LESSON 9

The Intercontinental Drift: Culture, Media and Globalization

Globalization creates an avenue where the fraternization of cultures become possible despite the
evident constraints due to geographical segregation. Martin Khor, the former President of the
Third World Networks in Malaysia, considers globalization as a form of colonization.
The fast paced import and export of products and services and of course the
prevalence of social media are some of the many obvious manifestations of this diffusion
of cultures. Everywhere you turn, people are always plugged in to the World Wide Web. A wide
array of information is made available at the palm of our hands. With a simple tap of the finger,
the world opens up offering infinite possibilities. Globalization allows this penetration of one
culture into another culture and unknowingly, cultural exchange becomes a by-product of these
progressions.
The Role of Social Media
Writers and academics alike consider the past, our history, as a proof that social interaction is
vital to the survival of mankind. Looking back to where we started from simple tribes into cities
to what we now recognize as nation-states. In each of these developmental phase, people
establish social infrastructures manifested through community, government, and mass media to
mention a few. These institutions enable us to accomplish tasks we couldn‟t do for ourselves,
under normal circumstances, such as protection from foreign invaders and promote peace amidst
all the chaos happening all around.
At the onset of globalization, globalists prophesized a
world with permeable borders, and connections
unhindered by physical difficulties. Coupled with
technological innovations like satellites, the internet,
computers, and mobile cellular phones, the
intercontinental exchange of ideas,
philosophies and advocacies have been
intensified a hundred folds. The predicted explosion of rapid interconnectedness of peoples
around the world is now a booming reality.
Function
The understanding of the relation between media and globalization should not be restricted to the differences of
internet speed among countries; it could as well be which country is the leading giant in technology production; or to
the number of views a worldwide movie premiere has. Being active users of media, it is also our duty to look into the
effects of this consumerist attitude to our cultural identity, ideology, and value systems. Aside from the evident
„uneven‟ process of media globalization occurring worldwide, which implies that its effects and consequences are not
identically experienced, globalists recognize a certain “power geometry” at work. Accordingly, it talks about the idea
that some groups are more in-command than others in terms of the proliferation of ideas and to an extent specific
interests - a dictator.

More than Cultural Imperialism: Contra-Flows and Hybridization

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire, to some historians, support the birth of the idea of
cultural imperialism but it did not appear on scholarly articles up until the 1990s. Cultural
imperialism as defined by anthropologist and sociologist, as “the imposition by one usually
politically or economically dominant community of various aspects of its own culture onto
another, non-dominant community.” With the assistance from the different forms of mass
media, it created a steady influx of ideas which are usually western in nature, as argued by many
reviews of globalization. It is through media and advertising that people from all walks of life in
the Philippines came to know products such as iPhones, Nike, Starbucks, Samsung and other
foreign merchandises.
The global sphere is continuously being bombarded and affected with media messages carrying
western ideology to a point that, some would believe, intimidates the rest of the world‟s native
thoughts and philosophies. Being rational creatures faced with the real threat of losing a
nation‟s identity due to cultural imperialism, several coping mechanism come into play. One of
these movements is dedicated toward opposing the blind acceptance of foreign cultures is
called contra-flows and to better understand this concept, Just recently, a South Korean all-
girls group known to many as Blackpink has taken the global music industry by storm.
Suddenly, the South Korean Popular Culture such as their music, hairstyle, fashion, food etc.,
emerged and it found itself making a scene in the global arena. The usual trend is to patronize
western media, but with rising acts coming from the east, it shows the capability of nations to
challenge the dominant mainstream media.
 Another alternative to cultural imperialism is known as cultural hybridity or
hybridization, this perspective highlights the interface of globalization and localization
as traditions and other cultural forms diffuse with the mainstream. This entails changing
some of the aspects of mainstream culture to match the needs of locality.
According to research, the following are the key features of hybridization:
A. Mixing previously separate cultural systems, such as mixing elite art of
opera with popular music;
B. Deterritorialization of cultural processes from their original physical
environment to new foreign contexts and;
C. Impure cultural genres that are formed out of the mixture of several
cultural domains.
But up to this point, the question that continues to baffle scholars is the extent of the role
of media in propagation of transnational cultures. Provided that cultures have already
come in contact through histories of trading, warfare, and bondage, aren‟t cultures hybrid
prior to the explosion of technology? Did media just amplify the already existing process
of cultural diffusion?

LESSON 10
Globalization of Religion
Religion, much more than culture, has the most difficult relationship with globalism. Fist,
the two are entirely contrasting belief systems. Religion is concerned with the sacred,
while globalism places value on material wealth. Religion follows divine
commandments, while globalism abides by human-made laws. Religion assumes that
there is “the possibility of communication between humans and the transcendent.” This
link between the human and divine confers some social power on the latter. Furthermore,
“God,” “Allah,” or “Yahweh” defines and judges human action in moral terms (good vs.
bad). Globalism‟s yardstick, however, is how much human action can lead to the highest
material satisfaction and subsequent wisdom that this new status produces.
Religion and globalism clash over the fact that religious evangelization is in itself a form
of globalization. The globalist ideal, on the other hand, is largely focused on the realm of
markets. The religious is concerned with spreading holy ideas globally, while the
globalist wishes to spread goods and services.

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Religion For and Against Globalization
There is hardly a religious movement today that does not use religion to oppose
”profane” globalization. Yet, two of the so called “old world religions” – Christianity and
Islam –see globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand their
reach all over the world. Globalization has “freed” communities from the “constraints of
the nation-state,‟ but in the process, also threatened to destroy the cultural system that
bind them together. Religion seeks to take the place of these broken “traditional ties” to
either help communities cope with their new situation or organize them to oppose this
major transformation of their lives. It can provide the groups “moral codes” that answer
problems ranging people‟s health to social conflict to even “personal happiness.”
Religion is thus not the “regressive force” that gives communities a new and powerful
basis of identity. It is an instrument with which religious people can put their mark in the
reshaping of this globalizing world, although in its own terms.
Religious fundamentalism may dislike globalization‟s materialism, but it continues to
use “the full range of modern means of communication and organization” that is
associated with this economic transformation. It has tapped “fast long-distance transport
and communications, the availability of English as a global vernacular of unparalleled
power, the know-how of modern management and marketing” which enabled the spread
of “almost promiscuous propagation of religious forms across the globe in all sorts of
directions.” It is, therefore, not entirely correct to assume that the proliferation of “Born-
Again” groups, or in the case of Islam, the rise of movements like Daesh (more popularly
known as ISIS, or Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) signals religion‟s defense against the
materialism of globalization. It is, in fact, the opposite. These fundamentalist
organizations are the result of the spread of globalization and both find ways to benefit or
take the advantage of each other.
While religions may benefit from the process of globalization, this does not mean that its
tensions with globalist ideology will subside. Some Muslims view “globalization” as a
Trojan horse hiding supporters of Western values like secularism, liberalism, or even
communism ready to spread these ideas in their areas to eventually displace Islam. The
World Council of Churches –an association of different Protestant congregations –has
criticized economic globalization‟s negative effects. It vowed that “we as churches make
ourselves accountable to the victims of the project of economic globalization,” by
becoming the latter‟s advocates inside and outside “the centers of power.”

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 The Catholic Church and its dynamic leader, Pope Francis,
likewise condemned globalization‟s “throw-away culture” that is “fatally destined to
suffocate hope and increase risks and threats.” The Lutheran World Federation 10th
Assembly‟s 292-page declaration message included economic and feminist critiques of
globalization, sharing the voices of members of the Church who were affected by the
globalization, and contemplation on the different “pastoral and ethical reflections” that
members could use to guide their opposition. It warns that as a result of globalization:
“Our world is split asunder by forces we often do not understand, but that result in stark
contrasts between those who benefit and those who are harmed, especially under forces
of globalization. Today, there is also desperate need for healing from
„terrorism,‟ it‟s causes, and fearful reactions to it. Relationships in this world
continue to be ruptured due to the greed, injustices, and various forms of violence.”

Globalization Engendering Greater Religious Tolerance

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but
distinctive ethics and interests” interact with one another. Essentially, the world‟s leading
religious traditions –Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam – teach values
such as human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity. More specially, religions
maintain the Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.”
Through such religious values, globalization engenders greater religious tolerance in such
areas as politics, economics, and society.

In political areas, globalization has built global political forums that integrate cultural,
ethnic, and religious differences –ideologies that were once perceived as dividing the world –
through a large number of international organizations such as United Nations (UN) and the
World Health Organization (WHO), as well regional organizations like the European Union
(EU), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African Union (AU).
When discussing issues such as international peace and security, health issues,
poverty, and environment, these organizations generally share many of the same basic
commitments as religious traditions –mainly peace, human dignity, and human equality,
as well as conflict resolution in which they actively engage in negotiation, mediation, and
diplomacy.

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 In terms of economics, as the economy of the major countries of the world has
grown, the main religious of each of those countries have also grown financially,
providing more financial resources for religions to spread their beliefs. For example,
although it may seem as an old tactic, missionary work –especially in light of
globalization –is strong in many Third World countries where religious representatives
convert natives.
As the result, the major religions today have scattered across the globe –
Christianity turning “southern” and “black,” Islam turning “Asian,” and Buddhism
turning “white” and “western.” Still holding on to their original territorial spaces where
their shrines exist, religions are fulfilling their general purpose of spreading their beliefs
to people all over the world.
Religion has tremendously benefited from technological advancements. For example,
websites provide information and explanations about different religions to any person
regardless of his or her opportunity to contact others worldwide and hold debates
which allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, television allows for religious
channels that provide visual religious teachings and practices. Hence, by making the leap
onto the information superhighway, which brings religious teachings into every home
and monitor in a global setting, religions have come together into one setting.
What is Religion Nowadays?
 It is no longer a set of beliefs that people arrive by reflection.
 It is symbolic system which carries our identity and marks out social/ethnic and
other boundaries.
 It marks crucial moments in the life cycle with rituals.
 It provides powerful mechanism for psychological and social tension.

Looking around the world today, it is clear that religion plays a role in many of the
major conflicts going on at various levels. It is clear that religion plays an important role
in people‟s lives worldwide, and has become one of the major ways people connect with
each other across the globe. However, the role of religion in contemporary societies is
still not sufficiently understood in academic research and in the work of policy-makers,
NGO‟s and journalists.
geographical location, as well as provide the

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 LESSON 11
The Global City
Prior to the existing competition among major cities of the world to reign supreme and
be branded as the most powerful, the study of global cities has its humble beginnings. It
arose in the 1980s when researchers concerned themselves with identifying common
attributes found among cities considered as front liners in development. Compared to the
rural areas of nation-states, cities are seen as the avenues where global networks and
transactions transpire. It is where financial cash flows of massive scales take place
attracting companies and multinational corporations to invest in infrastructures and other
business endeavors which in turn generate employment opportunities for their citizens.
Other individuals become attracted as well to migrate into these global cities because it
comes with a promise of a better life than that of which they already have.
Global City refers to an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive advantages and
that serves as a hub within a globalized economic system. The term was first used by a
sociologist named Saskia Sassen in 1884, she primarily used economics as the main
criteria for determining which of the cities all over the world is to be labeled as such. In
her research in the said period, she was able to identify three cities considered as centers
of capitalism and global financial transactions: London, Tokyo and New York. In support
to this selection, Manuel Castells stated that:

“...London because it is the world’s leading financial market as far as transactions are concerned and
also constitutes a crucial airport node and is one of the ends of the economic backbone that crosses
Europe; New York for being the main receiver of capital flows and service exporter; and Tokyo for being
the greatest capital lender and the headquarters of the most important banks in the world, as well as an
international center in the economy of services, education, advertising, and design.”

However, several changes have occurred since the time the term was coined. Such
changes includes the development of improved transportation, telecommunications,
production, science, warfare, the internet, other technological innovations, migration,
cultural exchanges - all of which were not included as criterion in determining global
cities. The fact is the world today is characterized mainly of unrelenting progress in
numerous aspects of human life. This basically makes it difficult to have just one
definition of what a global city is. So in going about this endeavour of determining which
city or cities belong to the cluster of global cities let us examine some of its indicators.

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Sassen is not mistaken for considering economics as a major determining factor of a global city
as this primarily becomes the most appealing feature that attracts people from all alks of life to
move in.
The then list of characteristics and attributes that made a city a forerunner in the global scene has
transformed and within it included other criterion such as the occurrence if an international
population based. Global cities now become melting pots of international culture and cuisine. In
the image below, a Mongolian BBQ shop is cozily located in the heart of Dublin. This and other
similar establishments offering products are a familiar scene for a vast majority. As explained in
previous chapters, this is made possible because of globalization.
Global cities are also has the greatest number of business infrastructures housing international
organizations, and business alike. They undoubtedly become seats of power where political,
economic, cultural and religious engagements are overseen. To make this characteristic clearer,
let us consider the United Nations, a powerful organization capable of providing international
humanitarian aids to countries in need. Its headquarters is strategically located in New York. As
with London who has advantageously positioned itself as a global banking and financial center,
they are also centers of innovation and higher learning. Global cities boasts having the world‟s
top universities like Boston‟s Harvard University and Cambridge University in England. These
and several other features make up the characteristics of what a global city must have.

Challenges to Global Cities

By this time, you might have an idea of what a global city is and so we move to the next
challenge of carefully examining the challenges that comes with the rise of global cities.
The first of these challenges is the significant rise in the city population as people flock towards
cities trying their luck to improve their financial status. However, not all who migrates to cities
are rewarded, for many end up contributing to the slum populace. Globalization creates a rush of
high paying jobs within global cities creating a chain reaction demanding low income
employment to attend to their growing needs. These low income jobs comprise of domestic
helpers, maids, cooks, food attendants. Thus implying that flocking to global cities does
necessarily mean a good life for everyone.
With the significant rise in the population, several other issues spring out which leads us to the
next challenge which is food and water shortage. Researches reveals that 2.5 billion individuals
have no access to clean water and sanitation. Many people still go hungry as food is unevenly
distributed all over the world bringing into question global food security.
Lastly, the problem about climate change and rising temperatures. Cities are considered as the
greatest contributor of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change affects more people than
others for some are more equipped to handle the effects more people than others for some are
more equipped to handle the effects of climate change.

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 LESSON 11
Global Demography

History of man is speckled with stories of people migrating from one place to the next either in
search for food, escape raiders, conquest or for pleasure. Possibly in this
point in your life, some of you may have plans of pursuing a career abroad attracted by the sights
and sounds of the city life. Perhaps, you may have lured by friends and families who have
successfully rooted themselves in a foreign land. Such is the nature of man -- to be mobile.
Demography is the study of population based on elements like age, race and sex. With the
migration and unrestrained increase in the population, the natural order of things gets upset, and
changes have to be made in order to offset these imbalances. For example, if people flock to the
cities, more food, basic commodities and employment are required to accommodate these
migrants, if the growing population is kept underfed, undernourished afflicted with sickness, the
future manpower of the society may not be as effective. Lawmakers and policy makers alike
consider the demography of their nation when drafting bills, acts and ordinances to be executed
for the maximum benefit of the people.

Countries all over the world experience the entry of foreigners at an unprecedented rate. Surveys
show that more than 160 million individuals live out of their country of origin. Factors
accounting for this transition can range from simple employment opportunities to flight from
human rights abuses and political repression. Motivations for migration have been categorized
into either the Push Factor or Pull Factor.

Push Factor
Survival for themselves, or for their family, is one of the most obvious motives which explain
migration. Escape either from man-made disasters, civil war and decline of economic
opportunities threatening them of starvation can be prime motivators. They leave their land in
order to secure safety for themselves because their communities can no longer sustain life for its
people.
To put it simply, push factors refers to causes that drive droves of people to abandon their
residences.
Pull Factor
In highly industrialized countries, fertility levels still continue to decline posing a possible
collapse in the population in the times to come. European countries suffer an aging population
meaning fewer people are able to work given the circumstances. Immigration, or the movement
of people in the country, may help ease the labo

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deficiency but not enough to solve this persistent problem. Nonetheless, it serves as a gateway for
employment seekers to benefit from it.
In the contrary, continents like Africa and parts of Asia with high fertility rates create emerging
communities unable to cope with the demands of the population like employment, health,
services, and education. People opt to leave these densely populated areas and take their chances
elsewhere.
Global Demographic Issues
The following are listed as the leading global demographic issues facing the world today. They
become problems because they are the outright consequence of globalization and uncontrolled
economic growth and decline.
A. Uneven Population Growth Worldwide
Because of the lack of population growth control mechanisms, education and freedom to
decide for themselves, some developing countries‟ population like Niger and Tanzania tend to
grow at an alarming rate. Africa has one of the highest incidents of birth rates with an average of
6.49 children per mother. It has been projected that Africa‟s overall population would have
exceeded Europe‟s in 2050.
Many of developing countries in Asia rely on agriculture, as the major driving force of
the economy thus having more number of children is necessary to maintain farm operation. On
the contrary, residents of high income and developed countries tend to limit their progenies to
one or two. Aside from the abundant supply and selection of birth control methods, parents in this
part of the world tend to focus their attention to saving enough money for future needs such as
medical expenses, insurances, matriculation and retirement funds to mention a few. Meaning
having more than two children can become too expensive.
To put it simply, there is a converse relationship between the economic level of a
country and its population. In poor countries, birth rates lean towards being high whilst in rich
countries, birth rates tend to decline. Though some policy makers put forward solutions like one
child policy, legalization of abortion and other sterilization process to restrain population,
differences in belief and cultural practices make it impossible to come up with a single answer.

B. Demographic Pressures on the Environment

Demographers and researchers alike agree in saying that the existing and still growing
number of people in the world surpasses the maximum number of inhabitants that the planet can
actually sustain. Naturally, people need resources in order to survive. Resources that only nature
and the environment could provide. Man, millenniums ago, discovered agriculture which enabled
him to exploit the land towards his own benefit. Being able to produce food for himself
eventually resulted to the increase in population. Nowadays, technology even furthered such
developments in agriculture including livestock raising, creating a variety of produce, increasing
the yield and producing food for consumption. However, nature has its limits and over exploiting
it can have a catastrophic consequences. With the substantial use of fertilizers and other
detrimental chemicals with the goal of increasing food production, land and water resources
becomes polluted giving rise to a great number of global concerns. Nature is unable to heal10
herself because of the relentless desire of man to satisfy his needs and wants.

C. Slum Urbanization
Whilst globalization stirs the flow of financial capital generating income and wealth, not
all individuals are given a fair share in these riches. Wealth tends to accumulate on the upper
strata of the social hierarchy benefiting a specific social class of the society making upward
mobility impossible and widening the gap of social inequality. So what happens when people
move into cities and they don‟t find jobs to support themselves, they become an addition to the
people living in slum areas. These shantytown are a common sight in areas like Manila, and
places in India.

D. Spread of Diseases
Generation and spread of diseases and other terminal illnesses, like HIV/AIDS, also
hasten keeping pace with globalization. However, international aids and programs have been
organized in order to extend help and contain the further creation and circulation of an epidemic.

LESSON 12
Global Migration
ABSTRACTION
Migration
Migration means crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain
minimum period (Boyle et al. 1998, chapter 2). It is classified as either internal
migration which refers to a move from one area (a province, district or municipality) to
another within one country or International migration which means crossing the frontiers
which separate one of the world‟s approximately 200 states from another. Many scholars
argue that internal and international migrations are part of the same process, and should
be analyzed together (Skeldon 1997, 9-10). Migration is thus both a result and cause of
development. Development leads to migration, because economic and educational
improvements make people capable of seeking better opportunities elsewhere. It simply
means that people from different walks of life, either for purposes of business
opportunities, family affairs or even unwanted reasons, are experiencing migration as
agents of cultural or political change. As history will tell us, migration has already been a
practice ever since the world began.

One of the reasons of migration is disparity in levels of income, employment and social
well-being between differing areas. With a family to feed or responsibility to earn, the
individual is keen to exert the effort to look for better jobs with better pay. Thus in his
search for the greener pasture, he becomes motivated to relocated himself whatever it
might cause him.
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 In his search, he will find himself in a certain neighborhood that has been the center of
immigrant settlement, with significant business openings, services and convenience
which are not usually found in their place of origin. Significantly, these new place houses
everything, from the places of worship, ethnic groupings and socio cultural linkages, thus
no new immigrant is left out because he can easily blend in. a new perspectives set in
where women are likewise given the same opportunities as that of men thus female
migration is accommodated as they moved in independently or as heads of households.
For better understanding, the migrants come now with different criterion. (Stephen Castles, 200)

1. Temporary labor migrants – they are popularly known as overseas contract workers
who migrate for a limited period in order to work and send remittances to their families
at home.
2. Highly skilled and business migrants – they are the people with special skills and
qualification who seek employment through international labor markets for scarce
skills.
3. Irregular migrants (also known as documented or illegal migrants): people who enter a
country, usually in search of employment, without the necessary documents and
permits.
4. 4. Refugees – is a person residing outside his or her country of nationality, who is
unable or unwilling to return because of a „well-founded fear of persecution on account
of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political
opinion‟ (1951 United Nations Convention relating to the Status of Refugees)
5. Asylum-seekers – people who move across borders in search of protection.
6. Forced migration – this included not only refugees and asylum-seekers but also people
forced to move by environmental catastrophes or development projects.
7. Family members (also known as family reunion or family reunification migrants) –
migration to join people who have already entered an immigration country under one of
the above categories.
8. Return migrants: people who return to their countries or origin after a period in another
country.

Migration may assist or hinders development

Remittances are considered one of the many massive contributions to the national accounts of
many emigration countries. Through the money that they are sending, the government earns a
bulk that helps finance the development investment of the country. Emigrants are given the
opportunity to travel aboard and to be able to learn other people‟s culture, history and
environment
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 . They became adaptive with the place where they are in and were able to obtain
additional knowledge and insights which cannot be learn thru books but only by
interactions. Countries are mandated to observe international cooperation to help ensure
orderly migration and to heighten the involvement of migration to development.
One on the main disadvantage brought by migration is the “brain drain”. Brain drain
is a problem for many poor countries losing skilled workers to richer countries. The most
skilled and most talented workers of a certain less developed country are bound to look
for better job opportunities or employment in developed countries considering work
guarantee and better lives conditions for himself and that of his family. However, the
country where he came from is to settle with those who are left as its workforce but
cannot do anything because it has no remedy to the situation. It is to add further that the
regulation of emigration from less-developed countries is often
ineffective thus allows exploitative employment and abuses. Many of the emigrants has
stories to tell when it deals with abuses, cruelty and violence. Crimes like women and
child trafficking, smuggling, drug related cases and other forms of crimes are being
charged to them or they became victims of such. For these reasons, the government must
create and have strong teeth for its implementations of policies and laws that prevent
abuses or exploitation of their citizens while they are abroad. If the government will be
able implement the policies and laws, it will guarantee the safety and well-being of its
citizens. In addition to these, the government must provide assistance in cases of death,
illness, accidents and other similar cases of same nature to its citizens. It is a way to
show the gratitude of the government as to help these emigrants are doing for the
economic growth of the country.
Many of the emigrants who finds good paying employment abroad still wishes to
come home to be with their families. The money acquired or have been saved from work
abroad used as an investment for a new business or enterprise. However, many countries
do not have policies to assist returning migrants to start anew in their own country.
Usually, they are left on their own on how to manage their own affairs. Some become
successful but majority suffers from major setback. They will settle in finding a job but
face difficulty in finding a job commensurate with the skills they have acquired abroad.
Thus will eventually decide to go back abroad and leave again their families. To avoid
such chain, the government should institutionalize a plan of action that will benefit the
returning emigrants, for them to be given better options in staying in country than going
back.

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