54

41 Sugars
Key Idea: Monosaccharides are the building blocks for larger
carbohydrates. They can exist as isomers.
Sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) play a central
role in cells, providing energy and joining together to form
carbohydrate macromolecules, such as starch and glycogen.
Monosaccharide polymers form the major component of
most plants (as cellulose). Monosaccharides are important
as a primary energy source for cellular metabolism.
Disaccharides are important in human nutrition and are found
in milk (lactose) table sugar (sucrose) and malt (maltose).
Carbohydrates have the general formula (CH2O)n, where n =
the number of carbon atoms.

Monosaccharides Glucose Isomers

Monosaccharides are single-sugar molecules and include
glucose (grape sugar and blood sugar) and fructose (honey
and fruit juices).They are used as a primary energy source CH2OH CH2OH
for fuelling cell metabolism. They can be joined together to C O C O
form disaccharides and polysaccharides. H H H HO
The most common arrangements found in sugars H H
C C C C
are hexose (6 sided) or pentose (5 sided) rings. The OH H OH H
commonly occurring monosaccharides contain between OH OH HO H
C C C C
three and seven carbon atoms in their carbon chains and, H H
of these, the 6C hexose sugars occur most frequently. OH OH
All monosaccharides are reducing sugars (they can α-glucose β -glucose
participate in reduction reactions).
Examples of monosaccharide structures Isomers are compounds with the same chemical formula (same
Triose Pentose Hexose types and numbers of atoms) but they have different arrangements
of their atoms. The different arrangement of the atoms means that
C each isomer has different properties.
C In structural isomers (such a and b glucose, above), the atoms are
C linked in different sequences. Optical isomers are identical in every
e.g. glyceraldehyde e.g. ribose, e.g. glucose, way but are mirror images of each other.
deoxyribose fructose, galactose

Glucose is a versatile molecule. It provides
energy to power cellular reactions, can form
energy storage molecules such as glycogen,
or it can be used to build structural molecules.
+
Plants make their glucose via the process
of photosynthesis. Animals and other
heterotrophic organisms obtain their glucose
by consuming plants or other organisms.
ebirU onfiuR
Fructose, often called fruit sugar, is a simple
monosaccharide. It is often derived from sugar
cane (above). Both fructose and glucose can
be directly absorbed into the bloodstream.

1. Describe the two major functions of monosaccharides:

(a) Energy sources

(b) Used to form complex molecules

2. Define the term structural isomer, using glucose molecules as examples:

There are compound with the same formula but with different arrangements having
different features like glucose beta and alfa

3. Why is glucose such a versatile molecule?

Because of the different isomers we can form different
types of union through various bonds

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 42 Condensation and Hydrolysis of Sugars 55

Key Idea: Condensation reactions join monosaccharides
together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Hydrolysis reactions split disaccharides and polysaccharides
into smaller molecules
Monosaccharide monomers can be linked together by
a condensation reaction, to produce larger molecules
(disaccharides and polysaccharides). The reverse reaction,
hydrolysis, breaks compound sugars down into their
constituent monosaccharides. Disaccharides (double-
sugars) are produced when two monosaccharides are
joined together. Different disaccharides are formed by joining
together different combinations of monosaccharides (below).

Condensation and Hydrolysis Reactions Disaccharides

Monosaccharides can combine to form compound sugars in what Disaccharides (below) are double-sugar molecules and
is called a condensation reaction. Compound sugars can be are used as energy sources and as building blocks for
broken down by hydrolysis to simple monosaccharides. larger molecules. They are important in human nutrition
and are found in milk (lactose), table sugar (sucrose),
and malt (maltose).
Two mono-
saccharides
O
Condensation Reaction Hydrolysis Reaction
Two monosaccharides are When a disaccharide is The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monomers
joined together to form a split, as in digestion, a water
disaccharide with the release molecule is used as a source of involved and whether they are in their a- or b- form. Only a
of a water molecule (hence hydrogen and a hydroxyl group. few disaccharides (e.g. lactose) are classified as reducing
its name). A net energy input The reaction is catalysed by sugars. Some common disaccharidesCH2OHare described below.
is required for the reaction to specific enzymes. Maltose
proceed. C O
H Lactose, a milk sugar, H H
is made up of b-glucose C H C
+ b-galactose. Milk OH H
O OH contains 2-8% lactoseOby OH
weight. It is the primary C C
+ carbohydrate source
Glycosidic bond H
H2O Glycosidic bond for suckling mammalian OH
Disaccharide + water infants. Disaccharide + water
CH2OH CH2OH
C O C O Maltose is composed of
H
H
H H
H
H two a-glucose molecules.
C C C C Germinating seeds
OH H OH H contain maltose because
OH OH OH OH the plant breaks down
C C C C
H H
their starch stores to use
OH OH it for food.
α -glucose α -glucose
A B
CH2OH CH2OH
Sucrose (table sugar) is
Maltose a simple sugar derived
C O C O from plants such as
H H H H sugar cane, sugar
H H beet, or maple sap.
C C C C
OH H OH H It is composed of an
OH O OH
C C C C a-glucose molecule and a
b-fructose molecule.
H OH Glycosidic bond H OH
Disaccharide + water
1. Explain briefly how disaccharide sugars are formed and broken down:

2. On the diagram above, name the reaction occurring at points A and B and name the product that is formed:

3. On the lactose, maltose, and sucrose molecules (above right), circle the two monomers on each molecule.
Note: This is an
offline question.
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56
43 Polysaccharides
Key Idea: Polysaccharides consist of many monosaccharides The most common polysaccharides, cellulose, starch, and
joined together through condensation reactions. Their glycogen contain only glucose, but their properties are very
composition and isomerization alter their functional properties. different. These differences are a function of the glucose
Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) are straight or isomer involved and the types of linkages joining them.
branched chains of many monosaccharides joined together. Different polysaccharides can thus be a source of readily
They can consist of one or more types of monosaccharides. available glucose or a structural material that resists digestion.
Cellulose
The structure of polysaccharides

niamoD cilbuP
Cellulose is a structural material found in the
cell walls of plants. It is made up of unbranched can be compared using molecular
chains of b-glucose molecules held together by visualization software
b-1,4 glycosidic links. As many as 10,000 glucose
molecules may be linked together to form a
straight chain. Parallel chains become cross-linked
with hydrogen bonds and form bundles of 60-70
molecules called microfibrils. Cellulose microfibrils
are very strong and are a major structural
component of plants, e.g. as the cell wall. Few
organisms can break the b-linkages so cellulose is Cellulose
an ideal structural material. Cotton fibres contain more than 90%
cellulose fibre.
Starch
FB

Starch is also a polymer of glucose, but it is made

up of long chains of a-glucose molecules linked Amylose
together. It contains a mixture of 25-30% amylose Starch
(unbranched chains linked by a-1,4 glycosidic granules
bonds) and 70-75% amylopectin (branched chains
with a-1, 6 glycosidic bonds every 24-30 glucose
units). Starch is an energy storage molecule in
plants and is found concentrated in insoluble
starch granules within specialized plastids called
amyloplasts in plant cells (see photo, right). Starch
can be easily hydrolysed by enzymes to soluble Starch granules in a plant cell (TEM).
sugars when required.

Glycogen
serroT .J dna volamihS .V .V ,iksrediw.Z ,allevaliV .D ,leuqiM .J

Glycogen, like starch, is a branched

polysaccharide. It is chemically similar to Glycogen
amylopectin, being composed of a-glucose
molecules, but there are more a-1,6 glycosidic
links mixed with a-1,4 links. This makes it more
highly branched and more water-soluble than
starch. Glycogen is a storage compound in
animal tissues and is found mainly in liver and
muscle cells (photo, right). It is readily hydrolysed
by enzymes to form glucose making it an ideal
energy storage molecule for active animals. Glycogen (G) in the spermatozoa of a
flatworm. M1, M2=mitochondria, N=nucleus.

1. (a) Why are polysaccharides such a good source of energy?

(b) How is the energy stored in polysaccharides mobilized?

2. Contrast the properties of the polysaccharides starch, cellulose, and glycogen and relate these to their roles in the cell:

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 44 Starch and Cellulose 57

Key Idea: Starch and cellulose are important polysaccharides Glucose monomers can be linked in condensation reactions
in plants. Starch is a storage carbohydrate made up of two to form large structural and energy storage polysaccharides.
a-glucose polymers, amylose and amylopectin. Cellulose is a The glucose isomer involved and the type of glycosidic
b-glucose polymer which forms the plant cell wall. linkage determines the properties of the molecule.
Plant cell Starch is manufactured and stored in amyloplasts (left),
non-pigmented storage organelles within plant cells.
Starch consists of two types of molecules: the linear
and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin.
Plants cells are
surrounded by a cell
wall made from cellulose
microfibrils. They provide
the cell with strength and
rigidity. Amylopectin makes
up 70-75% of starch

The microfibrils (below) consist of Amylose makes up

between 40-70 cellulose chains 25-30% of starch
joined by hydrogen bonds.
a-glucose
monomer

Cellulose
O O O O O
O O
a-1, 6 linkage
O O O

O O O O O creates branching
O O O O O

b-glucose monomer b-1, 4 glycosidic bond a-1, 4 glycosidic bond

Cellulose is an unbranched polymer
of b-glucose molecules bonded by
extremely stable b-1, 4 glycosidic bonds.
The unbranched structure of cellulose
produces parallel chains which become
cross linked with hydrogen bonds to form
strong microfibrils.
Amylose is made from many thousands of
a-glucose monomers. It is a linear molecule,
which forms a helix as a result of the angle
of the a-1, 4 glycosidic bonds. Every turn
of the amylose helix requires six a-glucose
molecules. Amylose forms 25-30% of the
structure of starch.
Amylopectin consists of the same -1, 4
linked glucose monomers as amylose with
occasional -1,6 glycosidic bonds which
provide branching points around every 24-
30 glucose residues. This branching allows
many millions of glucose molecules to be
stored in a compact form.

1. (a) Where is starch stored in plants?

(b) Where is cellulose found in plants?
2. Compare and contrast the structure of amylose and amylopectin:

3. Account for the differences in structure between cellulose and starch:

4. Amylopectin is very similar in structure to glycogen but is less soluble. Explain why:

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