an α -particle. A particular isotope may have an activity of 5,000
counts/minute (cpm) while another isotope might only have 250cpm. The
amount of activity gives a rough indication of the amount of the radioisotope
present - the higher the activity, the more radioactivity isotope in the sample.
Units of Measurement
The curie (Ci) is one measure of the rate of decay (named after Pierre and
Marie Curie). One curie is equivalent to 3.7×1010 disintegrations per second.
Since this is obviously a large and unwieldy number, radiation is often
expressed in millicuries or microcuries (still very large numbers). Another
measure is the becquerel (Bq), named after Henri Becquerel. The becquerel is
defined as an activity of one disintegration/second. Both of these units are
concerned with the disintegration rate of the radioactive isotope and give no
indication of dosage to the target material.
Personal Dosimeters
Dosimeter is a film badge that will fog up when exposed to radiation. The
amount of fogging is proportional to the amount of radiation present. These
devices are not very sensitive to low levels of radiation. More sensitive systems
use crystals that respond in some way to radioactivity by registering the
number of emissions in a given time. These systems tend to be more sensitive
and more reliable than film badges (Fig 14).
Figure 14. Film badges
Geiger Counters
A Geiger counter (Fig 15a) provides a sensitive means of detecting
radioactivity. A tube is filled with an inert gas, which will conduct electricity
when radiation enters it. When a charged particle comes into the tube, it

Province of Laguna
changes the electrical potential between the anode and the cathode. This
change in potential in the tube produces a change in voltage in the electrical
circuit and registers as a count (Fig 15b). Geiger counters are fairly inexpensive
and reliable, so they are useful in a wide range of applications. More
complicated types of counters are also available, but are generally used in
sophisticated experiments.
Figure 15. (a) Geiger Counter (b) schematic diagram of Geiger tube
Measuring Radiation Dose

There are four different but interrelated units for measuring radiation dose.
These can be remembered by the mnemonic R-E-A-D, with both common
(British, e.g., Ci) and international (metric, e.g., Bq) units used.
• Radioactivity refers to the amount of ionizing radiation released by a
material. Whether it emits alpha or beta particles, gamma rays, x-rays,
or neutrons, a quantity of radioactive material is expressed in terms of
its radioactivity (or simply its activity), which represents how many
atoms in the material decay in a given time period. The units of measure
for radioactivity are the curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq).
• Exposure describes the amount of radiation traveling through the air.
Many radiation monitors measure exposure. The units for exposure are
the roentgen (R) and coulomb/kilogram (C/kg).
• Absorbed dose describes the amount of radiation absorbed by an object
or person (that is, the amount of energy that radioactive sources deposit
in materials through which they pass). The units for absorbed dose are
the radiation absorbed dose (rad) and gray (Gy).
• Dose equivalent (or effective dose) combines the amount of radiation
absorbed and the medical effects of that type of radiation. For beta and
gamma radiation, the dose equivalent is the same as the absorbed dose.
By contrast, the dose equivalent is larger than the absorbed dose for
alpha and neutron radiation, because these types of radiation are more
damaging to the human body. Units for dose equivalent are the roentgen
equivalent man (rem) and sievert (Sv), and biological dose equivalents
are commonly measured in 1/1000th of a rem (known as a millirem or
mrem).

Province of Laguna
For practical purposes, 1 R (exposure) = 1 rad (absorbed dose) = 1 rem or
1000 mrem (dose equivalent).
Note that a measure given in Ci tells the radioactivity of a substance, while a

measure in rem (or mrem) tells the amount of energy that a radioactive source
deposits in living tissue.
Effects of Long-term Radiation Exposure on the Human Body

Some elements used in nuclear reactors have extremely long half-lives and
must be shielded from humans and the environment for thousands of years.
For example, plutonium-239, an isotope used in the production of nuclear
weapons, has a half-life of 24,200 years while uranium-235 Hiroshima has a
half-life of 700 million years. These elements emit large quantities of
radioactivity that is extremely dangerous. Too much exposure can be followed
by Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS), which includes skin burns, nausea,
vomiting, and eventually death within days if the exposure and dosage of
radiation is high.
The actual effects of radioactivity and radiation exposure on a person’s health

depend on the type of radioactivity, the length of exposure, and the tissues
exposed. An average person receives around 400 mrems of radiation each year.
This amount is equivalent to 0.400 rems and 4 mSV. We can minimize our
exposure by blocking or shielding the radiation, moving farther from the
source, and limiting the time of exposure.
Nuclear Safety
There have been three major accidents involving full-scale civilian nuclear
power plants.
1. The first occurred in 1979 at Three Mile Island Unit 2 in Pennsylvania.
Due mechanical failure, the main water pumps stopped running, leading
to a partial meltdown of the fuel rods. Excessive heat caused a fracture
in one of the reactors, allowing a small amount of radioactive steam into
the atmosphere. Fortunately, no one was killed or even injured. This
incident also lead to heightened regulation and safety precautions of
nuclear reactors in the United States.
2. On April 26, 1986, the worst accident in nuclear history occurred in
Chernobyl, Ukraine. During a routine test, an uncontrollable power
surge burned the control rods, and massive amounts of radioactive
smoke were released. 237 people suffered from acute radiation
sickness, and 31 died within the first three months of the accident.
Other effects of the radiation included an increase in down's syndrome,
chromosomal aberrations, neural tube defects, and thyroid cancer.
Perhaps the most important effect was psychological as the accident

Province of Laguna
caused severe anxiety for the survivors and a general lack of trust in the
government.
3. Due to a severe earthquake and tsunami in Japan in March 11, 2011,
several BWR (Boiling Water Reactor) nuclear reactors at the Fukushima
power plant lost electrical power for cooling, underwent explosions,
and suffered reactor core damage from post-shutdown decay heat
coming from highly radioactive fission products. Workers eventually
pumped seawater into the reactors to cool them down and limit any
further damage.
Engaging Activities
A. Complete the following nuclear reaction by filling in the missing particle and
identify the mode of decay.
210
1. 86𝑅𝑛 → 42𝐻𝑒 +?
60
2. 27𝐶𝑜 →? + 60
27𝐶𝑜
40 40
3. 19𝐾 +? → 18𝐴𝑟
131 0
4. 53𝐼 → −1𝛽 +?
8
5. 5𝐵 →? + 84𝐵𝑒
B. Write a nuclear reaction for each step in the formation of 218
84𝑃𝑜 from 92𝑈 ,
238
which proceeds by a series of decay reactions involving the step-wise emission

of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛽, 𝛼, 𝛼, 𝛼, 𝛼 particles, in that order.
I. Evaluate the following.

1. 60
27𝐶𝑜 decays with a half-life of 5.27 years to produce 28𝐶𝑜 .
60
a. What is the decay constant for the radioactive disintegration of cobalt-

60?
b. Calculate the fraction of a sample of the 60 27𝐶𝑜 isotope that will remain
after 15 years.
c. How long does it take for a sample of 60 27𝐶𝑜 to disintegrate to the extent
that only 2.0% of the original amount remains?
2. The isotope 3890
𝑆𝑟 is one of the extremely hazardous species in the
residues from nuclear power generation. The strontium in a 0.500-g
sample diminishes to 0.393 g in 10.0 yrs. Calculate the half-life.
3. Radon-222, 222 86𝑅𝑛 , has a half-life of 3.823 days. How long will it take a
sample of radon-222 with a mass of 0.750 g to decay into other
elements, leaving only 0.100 g of radon-222?
4. What is the age of mummified primate skin that contains 8.25% of the
original quantity of 14𝐶 ?
5. What is the binding energy for the nuclide 199𝐹 (experimental atomic
mass: 18.9984 amu) in MeV per nucleus?

Province of Laguna
6. Calculate the amount of energy (in electronvolts per atom and kilojoules
per mole) released when the neutron-induced fission of 235𝑈 produces
144
𝐶𝑠, 90𝑅𝑏, and two neutrons:
235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 144
55𝐶𝑠
90
+ 37𝑅𝑏 + 210𝑛
atomic masses of particles (in amu) involved are:
235
𝑈 – 235.0439231
144
𝐶𝑠 - 143.932076914
90
𝑅𝑏 - 89.914801694
Performance Tasks
Nuclear Energy: What is Your Insight?
Learning Objective: To be able to gather, read and synthesize information from multiple appropriate
and credible sources to decide whether or not nuclear power should replace fossil fuels as the main
energy source in the Philippines.
Learning Material:
Does the Philippines need nuclear plants? DOE, advocacy group weigh in | ANC
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NgWn_zZQ-Rc
Reviving Bataan Nuclear Power Plant more viable than building new modular plant
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zI9c19EYMXM
Discussion Questions: Answer the following based on your research or what you have watch. Give
your honest opinion.
1. What are the controversial issues surrounding nuclear energy in the Philippines?
2. In your own opinion, is using nuclear power really the answer to clean, environmentally
friendly energy?
3. How does nuclear energy impact the environment?
4. As a future engineer what is your stand in the reopening of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant
(BNPP)? Are you in favor of it or not? Do the pros outweigh the cons?

Province of Laguna
Learning Resources
Brown, Holme, Peterson, Sack and Gabler. Chemistry for Engineering Students Philippine Edition.
Cengage Learning. 2018
Masterton, Hurley, Petersen, Sack and Gabler. Principles and Reaction: Chemistry for Engineering
Students Philippine Edition. Cengage Learning. 2018
Brown and Holme. Chemistry for Engineering Students 2nd Edition. Cengage Learning. 2012
Brown, LeMay, Bursten. Chemistry the Central Science. Pearson Education Limited. 2015
Overview of Atomic Structure. (n.d). Retrieved November 10, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/overview-of-atomic-structure/
Structure of an atom. (n.d). Retrieved November 10, 2020 from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/overview-of-atomic-structure/
Atomic Mass and Atomic Number. Oct 1, 2020 from

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_Global_Awarene
ss_(Gordon)/03%3A_Atoms_and_the_Periodic_Table/3.04%3A_Atomic_Mass_and_Atomic_Number
Picture of Rutherford experiment with an electric filed. (n.d). Retrieved November 10, 2020 from
http://mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Atoms/AtomStr1/Atoms02.htm
The half-life of iodine-131 is eight days. (n.d). Retrieved November 10, 2020 from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Kentucky/UK%3A_CHE_103_-
_Chemistry_for_Allied_Health_(Soult)/Chapters/Chapter_10%3A_Nuclear_and_Chemical_Reactions/10.3
%3A_Half-Life
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay. (n.d). Retrieved November 10, 2020 from
https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/howtosolveit/Nuclear/Half_Life.htm
Nuclear Magic Numbers. Sep 23, 2020 from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps
/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Nuclear_En
ergetics_and_Stability/Nuclear_Magic_Numbers
Nuclear Stability. Aug 25, 2020 from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_General_Chemistry_(Petrucci_et
_al.)/25%3A_Nuclear_Chemistry/25.07%3A_Nuclear_Stability
A plot of the number of neutrons versus the number of protons for stable nuclei. (n.d). Retrieved
November 10, 2020 from https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/21-1-nuclear-structure-and-
stability/
Nuclear Structure and Stability. (n.d). Retrieved November 11, 2020 from
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/21-1-nuclear-structure-and-stability/

Province of Laguna
Transmutation. (n.d). Retrieved November 12, 2020 from
https://www.chegg.com/learn/physics/introduction-to-physics/transmutation
Fission and Fusion. Sep 23, 2020 from

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supple
mental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Fission_and_Fusion/Fission
_and_Fusion
Nuclear Reactors. Sep 23, 2020 from

mental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Applications_of_Nuclear_Ch
emistry/Nuclear_Reactors
Crawford H. Greenewalt, Leona Marshall Libby, Leo Szilard, Enrico Fermi, Eugene Wigner. (2017).
Nuclear Reactors. https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/nuclear-reactors
Image of Nuclear Reactor components. (n.d). Retrieved November 13, 2020 from
https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/nuclear-reactor-components-energy-released-
uranium-176252417
Nuclear Power Reactors. October 2020 from https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-
library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors.aspx
Ionizing Radiation and Non-ionizing Radiation. Oct 1, 2020. Contributed by Elizabeth Gordon.
ss_(Gordon)/05%3A_Basics_of_Nuclear_Science/5.04%3A_Ionizing_Radiation_and_Non-
ionizing_Radiation
Image of the ability of different types of radiation to pass through material. (n.d). Retrieved November
13, 2020 from
ss_(Gordon)/05%3A_Basics_of_Nuclear_Science/5.04%3A_Ionizing_Radiation_and_Non-
ionizing_Radiatio
Nuclear Reactors: Nuclear Waste. Aug 16, 2020. Contributor Karen Chan.
mental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Applications_of_Nuclear_Ch
emistry/Nuclear_Reactors%3A_Nuclear_Waste
What about the waste?. (n.d). Retrieved November 14, 2020 from
https://whatisnuclear.com/waste.html#:~:text=Nuclear%20waste%20generally%20is%20over,extract
ed%20from%20the%20raw%20ore.
Image of the nuclear fuel pellets. (n.d). Retrieved November 14, 2020 from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/nrcgov/15420174614
Sharon Bewick, Richard Parsons, Therese Forsythe, Shonna Robinson, and Jean Dupon. Aug 13, 2020.
Detection of Radioactivity.

Province of Laguna
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory_Chemistry_(
CK-12)/24%3A_Nuclear_Chemistry/24.03%3A_Detection_of_Radioactivity
Geiger Counter (b) schematic diagram of Geiger tube. Retrieved November 14, 2020 from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/31-2-radiation-detection-and-detectors/
Measuring Radiation. October 02, 2017 from https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-

effects/measuring-radiation.html
Ellaine L. Ching
Instructor
This module is for educational purpose only. Under section Sec. 185 of RA 8293, which states, “The fair use of
a copyrighted work for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching including multiple copies for classroom
use, scholarship, research, and similar purposes is not an infringement of copyright. The unauthorized
reproduction, use, and dissemination of this module without joint consent of the authors is strictly prohibited
and shall be prosecuted to the full extent of the law, including appropriate administrative sanctions, civil, and
criminal”


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Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

LSPU Self-paced Learning Module (SLM)

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

• Solve problems involving half-life.

Student Learning Strategies

B. Learning Guide Questions:

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Ernest Rutherford demonstrated that two distinct types of radiation could be

The more massive and positively charged particle is an alpha particle (𝛼 ),

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Types of Radioactive Decay

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Example 2. Complete the equations for each of the following 𝛽 − decay

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 ; 90𝑇ℎ → 88𝑅𝑎 + 2𝐻𝑒 ; 88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 2𝐻𝑒 ;

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

Figure 4. The half-life of iodine-131 is eight days. Half of a given sample of

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Determination of the Amount of Radioisotope Remaining after Time "t"

Example 5: How much of a 2.00 g sample of radioisotope (k = 0.15 min-1) will

Determination of the Initial Amount of Radioisotope at the Beginning of

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Determination of the Time to Decay

Determination and Use of the Half-Life

Example 11. How much of a 60 Ci sample of radioisotope will remain after 10

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Figure 5. Competing Interactions within the Atomic Nucleus.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

There is the concept that isotopes consisting a combination of even-even, even-

Table 1. Stable Nuclear Isotopes

Example 13. Identify whether the isotope is stable or unstable.

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Nuclear Binding Energy

(2𝑥1.0073 𝑎𝑚𝑢) + (2𝑥1.0087 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ) + (2𝑥0.00055 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ) = 4.0331 𝑎𝑚𝑢

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Transmutation, Fission and Fusion

Transmutation is the transformation of one chemical component into another.

Transmutation is a phenomenon where the nucleus adjusts the number of

Natural transmutation is the nuclear reaction to radioactive fusion and decay

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

For example, electron capture happens when a nucleus absorbs an electron

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Figure 7. Because each neutron released can cause the fission of

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Figure 8. In a nuclear fusion reaction, lighter nuclei combine to produce a

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

The Chain Reaction

Components of a Nuclear Reactor

Control rods or blades

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes

Figure 9. Nuclear reactor components

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

The ability of radiation to damage molecules is analyzed in terms of what is

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS