cul | Ww GAUSS loo) of electwagtaticg :- \GOUSS low OF eleCttwoStoticg :- ne 1 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM The theorem iG Particularly uS9eFis) is Savieg electmOStatic Prcoblems hoving 70 Spherical - Syrometteey eB I Stateg that the electric Piurx (or the net "0 oF Field lines) borough o caged Gumtface is ae, times the total charge encnsed! by it, CoE Mathematically. | § Fdé@-1_@ & Eo E,= Permitivity of free Space Exe Perermitiity of the mediuro athen €,=! >> ~ G§E.de ‘O Replication of Gauss Loe TO Calculate the electric field due t0 a linear Chostge digtrabution Consider athin infinite! long mA e Straight lite having a uniform 1 E Weare charged density \ z i ore rey LYS A era? 4 Syrmetwy ,The fied EF of | > the line charge is directed ‘a0 Radial outewarcds and it’s magnitude as, 1G Game at all points Equidistance from the line charge -TO determine the ¥iad at a digtore {re From the Whe Chareee we choose 0. Qylindie)- Cal Gaussian Surface of radius ? length v and with tS axig Along the line charge .\t has Oo Cunved Surface S ard that Citculat ends 2 & Gy cbvicugly —: 64 | (A eee eo eee, Se SE ee re d doe de! => JG, € 2, only the curved Gustface comrdbutes You, the totol fluz. CyYwdttical Gouggian Gurcface for line $2623 sa Choy a ig "Gb dé,+ 62 oe i Sy ] Gy §eag COG O + GE oO f S, : 2 3) 0 EdS cog acd + AS ; En Cog ag Q 2 7 lag +O =Extern A i ol Area. F the eG OF the curved 7 geas = Exareed 2 |Force ona ; Chase Parcti uniform may ae Chasege “q? ig MOVIN esiny velocity “y’ maxing 25 an ae ‘ © cots the direction of Is o a (mo.gretic field) = ee PEtIC Feld - Met @ wantile contg ar 5 B[ F arra)) 3 P=(QvB gine)A “F=qQve gine where 3 19 the unit vector along the direction of force “F’ aihich is normal (1) ta the plone containing 4? ge? TO know) the direction of force ‘Fleming's left band rule ig ued . Feming’S eft hand reule + "Fest Fingere, Cerrtal ger and the thumb of ‘the left hand are stretched mutually 1 to each other. PF the It Fingere gives the divection of magnetic Field, the central Fingure gives ithe direction of the motion of the Charege then the emmect thumb QIVES the direction of the force . 4] Sphercical cageg + CoGe-| 6=0° GnO=GinO=0 |: FeO ThuS ahen the charge particle ig moving i to the giection of magnetic field, Force acting on it 1s ‘0°. Case-a = q0° © F= qv singc’= qve 3IF=4vel Cro”) chen the charge particle is moving 410 the dicection of magnetic field ,t experie— MCeg mary” Barro WwForce ona Curecent Careting Conduct Placed in a uniform Magnetic field. ~ PA Conductor of length ‘L? xa ee i bs coserting Curent ‘iis Placed Ina. unlfore magnetic, Yield to strength (8. oe het “dq” bea gmal) amount OF Chary Moving torcough the conductor with Velen. ey? Tren force acting on it « ‘ dF = dq (TxB) > = ae °9 (Sexe) ae a (de x) =T (axe) Mere fore, force acu | Contos Conductor PQ 0? the Coreen | i P= (i (exe) P= (8 Sip 9d cite dracon Op race NA coil Lorent> force «= ognretic fied . Wher ac 4 , He pataesoe eee eee ee Particle atl! a magnetic Field , EXPEMIEPTE eClectre| force . IC forece+ ere 1S HOON OG “Lomertz Fforece? Leto. chastged Urakic ak: Conring charge) 1 moving oth ©. weer v alec Bett ect of an eectic field E &% magnetic Field BP. Then electric force acting ont fe Fe, = (Vx) Hence, the Lorectz force > Pe Fo tFm = 92 +9 (Prd) Facts :- lorert2 force has tao components :- O Blececic force Qvrognetic fecece Blectric Loremiz force ig velocity inderendent and acts alorg the ditectlor oF appliod electric fie Magnetic Lorentz force ig velocity dependent and acts 1 to both V&e @o™ acts 4 to VaB. Work done by magnetic Lorentz force is” [Since the forcce I6 1 to the dicection oF mote} BIOT- SAVART'S LAW _(Pmpore’s Bgorem) ator tO determing Na mognetic Field motensity at ony ht Point due to a Current aa pe P CORTINA Conductor. « LOU'S Consider a conductor y Carerting Curent ‘I’ Gu? be the | Small Clement of the Conductor and ‘P be o pe POIMt at a digtance i? Aram. the CenteO’ OF the element. pe Se Se Let @ be the angle made by bi) cith the We J0ini°g 0° t0 “PIF da We the magnetic fu, clemsity ot Rest be a Point on Pee anid OF 4he circular coil ato. distance “Ror it’s centre “oO. TO calculate tbe magnetic Flux density at POIDE "P.1LevG Chooge a Small Clement “Ad? of pre Clecular Coll at Poigt Vertical component de din @ 3 Horizontal Component Smlotly ) gel Con be regaled into @ ComPonEnt 3B! cog > Vertical Component de! Sind > Horizortal Component out oF these components dB COS 8.de asd Being equal 19 magnitude but oppogite tO gach othe get cancelled with each othert _ Hence, mognetic Flux density at Paint ‘p due to the gral) current cornying Conductor, QW oil be dBe Zing Therefore, Magnetic Field ot point'P’ due to the whole Circular coi) Costing current B= eS 3nd oe eral GIN - Wo i , io 7 = Gane ad Sing -“e arm si aoe i Oe ae Te eeby ey of UTS ¥P Cieculart cai) has'O' PO. of tum then, |g. Oia! ae 5 ra When P Coingides attth centre oO 3 x=0 ops We nia® _. ane 33 eri 2a THIS is the expreasion “fort magnetic Pied at Phe centre OF a Circular col) carting Current FmPeERE’S CieCuitol Law: It Gtareg that the line integral of magnetic field along a. Ccloged path ig Equal to My time the total Current enclosed within the cloged Path . Proof :- Lev consider an infinvte long GemMigrt Conductor thregcti zal through a closed Circular eis Cobh s OF reaciuS “re” through it's Centre og 1 Noa accorcding to Biot-Gavant’s law ! the magnetic Fed inteng; any Point ‘Plex [Bee circular Path due to oe infineere a Fwaigit Conductor’ careiting Carrent \ Bs Wot Qe if df bo. Small element OF circular eth at Point ‘P) Then the magmetic field 'e? and‘dl't Pont ‘POE 1 to each other. There force, 5 +5. : “ B. od = Badd cog. 0° =Bdds = “ G8.db 26 Mat dd = Het omre 26 8.a8 = 1.2 TG |S APRERE’S Cizcuital Lag. differentia) Forrn:- ARETE’S CieCultal Low is given by [FR -n2}—o WO, Ts (FP ae g ohere'T) iS the elecinic Cusertent density USing these e CWO Con be written ag FBde = AUF a8 ee OO, aecorsiod GtOCNS theotem aS = a ntantanG § Bat = Nex 8) de x Xy Le s Using these in above equ? we get, SPP )08 = Jy Sra] > Sc 2) ety dB -0 Since the gurtface area dé 1g arbitorti Pe Cheesen J +0 Then, (PuB- sud =0 5 Thig ig the differential form of ampere’s Citcultal Low . VA =divertgence of 32 V2" = Curel of| Gtatement:- IGt lac):- Whenevert the magnetic flux linked wit a. Coil Changes an ern ig induced io tt. ™9 induced em? exigt Go long 0G the change > MAQMetic flux Continues 1200 lac'- The emf induced in the coil 1S diecty propertional to the -ve rate of Change of magnetic flux linked with the coil . ve Cu =e ot iF Ve 1G the magnetic #lux linked aitha Coil .Then according to Faroday’S lod EMF induced in the coll. e a 29% dt de dee dt I e=) -d ste then k=] dt + 9-7 0s MOS SA ct O > differential Form of Faraday’s lau of EM | if “B' iG the magnetic Phux density se ithe total Magnetic Flux linked wh the ‘coil | %e- (e. ae I—____@) | $ ; Again, the EMF induced in the coll can ols ' be defined aG the total worKkdone agSN moving o untt we: charge along the coil ie: \e=(e-at Cet} -« [Now , Using equ” @ &@ in equa we get fea =- 2 Nica ds 3 S a)te ape ((-ae fe ad {82 33|-—_@ Now, applying Stoxe'’s theorem pees (Eat = (CFP) dB ic g using thege in above equ? we get SP 8 2. de 2 TF) 13818 =0 Since de io arbitary ChooSen GO dé+0 There force, | Thig ig the Exeression for , IGN Fc of EMT ‘araday S low Ptegral form of Foradoy's tow of EMT The differential form oF Faradoy’s Lae! eS 'S given by Sie - 8 ; ot Towing Surcface integral of Poth sides ; We get, {5 (G28 =" [28law oF electro magnetic induction _ > > Growtds of current - ae But Recording tO GtoKeS theorem , 4 => me (PrP) aS = {Fat SG ‘ Cc Using this im above equ, ae get fed =-(f | c G tl | T'S Ig the integral Arm of Faraday’s | | zs ds LR Circuit PO LR Clecuit Congi6t oF an | Inductor Of Inductance Ce (PRO register of Aes BA eSiStance “R? CODEC TER , | 19 GetiesS . The too ends oF al ae ae the combination are Connected * to | | 40 A Gousrcce of emf? through the vey“) | [here iS.an another ye 4 “Ke Comnected bet? | the two ends of L&R, Let the key 19 Cloged where as “Yu, is ' oPpened Go that the Curent through the i Ciecuit Starts Increasing eon dn(Ec- 9) =Se t yx —_@ WhETE , k= Constant oF integration when t=0 , 9=0 theo , |w=n (EQ) using the value oF K ID equ? @ din (EC- Hot t +d (Ec) 2 do (Ec-9)e dn (Ec) = 2 Ret 2 a(S). zt D dn (- 4) -= eee D 42EC(\-eGer, q,=EC 19 He mar” Value of Charge Ip the cimcult . The above ExPTeSSION gives the Ingtantaneus value of Chase during the chaseging of RC- circuit : yitime constorst = Time Congtant Fore RC-cirecult iG defined AG the product of wegistance and the Qpacitance, ” 1e. A=sRC For +t=RC 4=4,0-€) Terceforte the Ingtantaneus vaide of aurrent 1S giveo by, -h. 8 fj sae r-ct.d Sle e*)] --d set = ece abere, E23, ig the max value oF current. | Thig Srouss unseen decrtea.Ses exponential S| [Wht time | Pecag of Curuteot t uring oi digchasging)'- ren the capacitor iS Fully Charged the Key) iS opened where a9 the Hey" Ka Is Be lcicsoa. Go that we caracitot Stats syea ee Ne : - ldischaregieg through the wasistence 4) 1P°Q be the ingtantaneus value of Chareae dluszing diSchareggng then aePlying RVL | ot YL Bee 0 i > 94 _-9% GZ Re Noo) lotegratieg both sides , i 3 stk > dn q= Rath » K=Constant of Integration i Where, +=0 » BU | k= bog, ~ is 76, dn 9 = pering, a z = 3d>q es dng, - at 2 ID) _ =I | > dn) =aat | Mis ig tre lnStanvtaneus value of Charge during discharging -MIG Shows Charege decreases &xPOvES Hal iOrp | max” value. >) Tiree ConGtant’- ewe | A=RC a |aobhen t=A=Re0 % \ a -) yd \ t= Ue Pq: » 4=0.379, EA 43 ILiS the time lmterval fore which the charge becomeS 0.37 timeg oF ito ™ Chastge Dieser renencmmniememr ices CHOsSTEE ogBs qn a g a ee Meet eee AT 1agtantaneus Cusacert '- 4=9,e%* =) Sg * are ere >1-S% 3 Re “| 3Sq-7% jet 21st aha = “EC +8 Ret = Re Bae 2 = re t ewe Gerles AC through LOR Circuit \- RQ Cc L U1 EB =EGinest Let’S congidertan pC circutt Connecting an Inductor of inductance ‘LV’, Caracitort of Capacitance ‘Cc? & Tmegistance ‘R? in series AcKwogG ON AC - Gourtce with an ingtantonecus OmF 16 glen by Ez Ey Sinatt -1& T be the lostantanecus value OF CURMEDt through the Circuit , then areying KVL ie ,di,2iiece aac ae LE + be tR= & Sin ast @) het, t=, din st-4) @ lshere @ ig the phase difference betAeOY Coracent and emt . 2, AL ys cog (ust - 9) zK. At 43 ¢“G2 fadt = (5, (ale arte ) = 3,f5i0 (art) 2 cog (urt-9) Now uSing the value of 1, BY In ew’@ 3 ; we get , Lop bars E, Sin (ust - 4) DLS Cos (ost) - Joes tet) + 1,3i7 (et-4) = Ey gin (ort- 19) >T[R Bie (urt-6)+ (wl A eos (otr6)] = E (Sin (ost -0) 0054 + C05 (U52-9) Bin« Now equating the coetficient of sin(st-9) & Cog (ust- 0) , we get T,R= E, CoS > —__p To(wt-ze) = Ey Bind @ Now, Squaring & adding equ? @ &@) we get, To PR eo ae yy =E2 (GIRh+ cos") eer a a PIo [Rs (o- ae), JER Q ty a 7 ya OSL -— RN (¢ are) yI,: Eo sf $] Yet rGn-ay SEESce Le aene 2 = [RRs e Gs wie) ce of the circuit Dividing equ” Gi) bu@ we get tan o = wl-ge aoe GF ¥PLWIN OS Impedan? dios the INStantoneous value of curmont to WE Series icR Circuit iS given by T=F, Gio (urt-) BES | oa (Paap 9 Nw ELECTRICAL : RESONANCE *- The Gertieg LER Circuit 1S Gaid to ke in ReGonance , @hen Cusarent though the Ciccuit ig = mar”. Curent alll be max™, when the impedance Mis mMoImuUM . : Again, imPendance cui)! be minimum. when, 2=R oe op= feequere4) Frequency 2° te IG the EXPRESSION Ort Regonant fre query(| Sranpoeaa OF eeborance (6-valud) Let thee ace Q Aitequencies ‘F, &* Pore adhich the cureent in the Citcult becomes g 23MeS , the mow” value oF CUTE! _& the difference between the different two Frequ Neleg Koown AS Band width . & Vo\ue/GharePresS OF wegGorance 13 defined ag the Tatio between the megonance freequency to the band width . AISO @- value 1S defined 06 the ratio between the voltage dropRed across inductance or Caracitance at wesonance to the voitoge drop acrogg the registonce . Pt MeSonmance ; voltage drtOP aCKOSS the inductance V_=WLIg Voltage dROP ACOSS the caracitance =i Ne 7a5E To MorRgR ATP ACKOSS the REGigtance = RI, Mo Who - A-value = Ve owt - ate Vals BE 0 Vea | Weis Q TRE | | Q-value =Wwe i 0. B @-volue = 1 WdeR D|Maxael!"S electromagnetic equation - ee ao “Moxwell derived our equations invowing jelectric Field &)& Magnetic leld (2): | St equ? > ‘Statement 1 ji ? Sere 9 derived -from Gauss ja i weBB —Tof electrogtatics at lit GtoteS that tre electric Aux tinned cabty the cloged Gureface iG Equals to Yen BES total} chasge enclaged aithlo the surface . Mathematically : | {fe-@ = oS t—() ° But ogain we have g= MS fav ERE, P= volume charge dens} Usieg this equ? , we get hy SG (ve. ae = eS Ns fl __@ Thig is the integral -formof Maxwell's Ist equ’, Now, using Gougs’s DWergence theorem Wed 2. ay} @ US From , Gua) &(3) We get & Mprav- Iyse.ay y v AMR - %)ave0 | Since, “dv is akbitary Choogen ie, dv $0 90, je-L-0 s\Pe-L ° €o | | W's \5 the differential Yor of Maxwell’s \St equ”. 4 Crosacteregties - Die RepregentS the Spatial derivative oF @ Sectric field IS equals to é ; Me 't 19.0 time independant Ee |Moxcel)’s and equ”: a te tepresentS Gauss law of electrostatic. Statement -- ‘E18 derived! fom Gauss Law of Magnetosty, LEG, . 't States that, the total magnetic Flux lone with a cloged Surface igo. ™athematicaly ) [Fe THIS ig ane Integral form of Maxwell's And equ? 2) Pecording to Gouss's divergence theorem | tt sibs (FR as- (oP Pav S v Then For Equ°D &@ Bince, ww ig arbitaty choosen, dv#0 go, ™G IS the differectiol Fem oF maxutld and equ”. oa Characteristics *- Or repregentS the Spatial derivative of imognetic Field ig o. @ He iS. a time Independance equ? Qk weereserts Gougs’s Low of mo.gnetoGtotics .Mile ee Te 5 Tore’ S Bred equ? Hig derived 40m Foraday’s low of electro - | mogne tic inducveo . grocement - Tie GtoteS that the emf induced in a coil ig directly PROPEtional to te -ve mate oF Change of magnetic Flux tinued with a. Col) ie. mathematically : E - -d% fond Again, we unca 2 fF. S de=-4/ (> oe sae s-A[lte] $8 #9 12 BIS the elecemic Fela éntongity . Then the evr INdUCED 19 the Goll Can be expressed aS the line igtegra\l oF electric eld intensity alorg the coil . ie. e-§@. df —@ From eqn © &.@) 3 e ae - OT ma §&. dd = (22 se |_ @ c g dt Thid ig the integral Fotm of maxclell’s aad | equ? | Now Aeeluing Gtove’s Theorem i lus equ @) con be wititten 0s fest Sa2\#l_o < Ss FROm Cou" @D EQ we get98 2 NE < Nfs?) +38} a80 Since , dé is arbitarty choosen , dS to SO, a) +389 TIS 15 the diPferential Sem of moxaell’ Dred equ? Charactersticg *- WE COnneCES UME derivative of magnetic | Field aith Sratiol derivative of elecutic Pick!) It 1S a time derendant equ. | It Repregents Fartaday’s law of Electro magnetic @ Induction. MaxaJel’S 4h equation |- tt iG derived rom the modified form of Ameere’s Circultal Law. |Gratement Tt Gtateg that the live integral of Magnetic | field along a. cloged path iG equal to WU, times | total curswent enclogged by the closed Fath. i Mathematically , 3 $8. dP = sgt Co [In defferectiol Form Fee uF Maxalell ModiFied the propere’s circuit | Lael ey introducing a digplacement auee™ Ta, then Ampherte’s circuital Law con hi laratten AS — EES BIC Te ie aabe ss oqur—O. ea Agalo , T= [5 36 aber, + - conduction ; 8 Current B Ja: 09,02 Tg = Dior. corent 2 “here Jy= Vise. Current age where, 5, - 3b density at J = Current density > ' alberce, 5 = electc dige. vector Te TB ge 5 ot Nou) Using the volue of T&T, io equ’@ we get, 2H s B.dd = \ye (gear Jo (I(3+ & ae | © TIS ig the jotegral form of Maxalell’s Uth Equotion . Noa! APPHIPG StOKE’S Theorem to LHS OF eg’g We get = eons §8.ad = Soave a8 Now sfrore equ? @ &® SPP) a8 =o ff Gr B) oF S 3 at > {SL 4B)“ Ho (72) ds’=0 Since, YF ig anbitary choosen dE’+0 ©, (Pp#)-Jo(P+B) 0 dFPiP ey (Fs B ae ‘ (T+ a) where WweG w@ © Chasta.cterSticg it gives the elation between the Sratia| derivative of magnetic Field with the ty derivative. of the electric digelacemert ; H wepregents the modified form of Proper, Circuito) lau. Ke iSa time derendant equ? Semiconductor *- HPEMICONDUCTOR *=_ Semiconductor ioe ye Ea Intringic Exncingic 3.C.Grpure) S.C (Pure) Vv P-type N-type SC Sc IobiSic gemiconductor | [The pure Form OF Semiconductor iG vnauin| AG Intingic Semiconductor . In tnbtddSic gericonductort given an coon) temp. e-bob palit are created . wren electric Field ig OPP to tha iningic Semiconductor ,the current Ip Conducta toves place in two places. Noremaliy due +0} 4CLE EG bIICS OG in the Figure om |aq? =qlte Pree SS ane PRODUCES dE to. brea = ee em mgar > gome Covalent band by thermal E, At the Game time. holes are ereated 19 the Co-yaleot bong Fig, Ghows that holes belong we charge movag towartds the -ve terminal of SuPPly . Ag the haes reach to the -ve tering! ‘eB 6 entert to the Gemiconductort Crystal near the terminal and Combined to the wholes at the Game time | the leasly hole eat the sve term- Pal ahich again die towards the -ve termina) . MEY Creeate aneu hole near the +Ve the we terminal which Again drip towards the -ve terminal . Therefore the total curetent due tOS ig the Sum of Curctent due to wole & Curent due to as t= 1,71, ExtrinSic Germ Conductor = The ee forem OF Gemiconductor ig co OS EXNIPSIC Gemconductr . The extrdosic semiconductor bas more current Conduction capacity ;then the Pure Semiconduc- tor IS altered .Go oS the Klom temp is MereaSe it’s Conductivity Mrmorercty . TS iG done by adding Small amount oF Saeeroable impuratleg to Pure a ee KE 1G Called ExtrinGic om imMPUMItY GoricorMuch® i i cm The process of adding to a putze semicon" 'S Called doppi . %e amount of impurely generally ‘fore 10 Story shore Gerriconductor one impurclty iS Added .A q [The purpase oPadding Impurities is a ded pe IncreaSe ehhért bo. of bows on OS deren 19g upon the type OF impurciteS orders — | SXtINGIc Gemiconductor ig of two tYPes N-y Gemionductors &P- tyre Semiconductor N-type Semiconductor :- Wend Gmall amount OF Rentovalant Ieeum, Add tO A PUE Semiconductor ,then itis Coiled N-type Gemiconductor . ThE addition of Pertovalant impustitles Provides large v0. of free os, Example of Pecta-valant impurtities are Arsenic and Potmony . AS, Sb. Such impurities eshich POVIBES N-type ImPuR Hes are called done impurtitles because they donate ree 7 i To explain the soemacton of ductor a pure Ge CRYStal GE HOS 4 valency &, Whe oF Pentavalent impurtitles Ge orystal a large ng. o on crystal . AG a Pertavolant Irspurcitles ie. i has f valeccy & 4 valency & of Ge 4orm a i covalent bond with ag whoce tho JaSt. i i N-tgRe Semicon We Fhoad thar the OO Grog! arnaunt “PS added to a | FC ore availalqt Ny Ba, | yl © 1S colled bole. 1 fe : Valercy €7 , Find no Place Aror PUE and thus 4cee . Fort Cach atorn added one Fitee & ig created . p-tyPe Semiconductor - woer a Sreall arndunt of trevalent. impurcities r jadded 0 Pure Semignductot iG uNoWD OS P-yR GEMCONdUCTOT. The addition oF trivalent impurities provides large na of holes , Czample - trivalent imeurcdties awe Galiuro, Todium . Such ImPuritles cihich’ provides large P-tyrPes WPutitiIeS are called accertor impurities . BecouSe it accepts a ree TO exP3in the +foramation of P-tgPe Semiconductor Congider Ge Crystal -We kno that'Ge’ has Y Valency toa Ge" Crystal of impurities Gallium adds t0 a “Ge Crygtal . A IOKgE no. of eS are ANailobIe jp orystal - Gatiom \6 0 trivalent impuritles jt has 3 valeng & each atoro of Galium made a Covalent bond Only -Germoniurm ator contri buteg | valency e while Gahium has M0 valency eto © Cosiibuts In the otherthand the 4th band ig incomplete due to migsing of free €@ thig migaing of | Therefore of each Ga atom added |ole \Created .| 4 ctitiert 15 0. device abich converts ac (Simosuidal) signal to De Signal (unidirectio Dt 18 of two tyres - QO Hol¥- wave rectifler @run- wave rectifier >| Half wove rection eS & j | al 2 vera P= 50n2 V=a20y D| Tetreoduction = 3) To half-wave rectifertion the rectiti CorductS Curcrent On) of Input Symly O} Tee -ve holt cycle of AC SuPPY are supresse) 1@ In -Ve half-Cucle no current ig conducts therefore Current always fda one direct Herat ig DC. | >| Ciccuit Details UL) Fig, above Stow a dia, wecti fier Here, the Prelim. ere | 4 during 4VE hat “Cys 8M OF a half-anve | Y Bieding coonected to the | AC Signal and the SECond, ORY Winding cormec#) jt the diode (D) & Load Fatigtad os (RY. | Lb HeEre the trans yormere PERMIE -telo och iLe pat ee ed TO REORIOD fhe AC voItoge acreeS the Secondary Wicding pe Champes polarity aftet every hols cle : durtlog ave balf-Cucle of we Gignal terra). A become +VE ainile B become -Ve -THIG MaKES the diode Yorward bins and hence curmert Conduction tOves place in the circuit . Durang -ve barf , cycle of 1Ve terminal ‘A’ becomes Ne, while *e’ becomes +VE. ThiIG mares the dicde CevEercSe biagiog - Hence PO current flows tratough the ciccuit . Nerce De output iS ovtaly across the Load & the curput iS pulsating DC (Ac +DC) . [Digadva ntoges :- An auteut we ches not 1D lous . Efficiency oF half-wave rectivien + Weg the ratio of outPut DC Power to thot of ioPUuk AC Powell . N= OIP Bc Power Yr AC Power TC Power The output current Ig Pulgating De. There fore 'D onder to Find out De Power ,Average Qurment First to be find out . §et pure Bc efficioncy He Rowen the an | tdo T=T, Sing a on | ’ ot (E Ss leIMSineg erent Qn {Imsinedo aa \co aloe) suas Re C08 rt+c08 0) = 2 Por) 2 i > Team m P=VE | Fee IR (Foe) R= ey R, aoe = 72 \ > Sez Ink QR 22R TO i Torut AC rower + +a t Y 1 Trams = ax | i8de saz lirRsiste de oO = ef F )\-cos9e) 4, aT SC a 232 Va IF Coa 3 | a \d6- Zo (cos a6.d6 i a al 2 Ee? o7t - BwPy9inae 7% at ° un a 6 2 se = on ae 22 Gin ax- Sino) It ua ea) >| Troms = FP 2 (RGR Forward diade resist Fac = Frome *(Pet ) Ree Internal reaigtan! (Fac= Hows (Re rR) BR. =Woad resistance {i i) | iwl\5 efficiency - Tnput AC POWER a fe Foran ideal diode P a — 4R ac 32 (er) Te <4 RQ Q 3 Bt yy - URL RL sae (Perk) CEE ni) Penne Ne E PUTT es = 0.406 = Ut = Uo. y, Rieele factor :- The output Curent ig Pulgatiog De & that means Vt contalng Ac ang De component - The AC Compont ig Called ripple _ \) = Tac (outPut) = oSeta he FNL a Tremg = Te a a Sqwarcing and adding we have, Ener | Tens - The SHE = Neg" Te ae Ine a 3 2 \Trmg- The Sas TEE I To, amt BP va rite. 58 Dumeratort and denominator De i a | Toc Q | a (DvP. Ties Tbe _ Teme _, a & Toe FT es1y| Circuit Details :- yea Fall clave breidge ractifier 4 dicds ny Torut =50Hz2 OutPut = FOZ For Fu wectiFier lorut = 5O Hz Output = }oo Hz S| Form Factor joes Tees, 116 defined ag the ratio of mms value of ac | Component pregent in the outrut to the Overtage value of Dc component preesent in te tru . @ Fall qwave rectifierc j (Ercidge - type mecti FIER)' | _ ies | ¢ 19,09 D3 D, ace arranged in ad ares ] o bite eraimascy aieding ae eo ie H connected to the Ac gignal & Secondary cinsing of the teanssformer iG Conmected to the terminal A&C, YThe load reSiGtance R_ iS Connected across B&D. during one-hal? cycle >, &Dz forward bios Dg & Dy Conduct during ‘the Gecond half Cycle | ’ Dusting Firest hare Cycle of Ac- sigral , S lg, ove higher Potential thot Sa thig maxes the diode D &.Dg - Forvared bios while Dg B&D, reverse bias | YIS0 curerent I, Plows ip the direction of ADXY, BC, 59,5,,A - : ahile 1,=0 4) Dusting -ve har? CYCIe G, one IS Ve B S16 ve OG maKes the diode Da R&Dy Forward blag awhile D,&D3 reverse biase | vy 9190 curetent FI0WS in the direction ,6,0,x,7,8,5, S, 19a ,C while I,=0 ‘i 1 an Tee" a5 fide Oo a "aq \Im gine.do oO ar - im . | A | 9inede oO an = a) sy e 2 ae ae oo Ble S\o4 : “ [ Feccos oy r{ $Gcro9) Fe Bx COM 400g 6) + (005 ax-+005 x) , art) + (ir) oho | oF TR : ar ee 7 | ~ te (f-cogae Ee i | e ae RQ ‘ +m COS AE. i ant 3 de , ' a cd ex tp. IIN2Q6 | Jeo I,- 33 [220 eee] ed Texto es “Gof 4 |_ Ti? ee yo fax Hoang tt, eg | a? mn o> lh am Lh fa- cosad)e | +B ae Geek, 6]we = Ty dei = Im? a 4 a ‘fimo? 2] B = aK: ee (er) foal —— -9P Powert reo" xR, = oF VO Power, . TP AC ret Tre 2 arn) An: 5, sR : % QR = C= 0.218 TRL (2.48) “ANY =81.2 7 Ripple factor '- \) = dec Toc We KO, Thee es Te oe 2 72 2 2 Tac = Tame I Dc iD at2)| Form Factort:- Fo dere Te te ie™ -,) ays Big Otay |. A | Trangfor of Charge carrelerc “foro loa) eS a to high resisters ig urown aS transicie, NPN Trangigterc 7- EN When a. P- tyre gemiconductort Collect 'S Gandawich by tuo N-type Semiconductor then jit iS 3 ‘ OSE i kmoain ag NEN transistor . ThE Circuit Syrbol of Emittor NPN srangigtort iS - >| Working of NPN transigtert \ S ee LSI Ww ansisrert wits Forcwascd i bi0S to the ermmiter & baGe Junction Sereover| i 6IdS to the base & Collector Junction | | Ly) Te Foreword bios causes the Collection ig the | N-type emitter to Flog) PMwoaras the base. | | f IThig constitute the emitter Current Tp f blag tis e° Pleas through a6 P-tYRE base, [they combine 40 the holes OS the bage is | ; I Higrtly dorpred & very thin. Therce force St? larmount of @ ie less 2 i poe holeS +0 Constitute theise aero) Oss OVER HS Conectat REGION tO ConSEIEALe Collector Curerent TL. . So BY ¢| PNP Transistert :- Wren 0. N-tY Pe Gemiconductort 1S Gandasich by tao P- teYyPe SEMICondUctort 1G Kean ag PNP- trcaraister . a Collector Bage/ Q 1 Erni [he checult: Gyrobol of ENE transigten | Emitter \G—> ; YE haS 3 terminals. Ocollectore | @ erage Qemirrer >| Emitter: The reall of er lter ing trangigterc Corge costlier towards coy lector Creovily dopped & aide) Collectort:- IS tO exit the throug base CN The roll oF Collectort 1g +0 Collect the ch that ae emitted Cw [Te Kegon controls the Charge corstlert lou eer emitter to collector - (89 ond lightly dopred) _ 2| Working of PNP tran : SISLerc' - os falas eS Te =o lo—> |4—- mAesy hei Hh " b Y: | a 1 cults Abrewartd b Fig. Groain the PNP Heeb ees — iblas to tee emlitert & basiby b TRAVERS bag to the boge B COleStor junc ; The “foreword bioS@ CouSEed Wl Holes I the P-type emitter to flow towards the bag. Thés constitute the emitter comment Te AG thig boles flows through the N-tyRe they Cornbine tO tre e& ag the base is lightly dopped & very Bolo Therefore ora) amourt of holeg fat ig ess thar 5/ Combine with tee eg to congtitute the bag Current Ig. The FEMAINING AB 7: CreoaS oveT Ee collector FEQOM tO constitute collectort Curent Ts. So, =Tgri, Trangigter Connection :- |We Con Connect the transister 16 > ways. @Q) Common base connection © common Emitter Comméction © coramon Collector commection Fig, ShoolS the common bage NPN & PNP Arcangigtert 4 To this clecuit OO SEM Ent ipa yt ig applied between emitter g baoge & outPut 1G. tOKED OM Coliocinit B base. (current gain Yor op commection)Ee Ww eee wee ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM AmpPliFication Pactort -(o) (Collectore emitters ; Current Sextlo) It 15 reatlo oF Change 9 CONBEBI Cyercecrt to that of Change ID emitter CURRent oF Constant base and Constant voltage Mee - Ve [qr Alc 2 Cone a aIe? Veg *CONStant 18 clear that ampli fication l€GS than oolty (1) practical betaleen Frorn 0.9 tO 0.qq, Expression “ore collector cusecent :- IG clear that iG 1_=0 that 1S emitter Cheecutt '9 OFED then a Srngi) armount of Cureect Jogo Flows though the collector circuit THE Togs ig Coiled 0S leakage aummtent . othe colle Coretent he. Towle + Seon) Te= tig ———q) From equ? © 2@Q DT2= X(T +19) the, ee ots eg T Tego DT-TLa *AIg+tTogo D1,(\-) = Ig tog, FOCKOT OIG alta, IS value of & Ileg Ctom TD COmMOF baSe Conmection emitter corment 1G ImA.1F the emitter Circuit ig open the Collectore Current ig 5OUA. . ChastoctertStics of CB connection — There arte 2 types of Choroctetstias : 7 aePut @neut characterstics Coe matics02g b Fopur Charcactetaucs lt iG the cureve betaleed Emitter Curtiteot Vo Emirterc is a0 BaGe voltage at constant t a Collector baGe voltage et mio: Eritter curment ig toven Moe) ACKOSS Y-ax%G and bage 1 a0 20 u? Emttere vortage aces %-oUIS . (ry * Te emitter curtent \creagces TaPid\y with lereaGe In Base emitter Voltage . IoPut resistance :- Lit iS the ratio betaleen change im base emitter voitage to that Of emittere Current at Constant CoNector base voltage . ee Aver | i OTe | coogtart =Vec Output Charactentstics It 19 the curve between - Collector Curttent vg 28 BaSE Collector voltage & ot ConStant emitter £15 cortent . 4 Po CONNECTOR Current ig taven a OL OSS k- 025 & Base collector 10 a0 30.) 5 wellege 19 taken across Y- azig (ow The collectom Currteny \OCTLOSE 19 BoGe Col outPut ESiGtange 1t 1G the rotlo between cl, Collector Voltage to that Jat CrGtarrt emitter creaseg rapidly ath lector voltage | ANGE im Base 4 oF Collector cur” CUTERow Fig Shou the cirecuit diogycare “fore Comteor eroiLtert CoMPEC tion . Here input Ggnal 1S apeied between baGe eroittert while outeut Signa! Obtalo betalees collectort and emltrerc . Amplification factor (g): (Cuscert gale for ce Ce (Collector base currest onnectior) ratio) 115 the ratio OF Change in collector Curent to that of Change in Base current ak Constant emitter collector voitoge . B=Ake |. Aig \ NE = Cont EXPRESSION Fort Collector Qurevent - In common erorcter Circult Ig 1S the input Curecert & Tif the outeut current . We “nod that, te * Trlg ——@ Te - ole t Togo D> T= a(t 2 oe VT) tego 7 atrTe i DT -AT=aTtL. 27, 0-a)= AIgtTog, ceoou ee oO SI b 7 pe that IF IL= Fitom the execessior 3) a Ball BOROUQH he & Grail amount OF curetert : Pipe Aven Ate ou (Pease dP. 1S0*) Avec -Alg i i “Curent gale: . Dies As 2le 7 B Vottoge Galo - Alc -Ro ' 1 : Bx Al, R, (Resistance goin) Choxco.CtenStics of ce-conmection ze Torut Charactersticg The custve between bage Curezent VS emitter bage voltage at COnStant Vee - BaSe curcent ig NY axiG & Emitter iG taven acrogs X- ari BOSE CURErt } token ACKOsSs Vo! ltage ons05 Z Ee @joutr: Output Charracterstics Hei the curve between Tce collector Curreot VS emittert Gens) Soh collector yortoge . = Collector cumcment IS taven ACIWOSS Y-aAG & emitter O Collector vortoge taKen across ie % axis 7 a The colectot Curetent Iereasing Tardy with \nereage 19 Ernittert Collector voltage . OutPut wesistance 1 iS the ratlo of change } 9 emitter base voltage +O that of poe in P collector Current _ BiTunction tranGisterl IS Kaw ag Current Como) device because outPut curtent depends uPom ectinput Current. Relation betwesn a & Bi. We unoa) that « =Ale OTe @ - At P-S—o Again pm Put equ? @in equ9@ we get de O1¢-A1. Divide Dg 07 both muerte & Dimension B= Gpee 3 ape Ale “Big. a“ots Me u OI fe fax g= STo+ AT) Al; AT AL, Divide ATs 00 numerator & Denominator: OTe ATs >| Relation betaleen yw aT Tasee. Ate oy wee. og alg = OTe Abs \iater am ope- AT; 41, S| SFET (Burction Field effect transigter) A IFET ig a thee terminal uniclar gemicondu- ctor device. Unleoat means there is Org one tyre of Charge cartier ie. citer © 9 or holes. The Circuit Symbol for: JRET iS D D : “€) S$ S (Chane) (P-channe}) Congtruction *~ ce WLoF bd @ © ¢O ig. Obove Ghows the circuit diogtam OF SFET. It Congigt of P tyre or N- tyre Sillcon bar Connecting talo PN-Junctior oS Ghose 9 the Aig : The bast Forms the conducting Channel fort the chasege COsttir>t . ‘ 1? the base 1S N- tyPe - It iS Called N-Chane} JFET If the base ig P- tyre, it IS Called P-chanel FET. It hag SB tetmirals . GOurCe :- The terminal though albich majority charge ciel Enters , the bart iS Called gourtce. The terminal thrtoug alhich malority Chatge Caratiet leaves the bart |S Called drain . Gate :- TEig the terminal through abich we can contol the Flow oF Charge cartier . For cormmal operation of JFET, the gate is TevertGe biaded and the dale ig wept +ve Poteotial wrt. Gourtce _ When no voita.ge iS applied betuleen gate & Source |e. Veg 70 & drain & gource LE Vag 2O ThED 00 Current * Flows through the cimcult . GO, Ip=0noe b b oa COGE-2 (ahEN Vggi0 & Ving eonposed From'g> adhen Veg=0 & Vog increased From © There 19 a. voltage asbich OPPEORS in the Channel .THIG Gg Vortage MAKES MeVERGe bias the PN- Junction. Hence the deflector Region cil] Wate jon pene POE 82EP Isto the Chanre] PEOsT the ie become Wedge Shared aS Ghoun in be Figure. Ft a parcticular voltage (Vos) in which Ty 1S const. CANled aS pinch- oF¢ Voltage (Veo) , there IS a MIOIMUM width wmalotainey between two dePlectis Weg) 4-2. drain to SouKce Current 2 CoSe-3 (when Vag decrease fom CO _&Vyg= 01 When Veg decreases Form gz NO vortage 16 applied between dizain +o Source voltage | 30 the deplation EgIon wi)} Peve rate into the Channe) . At a Parcticular voltage Called gat€ to Source Voltage the two deplation layer! cil Ouch €a.ch Or. Hence 00 dain current Floag Cirecult ie, Ip =0 CaSE-4 (when Vo IS imerteaSes) Under. tS COnditlon the IFET operates In wormal mode. Go drain current fous ig by ¥ given ky iy thrtough the a) decreased fro 6 & v9oF Kran VE CharactetGucs of IFET = VE oo eee tp Ploch of ¥/ > in mA) Saturation « 8 e (Active Region ) ; © Vas a Gn v) HEIS the curve betuicen dreain tO Gourcce Voltage VS drain current Ip . | Ormic region In hg egion ;the drain curmert Increases With \ncrtease in drain to source voltoge - This ig Shown bY oF In the Characterstic Curve . Region AB‘ : Th this region, the drain curaect also Increases > oy obeying Onn’ S os 7 Pllowieg The drtain curatent locreaGes Being inverse Squasce lod Satuscation region Ploch of F region :- In this region , the draln curect Tp is almast independant Of drealo to Gource voltage . Breakdown region ‘cD: when voltage 19 Increased beyond Veo LPinch off Voltage) then breaKdew? Cccurtes & drain Curent increeoGes excessively Thig ls show? by curved CD. Ixecaln resigtance ( Pp):- Icy = Aves ay Aly | Congtant” OS ned og the ratio of en ne Drain megistonce iS de¥i vortage te that oF Charge in doin to gourtceChange jo araln curettent at constant gate 45 Sousece VOILO.ge - TRANS Comdu.ctonce (Gw)2- ee BNg5 | Vas =con TRaNSconductance 15 dexined as the ratlo o¢ Change in aredin current tO that of change in Gate tO gource voltage at constant drain in Source Vvoitage . AmPliefication factor '- - AVss ae Des \ eae Amplizication factor 19 defined ag the ratio of change \o drain to Source voltage to that of Change in Gete tO Gourrce voltage ot constant drealn Current . Relation between UL Ry & Geni a I ty, diz Abn ie - Bag | 9: 22>. Nos OID ” DWVag - AVds AT. TyAQ_ = D w a* Q, Bip AS = AVps _ as Moo - Dl aXQ = | Fie effect tronsigter - (FET) Field effect transigten io a B-tareiGal ERANISTEIT AEVICE eshich outRad Butent i comm lied by input Vorta.ge | Fet iG of Q tyres | QSIFET Gunction Field effect tzansigten) @rosret (Metal OnE Semiconductor field Effect trans igre)4 Q b JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANGIGTER t- a TE IG a 8 terminal voltage Comical SC device ir abkich Cutitent Conductioe toKes Plage due to only one tyre of charcge COMUciErce JFET ae Q tyres . QN- chanel FET @ P- chanel FET oe (9-chanel Fet) (P-chonel_ FET) Congpruction :- ATFET Consigt OF either a D-tyPe of a P-type bast Commecting @PN- Junctions at the two GIES , the ase formng the Conducting channe| . VP the bar ig 0- type then iris O-Channel FET. VF the bait iS P-type shen itis P-Channel FET. FETHOS Z terminars 4 Qseurce M Drain ®) Gate The two terminal gource & arain are derived feorn tao ends of Conducting Channe) The two PN- Junction ar the tao GideG aste Commected Istertmally to *forer the gate terminal . | Sgrnbol ea D G g ) G ne . (P-channe)) Bitol INeChomOe) in wet te Na ee@@ © Ou Fdvontoges of JFET-- Je ORCS OF IFET *- It hag very high \nrut wesiStance of the Ode of lWoma . JIFET hag -ve temp Coefficient of resistance Hence it ovoidg the SK OF thermal Teneo IE Yas very bigh eoaiert ip MEAS Galler SIZE , longer ite & bighert eFfice ney - BIT IFeT Ore ig O Current contra 3 ig o Voltage conto device \€. cutput device . Cuserent |S Controlled al lO Pak Cuerent. CORTE Conduction Meureremt conduction 5 TAKES PIACE due to both a [Sue to only one oF He &9 & hoes. Charege copetions (i) Jorut a eee is baad eee iropedance is hy! Oroise level is PEP: KW) Noise leve) ig low, Min EN POOES tea lebas po PN -Junericn MY) Power gain is high