UNIT 12 TORSION

Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Torsion of Circular Shafts
1221 TheoryofTmioll
12.22 Resisting Torque
122.3 1)eformations in a Circular Shaft
12.24 Stresses in a Circular Shaft
12.3 Power Transmission by Shafts
12.4 Hollow Circular Shafts
124.1 Strength ofa Hollow Shaft
12.4.2 Torsion of Thin Tubes of Circular Section
12.5 Torsion of Non-circular Sections
12.5.1 Solid Non-circular Section Shafts
12.5.2 Thin Walled Non-circular Section Shafts
12.6 Concept of Plastic Torsion
12.7 Summary
12.8 Answers to SAQs

12.1 INTRODUCTION
The results obtained during the study of shear enable us to pass over to the study of
strength under torsion. Members in torsion are encountered in many engineering
applications. The most common application is provided by transmission shafts, which are
used to transmit power from one point to another, as from a steam turbine to an electric
generator, or from a motor to a machine tool, or from the engine to the rear axle of an
automobile. These shafts may either be solid or they may be hollow. In practice, we come
across torsion very often; a turning force is always applied to transmit energy by rotation.
This turning force is applied either to rim of a pulley, keyed to the shaft, or to any other
suitable point at some distance from the axis of the shaft. The product of this turning force,
and the distance between the point of application of the force and the axis of the shaft is
known as torque, tutning moment or twisting moment.
A major part of this unit is devoted to the treatment of members with circular, or tubular,
cross-sectional areas. Non-circular sections are discussed only briefly. In practice,
members that transmit torque, such as shafts of motors, torque tubes of power equipment,
etc. are predominantly circular or tubular in cross-section.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
conceptualise the theory of torsion,
calculate the strength of the solid and hollow circular shaft, deformations and
stresses developed in the shafts,
detennine the power transmitted by the shafts in MKS and SI units,
design the shaft for the required torque as per the strength criteria and as per
the stiffness criteria,
determine the torque transmitted by the new shaft (should be equal to the
torque transmitted by the replaced shaft) in replacing the shaft,
draw the free body diagram for the aialysis of stepped shaft,'
describe the behaviour of non-circular section shaft under torsion,
compare the analogy between membrane problem and torsion problem, and
calculate the fully plastic torque Tp for various structural sections.
St~ssesinShaPts Shells
and Thermal Stresses
12.2 TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFTS
A shaft of circular section is said to be in pure torsion when it is subjected to equal and
opposite end couples whose axes coincide with the axis of the shaft. In other words, if the
moment is applied in a vertical plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam or
a shaft, it will be subjected to a torque causing twist or torsion in the member. As the beam
bends due to bending moment, the shaft twists due to twisting moment. Figure 12.1 shows
a pulley of radius R subjected to a system of couple, i.e. equal and opposite force W.The
couple attached to the shaft which cause the tuming effect on the pulley.

. Twisting moinent or torque, T = Force x Lever arm

In order that the body should remain in static equilibrium, it must exert an equal amount of
resisting moment.
At any point in the section of the shaft, a shear stress is induced or more exactly, the state
of stress at any point in the cross-section of the shaft is one of pure shear, the direction of
which is tangential at any point in the shaft. By the principle of complementary sheaf
stresses, we know that in a state of simple shear there are two planes carrying the shear
stress of the same intensity. These planes must be perpendicular to each other.
In the case of the shaft in torsion, the planes of shear at a point are
(a) the cross-section itself, and
(b) the plane containing the point and the axis of the shaft.
To find internal torque or resisting moment, in statically determinate members, only one
equations of statics Z M,= 0 is required, where Z axis is directed along the member. As in
the case of determination of twisting moment at any point along the length of the member,
pass a plane at the desired section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member and
remove everything to either side of the cut. The internal or resisting torque necessary to
maintain equilibrium of the isolated part is determined.Considering,for example, the

GENERATOR

/----> ROTATION

system'consisting of the turbine A and the generator B connected by the transmission shaft
AB (Figure 12.2), and breaking the system into its three component parts (Figure 1 2 3 , we
note that the turbine exerts a twisting couple or torque Ton the shaft, and that the shaft
exerts im equal torque on the generator.
The generator reacts by exerting the equal and opposite torque T' on the shaft, and the
shaft by exerting the torque T' on the turbine.

Following assumptions are made, while finding out shear stresses and &formations in a
circular shaft subjected to torsion.
(a) m e material of the shaft is homogeneous and isotropic.
(b) The twist along the shaft is uniform throughout (i.e.) all normal cross-sections
which are at the same axial distance suffer equal relative rotation.
(c) Normal cross-sections of the shaft, which were plane and circular before twist,
remain plane and circular after twist, i.e. no warping or distortion of parallel
planes normal to the axis of the member takes place.
(d) All diameters of the normal cross-section which were straight before twist,
remain straight with their magnitude unchanged, after twist.
(e) Stress is proportional to strain, i.e. all the stresses are within the elastic limit.
(f) Intensity of stress varies uniformly from zero at the centre to a maximum at the
outside surface and hence the stress is proportional to the distance of that point
from the centre.
A little consideration will show that the above assumptions are justified, if the torque
applied is small and the angle of twist is also small.
12.2.1 Theory of Torsion
For the purpose of developing the expressions for the torsional stress and strain, we shall
assume that one end of the shaft is fixed and a moment is applied at the other end, the
plane of application of moment being perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
This assumption is valid because whether it rotates at uniform speed to transmit the power
or is at rest, the stress and strain due to equal and opposite couples at its ends will remain
the same.
Consider a shaft fixed at one end, and subjected to a torque (T)at the other end as shown
in Figure 12.3.

Figure 123

Let T = Torque in kg cm
1 = Length of the shaft, and
R = Radius of the shaft.
A balancing torque of equal magnitude and opposite in direction will be induced at the
fixed end.
Let the line CA on the surface of the shaft be deformed to CA' and OA to OA' as shown in
Figure 12.3.
Let LAC$= (I and LAOA'= 8.
As a result of the torque applied, every cross-section of the shaft will be subjected to shear
stresses.
Let f, = shear stress induced at the outermost surface, and
C = modulus of the rigidity of the shaft material.
St~essesin~Lacts& Shells We b o w that
nrd Thermal Streaseo
Shear strain = Deformation per unit length
- -AA'
- I
= tan$
= @ (@being very small)
We also know that the length of the arc AA' = R 8
AA' Re
/. @=7--
- 1
Shear stress
Moreover, deformation =
Modulus of Rigidity

Now from Eqs. (12.1) and (12.2). we find that

The shaft may be taken to consist of an infinite number of elemental hollow shafts, one
surrounding the other. '
If the deformation of a line on the surface of any such interior cylinder, at a radius r be
considered, the shear stress intensity 'q' at the radius 'r' is given by the relation,

Thus, it can be stated that the intensity of shear stress at any point in the cross-section of a
shaft subjected to pure torsion is proportional to its distance from the centre.
This means that the shear stress is maximum on the outside surface and variation of shear
stress with radius is linear.
C

12.2.2 Resisting Torque

From conditiorls of equilibrium the external torque T must be balanced by resisting torque,
i.e. by momerlts of tangential shearing stresses acting on any transverse section. Consider a
solid circular shaft subjected to some torque.
Let R = Radius of the shaft, and
f, = Maximum shear stress developed in the outermost layer of the shaft material.
Now, consider an elementary ring of thickness dx at a distance x from the centre as shown
in Figure 12.4.

We know that the area of the ring, da = 2 luc dx

Shear stress at this section, (fJ would be as follows : Torsion

.-. Turning force = stress x area

= f, x da

We b o w that turning moment of this element, or moment of resistance offered by the

elemental ring,
dT = Turning force x distance of the element from the axis of the shaft

:. Total moment of resistance offered by the whole shaft is

R R
where, J=j2nr2dr=jda2
0 0

Here, J represents the moment of inertia of the shaft section about the axis of the shaft. The
moment of inertia of a plane area, with respect to an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
figure is called polar moment of inertia with respect to the point, where the axis intersects
the plane. In a circular plane, the point is always the centre of the circle. Therefore, J is
hown as polar moment of inertia, i.e. moment of inertia about ZZ axis.
As per perpendicular axis theorem,
I, = In + I,
x
For a circular section, lu = 1' = -
64
D4
where D is diameter of the circular shaft.
S ~ w h S ~ & ~ r l h J
Pad Thennnl Strcrru The term -
R
is known as torsional section mddulus or polar modulus, denoted by 2, .
M
It is similar to section modulus, 2 ,which is equal to j.
Thus, polar modulus for a solid sbaft

The resisting torque or torsional moment of resistance is given by,

This resisting torque is also known as strength of the shaft. Strength of the shaft is defined
as the maximum torque or power the shaft can transmit from one pulley to another.
Connecting the Eqs. (12.1), (12.2) and (12.3), we get
1
ar =Rf- ' J- -z -1 e (12.4) II
3 .

which is called the torsion equation. i

E
E-q. (12.4) cnn be compared with equation of bending I = y --R-'

The expression corresponds to

M C0
, --7correspondsto - and -corresponds to -
E
r Y J I 1 R'
The expression CJ corresponds to expression EI.
The term CJ is called torsional rigidity and the term EI is called flexural rigidity.
It may be noted that :
T
(a) - ,i.e. torque required for unit twist, is called the torsional stiffness of the shaft.
0
T
(b) -,i.e. torque divided by the angle of twist per unit length, is called the
an
torsional rigidity CJ.
12.2.3 Deformations in a Circular Shaft
Consider a circular shaft which is attached to a fixed support at one end. If a torque T is
applied to the other end, the shaft will twist with its free end rotating through an angle 0
called the angle bf twist. Observation shows that within a certain range of values of T, the
angle of twist 0 is proportional to T. It also shows that 0 is proportional to the length of the
shaft. In other words, the angle of twist for a shaft of the same material and same
cross-section,but twice as long, will be twice as large under the same torque T.
When a circular shaft is subjected to torsion, every cross-section remains plane and
undistorted. In other words, while the various cross-sections along the shaft rotate through
different amounts, each cross-section rotates as a solid rigid slab. When a bar of square
cross-section is subjected to torsion, its various cross-sections are warped and do not
remain plane.
The fact that the cross-section of a circulac shaft remains plane and undistorted is due to
the fact that a circular shaft is axisymmetric, i.e. its appearance remains the same when it is
viewed from a fixed position and rotated about its axis through an arbitrary angle. Square
bar, on the other hand, retains the same appearance only if they are rotated through
90" or 180".
If all sections of the shaft, from one end to the other, are to remain plane and undistorted,
we must make sure that the couples are applied in such a way that the ends of the shaft
themselves remain plane and undistorted. This may be accompIished by applying the
couples Tand T' to rigid plates, which are solidly attached to the ends of the shaft. We
may then be sure that all sections will remain plane and undktorted when the loading is .
applied, and that the resulting deformation will occur in a uniform fashion throughout the
entire length of the shaft.
 Torsion
We shall now determine the distribution of shearing strains in a circular shaft of length L
and radius R ,which has been twisted through an angle '8'. Detaching from the shaft a
cylinder of radius 'h', we consider a small square element formed by two adjacent circles
and two adjacent straight lines traced on the surface of the cylinder before any load is
applied. As the shaft is subjected to a torsional load, the element deform into a rhombus as
shown in Figure 12.5.

Figure 12.5

The shearing strain 'g' in a given element is measured by the change in the angles formed
by the sides of that element. Since the circles defining two of the sides of the element
remain unchanged, the shearing strain 'g ' must be equal to the angle between line AB
and A'B.
iI As we discussed in the preceding section,

The above equation shows that the shearing strain 'g' at a given paint in a shaft subjected
to torsion is proportional to the angle of twist 9. It also shows that 4 is proportional to the
distance 'r ' from the axis of the shaft to the point under consideration. In other words, the
shearing strain in a circular shaft varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the shaft.
1 The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft, where r = R.

Thus, we have,

Eliminating 8 from above two equations, we may express the shearing strain + at a
distance r from the axis of the shaft as

12.2.4 Stresses in a Circular Shaft

No particular stress-strain relationship has been assumed so far in the discussion of
circular shafts in torsion. We shall now consider the case when the torque T is such that
all shearing stresses in the shaft remain below the yield ~trength~f,.For all practical
purposes, this means that the stresses in the shaft will remain below the proportional limit
and below the elastic limit as well. Thus, Hooke's law will apply and there will be no
I permanent deformation.
 Sh* & Shela
st~ssesin ASjxr Hooke's law for shearing stress and strain,
a d The& Stressrs
fr = C$
where, .
C = modulus of rigidity or shear modulus of the material, and
fi = shear stress at a radius r from the axis of the shaft.
We h o w that

Multiplying by Con both sides, we get,

where,& = shear stress at a radius R from the axis of the shaft.

The equation obtained shows that as long as the yield strength (or proportional limit) is not
exceeded in any part of a circular shaft, the shearing stress in the shaft varies linearly with
the distance r from the axis of the shaft. Figure 12.6 shows the stress distribution in a solid
circular shaft of radius R.

From the discussion we had in the theory of torsion, we have, T = A

-
J
R
or / . = ZJ R
T
fr = - r
and
J
! is expressed in N m,R or r in metres and J in m4, the resulting shearing stress will be
If F
cxpreaaed In N/m2,that is, Pascal (Pa).
Up to this pint, our analysis of stresses in a shaft has been limited to shearing stresses.
Thfs is due to the fact that the element we had selected was oriented in such a way that its
faces were either parallel or perpendicular to the axis of ,theshaft.We know that the
I
dotma1 stresses, shearing stresses or a combination of both may be found under the same
loading conditimh, depending upon the orientation of the element which has been chosen.
Consider the two elements a and b located on the surface of a circular shaft subjected to
torsion, as shown in figure. Since the faces of element a are parallel and perpendicular to
the axis of the shaft, the only stresses on the ele~nentwill be the shearing stresses given by
I, = 7T R, i.e. the element a is in pwe shear. On the other hand, the faces of elenlent 6,
which form arbitrary angles with the axis of the shaft, will be subjected to a combination
of n o d and shearing stresses.
TR
We also note that all the stresses involved have the same magnitude, - \

J'
 Torsion

Ductile materials generally fail in shear. merefore, when subjected to torsion, a specimen
made of a ductile material breaks along a plane perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. On
the other hand, brittle materials are weaker in tension than in shear. Thus, when subjected
to torsion, a specimen made of brittle material tends to break along surfaces which are
perpendicular to the direction in which tension is maximum, i.e. along surfaces forming a
45"angle with the longitudinal axis of the specimen.
Example 12.1
Find the torque which a shaft of 25 cm diameter can safely transmit, if the shear is
not to exceed 460kg/cm2.
Solutlon
Diameter of shaft, D = 25 cm
Maximum shear stress,f, = 460kg/cm2
Let Tis the torque transmitted by the shaft.

Example 12.2
A bar of magnesium alloy 28 mm in diameter was tested on a gauge length of
25 cm in tension and in torsion. A tensile load of 5 tonnes produced an extension of
0.4mrn and a torque of 1250kg cm produced a twist of 1.5 lo.
Determine
(a) the Young's modulus,
(b) the modulus of rigidity,
(c) the bulk modulus, and
(d) the Poisson's ratio for the material under test.
Solution
Diameter of bar, D = 28 mm = 2.8cm
Area of bar, A = -
X
= 6.1575 cm2
(2.81~
4
Length of bar, 1 = 25 cm
Load on the bar, P = 5 t = 5000 kg
Extension of the bar, 61= 0.4rnm = 0.04 cm
Torque, T = 1250kg cm
Angle of twist, 0 = 1.51°= 0.02635radian
Stresses in Shafts & Sk&
and Thennal Stmses
Young's modulus for the alloy, E = 0.5075 x lo6kg/cm2.

C = 0.1965 x lo6kg/cm2
Modulus of rigidity for the alloy, C = 0.1965 x lo6 kg/cm2.

Poisson's ratio for the alloy, p = 0.29.

= 0.4058 x lo6 kg/cm2

Bulk modulus for the alloy, K = 0.4058 x lo6kg/cm2.

- -

12.3 POWER TRANSMISSION BY SHAFTS

We have already discussed that tlie main purpose of a shaft is to transmit power from the
shaft to another in factories and workshops. Power is the time rate of doing work.
Consider a shaft of radius R subjected to end couples which cause turning effect.
:.Work done in one revolution = Work done by each force
= Px21cR+Px21cR
= 21c x 2PR
= 2nT (:. 2PR=T)
If the shaft rotates at N-rpm, the work done per minute = 2 W ,
where,
N = nunber of revolutions per minute (rpm), and
T = average torque in kg m.
 MKS Unit Torsion

1 hp = 75 kg d s e c = 4500 kg d m i n
Work done per minute = 2 M
I where, N = number of revolutions per minute, and
T = average torque in kg m.
Since there are 4500 kg m per minute in one horsepower,
Work done in kg mlmin
Power, P = hP
4500

Angular displacement in radians = 2nN

SI Unit
In SI system, power (P) is measured in watts (W).
1W = 1 Joulefsec = 1 N mlsec = 60 N d m i n
Work done per minute = 2 M
where, N = number of revolutions per minute, and
T = average torque in N m.
Since there are 60 N d m i n in one watt,
Work done in N d m i n watts
Power, P =
60

= To watts
where, o = angular displacement in radianslsec = -

Design of Shafts
r
):2
\ 1

The principal specifications to be met in the design of transmission shaft are the
power to be transmitted and the speed of rotation of the shaft. The role of the
designer is to select the material and the dimensions of the cross-section of the
shaft, so that the maximum shearing stress allowable in the material will not be
exceeded when the shaft is transmitting the required power at the specific speed.
We know that,
Power, P = T o

where,f = frequency of the rotation, i.e. number of revolutions per second.

The unit of frequency is thus 1 s-' and is called a Hertz (Hz).
:. P = 2nf T
p =-
2m watts (in SI units)
60
p =-
2M hp (in MKS Units)
4500
After having determined the torque T from the above equations, and having
selected the material to be used, the designer will carry the values of T and of the
maximum allowable stress into the elastic torsion formula.
 J
The torsional section modulus -can be calculated from the above equation.
R
J
Knowing 2 the diameter of the shaft can be easily calculated
Thus, we get,

123.1 Stepped Shafts

Sometimes a shaft, made up of differeht lengths having different cross-sectional areas, is
required to transmit some torque (or horse power) from one pulley to andhet.
For such a shaft, the torque transmitted by individual sections have to be calculated fust
and minimum value of these torques will be the strength of such a shaft.
Consider such a shaft as in Figure 12.8 which may also be considered as two shafts
connected in series.

The total torque transmitted T in this case will be the same as the torque transmitted by
each pottion.
Let Tl = Torque transmitted by the shaft No. 1
L, = Length of the shaft No. 1
R, = li'adius of the shaft No. 1
8, = Angle of twist in the shaft No. 1
J1= Polar moment of inertia for the shaft No. 1
f,, = Maximum shear stress in the shaft No. 1
Similarly, T2 , ,R2 ,q ,J2 and fs2 are the corresponding values for the shafi No. 2.
The total torque, T = TI = T2 (12.5)
Also, the total twist 9 = twist in portion 1( 9 , )+ twist in portion 2 (02)
i.e., 9 = g1+e2 (12.6)

Now,

From Eq. (12.5). T = & -J1= & - 52

lR1 zR2

Substituting values of J, and J2,

 Torsion

Further, -T -C- 8
I
J - I
8 = - TL
JC
TLl TL,
From Eq. (12.6). we obtain, 8 = - +-
CJ, CJ2

Therefore,
!

I Jhample 123
Calculate the diameter of a solid shaft transmitting 150 kW at 25 rpm, if the
maximum shear stress in the shaft is not to exceed 70 MPa. Compare this with the
shaft delivering same power at 25000 rpm.
Solution
\ Power transmitted, P = 150 kW = 150 x lo3 watts
Number of revolutions, N = 25 rpm
L
Since, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2and 1 Mega Pascal = lo6N/m2 = N / d
Then, maximum shear stress,f, = 70 MPa = 70 ~ / m m ~
Let T be the torque transmitted in N m.

D = 160.9 rnm
If N = 25000 rpm, then p = -2 w
60
 It is seen from this example that the size of the shaft is reduced very much if the
power is transmitted at high speed. That is the reason for the modem tendency to
use high speed machines, which results in considerable saving in the material cost.
Example 12.4
A steel shaft transmits 105 kW at 160 rpm If the shaft is 100 mm diameter, find the
torque on the shaft and the maximum shear stress induced. Find also the twist of the
shaft in a length of 6 m
Take C = 8 x lo4 N/mm2
Solution
P = 105 kW = 105 x lo3W
N = 160rpm
D = 100 mm
1 = 6 m = 6000 mrn

We know.

0 = 0.04786 radian = 2" 45'

Example 195.5
Find the diameter of the shaft required to transmit 60 kW at 150 r.p.m., if the
maximum torque is likely to exceed the mean torque by 25 % for a maximum
permissible shear stress of 60 N1mm2.
Find also the angle of twist for a length of 2.5 metres.
Take C = 8 x lo4 ~ l r n m ~
Solution
Here, P = 60kW = 6 0 x 1 0 ~ ~
N = 150 rpm
T,, = 1.25 T,,,,
 Torsion

B '= 0.0507 radians

! Example 12.6
Show that for a given maximum shear stress the minimum diameter required for a
solid circular shaft to transmit P kW at N rpmcan be expressed as

What value of the maximum shear stress has been used if the constant equals 84.71,
being in millimetres?
Solutton
We know, p = -2Rw watts
60

where,
Stmrm m Shafta & S h e l when K = 84.71, we obtain,
a d Thermal St-

Example 12.7
The stepped steel shaft shown in Figure 12.9 is subjected to a torque (T) at the free i
end and a torque (2T) in the opposite direction at the junction of the two sizes. I
What is the total angle of twist at the Eree end, if maximum shear stress in the shaft
is limited to 7 0 kg/cm2 ?
Assume the modulus of rigidity to be 0.84x lo6 kg/cm2.

Toque at C = T (anticlockwise)
Torque at B = 2T (clockwise)
shear stress,f, = 700 kg/cm2
~aximum

Let 8 be the angle of twist at C

Free Body Diagram
Let us first find out the value of torque Tat C. It may be noted that if the value of
torque is obtained for the portion AB, it will induce more stress in the portion BC
(because the portion BC is of less diameter). Therefore, we shall calculate the
torque for the portion BC (because it will not induce more stress than the
permissible in the portion AB). b

_ F l p r e 12.10 r F m Body Magrsm

 Torsion
The angle of twist due to torque Tat C,

0 = 0.06248 radian
The angle of twist due to torque of 2T at B ,

= 0.005radian
The angle of twist due to torque at B, will continue to be the angle of twist at C also.
Since the directions of the two twists are opposite to each other, therefore, the net
angle of twist at C will be
= 0.06248- 0.005
= 0.05748radian

xample 12.8
A solid shaft 6.5 m long is securely fixed at each end. A torque of 91 N m is applied
to the shaft at a section 2.5 m from one end as shown in Figure 12.11.Find the
fixing torques set up at the ends of the shaft.

Figure 1211

If the shaft is 35 mm diameter, find the maximum shear stresses the two portions.
Find also the angle of twist for the section where the torque is applied.
Take C = 8.4x lo4 ~ / r n r n ~ .
Solutlon
Free Body Diagram

Since the ends being fixed, the angle of twist in the length AC of the shaft must be
equal to the angle of twist in the length BC.

Since J and C have the same value for the two portions. Thus, we get,
S t l ~ r c e sin Sbaftq & Sheb
nnd 1 h e d Stresses

Rere 1212 r Free Body Magrata I

Maximum shear stress in the porti011AC, 1-

f, = 6.65 Nlmm2
Maximum shear stress in the portion CB,

9 = 0,0113 radiail = 0" 38'16"

Example 12.9
Toques are applied on the shaft as shown in Figure 12.13. Flnd out in which
w o n of the shaft, maximum shear stress and angle of twist occur.
Take c'=80 GPa.

Etpre 1213
SoIutim
Free Body Diggram
TR
Maximum shear stress,.h = -
J
 Torsion
Maximum shear stress in AB,fs = -
TAB
JAB
RM

TBC
Maximum shear stress in BC,fs = -RBC
JBC

TCD
Maximum shear stress inCD,fs = -RcD
JCD

TDE
Maximum shear stress in DE,fs = -
JDE
RDE

Maximum shear stress occurs in section CD, i.e. 6.036 N/mm2.

C = 80GPa = 8 0 x 1 o 9 ~ a= 8 0 x 1 0 ~MPa = 8 0 x 1 0 ~N/mm2

-
CLOCK WISE 5 0 N.m

B C

ANTICLOCKWISE
Y
750 N.m
CLOCKWISE

750N.m

ANTICLOCKWISE
M
500 N. m 500 N m

CLOCKWISE

Figure 1214 :Free Body Diagram

Angle of mist
50 lo' 1200
= 29.84 x lo4 rad (clockwise)
x ( 4 0 ) ~x 80 x 10'
32

~ B C = [ $ ] = 750 lo' M X ) = 5.73 x lo4 rad (anticlockwise)

BC -X(1~)4x8~x~~3
32
Stresses in Shafts & Skelb
and Thermal Stresses l") lo' = 0.72 x 10- rad (ciockwise)
x (75)4 x 80 x lo3
32
Thus, OB = 29.84 x radian
Oc = 29.84 x - 5.73 x = 24.11 x radian
OD = 24.11 x - 1.21 x = 22.9 x radian
OE = 22.90 x 10- + 0.72 x loy4 = 23.62 x 10- radian
Maximum twist occurs in portion AB and is equal to 29.84 x 10- radian,
i.e. 0.171°.
Example 12.10
A steel shaft of 200 rnrn diameter and 8 m long is fixed at its ends. Torques of
20 kN m (clockwise) and 30 kN m (anticlockwise)are applied at 3 m and 6 m !
a
respectively from one end as shown in Figure 12.15. Plot the variation of the torque,
surface shear stress and angle of twist along the shaft length. 11
Take C = 80 MPa.

/
A 20 KN.m 30KN.m
B
1
I
i
/

4
/ I
I 1

Figure 1215

Solution
Let TA and TBbe the reaction torques at A and B respectively (in kN m).
Free Body Diagram
Here, TA = - 20 kN m (anticlockwise)
TB = + 30 kN m (clockwise)

Surface shear stress in AC, f, =

Surface shear stress in CD,f, = = 0 ( :. TCD= 0)

44
-+A
-J

2OKN.m 2 0 KN.m
(4NTl i l O T K W I S E l (CLOCKWISE)
C D

3OKN,m 30 KN.m
(ANTELOCKWISE) (CLOCKWISE)

Figure 12.16 :Free Body Diagram

 Tor!iion
Surface shear stress is DB, f, =
['
-x R
)m

Angle of twist, OAc =

! AC

Angle of twist, OcD = 0

Angle of twist ODB =

[']m

Note
If both the ends fixed, the total angle of twist between the supports is zero.

Variation of torque, surface shear stress and angle of twist along the span of the
shaft has been shown in Figure 12.17.
A

200
1
I
I
VARIATION OF TOROUE (711
I
a
130

I
I
I I I
!-
Lt,
11.7
I
11.7
I 0.0¶ 19.09
I' I I 1
I VARIATION OF SURFACE SHEAR 'STRESS (fr I
I I I I

VARIATION OF ANGLE OF TWIST ( 8 ) ( I N DEGREES)

Figure 12.17 :Variation of Torque, Surface Shear Stress and Angle of Twist

SAQ 2
A solid sl~aftmade of steel and of 2 m length is to transmit 50 kW at 150 rpm. If the
shear stress in the shaft material is 11ot to excc2d 50 MPa and maximum allowable
twist in the shaft is lo,calculate the shaft diameter.
Take C = 80 GPa.
Stresses in Shafts & She*
SAQ 3
aod Thorn4 St1~occ8
What must thc length of a 5 r r m dirtmeter alulninlum wire be so that it can be
twisted through one complete revolution w~aioutexceedirlg a shearing stress of
42 ?d/rnrn2.Take C -- 2.7 x 1o4 ~llnrn*.

SAQ 4
Find the power that can he t-xnmitted by a shaft 60 nun dianleter at 180 rpn~,if riic
permss~blsshear stress as X5 X;;!rlun-

.:$A<$ 5
" ~ I shall
C shcwr! in Figla& !2.18 T Q F ; ~ ! ~'0':) rp;lr wi& I;Q kW 15 kW taken
;it r i anif R rc$pei.:tivejy ;:~t,$ kW rtpg?!;~.:! i r r ,'C i-ii1t.i
..fi ma-<i:rlr,lrn<!)ear.s:rcx,<
~3::vclog)e!l in the sllaCt arnd thtr iizlgle crf twist (dcg,ri:i.) of tk; g c s '4 rel:ctlvc C.

12.4 HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFTS

The analysis for torsion of solid circular shafts is also valid for hollow circular shafts.
The equation

is vaiid for hollow circular shaft. Here, R, and R, are the inner and outer radius of the
hollow shaft respectively. Maximum shear stress occurs at tbe outer radius whereas the
mininlum shear stress occurs at the inner radius. The distribution of shear stress in the case
of hollow circular shaft is shown in Figure 12.19.
12.4.1 Strength of a Hollow Shaft
It means the rnaxiniurn torque or power a hollow shaft can transmit from one pulley to
another.
Consider a hollow circular shaft subjected to some torque.
Now, consider an elementary ring of thichess dx at a distance x from the centre as shown
in Figure 12.20.
 ,ts max

fs maxu Fsgurt 1219

f s min

We know that the area of this ring, da = 2m &.

The shear stress at this section (f,) is as follows :

:. Turning force = stress x area

= fxxda

We know that turning moment of this element or moment of resistance offered by the
elemental ring, dT is given as
dT = Turning force x distance of the element

:. Total moment of resistance offered by the whole shaft is

R2 R2
where.,= I2rn2dr = &I?
R, R,
J = Polar moment of inertia of the hollow circular shaft

Polar modulus for a hollow circular shaft

Stresses in S h h & Shells
and Thermal Stresses We know, T = fs-ma,

R2
,
= - X ~ X - XX ( D ~ - D ~ ~ )
D2 32
X
- -xL- ~ ( 0 : - Dl4)
160,

Replacing a Shaft
Sometimes, we are required to replace a solid shaft by a hollow one or vice-versa.
In such cases, the torque transmitted by the new shaft, should be equal to that by the
replaced shaft.
12.4.2 Torsion of Thin Tubes of Circular Section 4

If the diameter of tube is large compared to its thickness (say Dlt > 20), the shear stress I
produced due to the applied moment may be reasonably assumed to be uniform throughout
the thickness. This makes the problem statically determinate.
Consider a thin tube of length L, external diameter D, and thickness 1, subjected to torque T
as shown in Figure 12.21. Note t is very small compared with D. It is seen that the
generator AB will twist to AB' when radius OB is twisted to O H , i.e. through angle 8.

BE
:. Sheaf strain, Q = -L
Also BB' = Re

CR8
or shear stress,.fs = CQ = -
L
Free body diagram for the system is shown in Figure 12.22.

Figure 1222 :Free Body Diagram

Considering equilibrium of forces,

T =Itx ( 2 M t ) x R
Alternatively, Torsion

Polar moment of inertia of the tube section,

J = area of the section x square of the radius

J
Polar modulus, z, = - =
rrdr x 2
- ~ D ~ I
R 4. D - 2
Torsional resistance, T = f,x Z,

Twist of the tube in a length L,

where, C = modulus of rigidity of the shaft material.

Example 12.11
A hollow shaft of 20 mm outside diameter and 16 mm inside diameter is subjected
to a torque of 40 N m. Find the shear stresses at the outside and inside of the shaft.
Solution
Dl=16mm and D2=20mm
T = 4 0 N m = 4 0 x 1 0 ~Nmm
T
Shear stress,& = 7 R

Shear stress at the outer surface,

Shear stress at the inner surface,

Example 12.12
Find the twist per metre length of a circular hollow shaft 12 cm outer diameter and
9 cm inner diameter respectively, if h e shear stress is not to exceed 600 kglcm2.
Take C = 0.8 x lo6kg/cm2.
Solution
D l = 9 c m and D2= 12cm

Here, we know. T= f xD
(: - D:)
16D2
--
- X
= 139200 kgcm
16 x 12
Strossea in Shafts Sr Shells
;rid Thermal Stresses

"
-81 = 0.0125 radian

Therefore, 8 = 0.0125 radlm length = 0.7' per metre length

Example 12.13
A hollow shaft is to transmit 30 kW at 80 rpm. If the shear stress is not to exceed
60 ~ / m m and~the internal diameter is 0.6 of the external diameter, find the
external and interal diameters, assuming the maximum torque is 1.4 times the mean
torque.
Solution
~ere,~=300k~=300~10"~
N=80rpm

It is given U~at T,,, = 1.4 T,,,

= 1.4 x 35809.8 = 50133.70 N m

Thus, D, = 0.6 x 169.7 = 101.8 mm

Fxampk 82.14
A solid aluminium shaft 100 cm long and of 5 cm diameter is to be replaced by a
tubulat shaft of the same length and same outside diameter so that either shaft ~muld
carry the same torque and have the same angle of twist, over the total length. What
musl be the inner diameter of the. tubular steel shaft ?
Modulus of rigidity of steel may be taken as 0.85 x lo6 kg/cm2 and that of
aluminium as 0.28 x lo6 kg/cm2.
L%luHon
Solid A luminiutk-shaft Tubular Steel Shaft
 Here, TA = T, and BA = 8, Torsion

a
J, = -(D;-@) = ,X(~'-D?)
a
32
We know, -T - -C8
J - L

Thus, 8, = TALA radian

-
625a x 0.28 x lo6
32
Ts1s
8, = radian
a
-
32
x (5' - D;) x 0.85 x lo6
As seen earlier, OA = 0,

Dl4 = 419.1
:. Dl = 4.525 cm
Example 12J5
t Calculate the ratio of the torque transmitted by a hollow and a solid shaft of the
I same material, length and weight.
Solution
C, = CH(same material)
I, = lH (same length)
Ws = WH(same weight)
Let Dl = Internal diameter of the hollow shaft
D2 = External diameter of the hollow shaft
D = Diameter of the solid shaft.

Since both shafts are of the same material, maximum allowable shear stress,fs , will
be same for both.

... -TH- - for hollow shaft

JH (R2)
Stresses inSh& & Shek
and T h e d Stresses 2
" - - for solid shaft
-
JJ

From Eqs. (12.7) and (12.8),

-
W,= w, x
4
x D~ x 1, (unit weight x volume of the shaft)

Similarly,

Here, we know, w, = w~ (same material) and 1, = lH (same length)

From Eq. (12.10). R;- # = &

R: =-
R2
Dividing by R ~ ~ ,
R; R;
 Torsion

TH
Substituting in Eq. (12.1 l),

Thus, if for example n = 2,

TH = 1.44
-
Ts
which means that such a hollow shaft can transmit 44 %) rmnc rtjLL:
shaft of same material, length and weight.
Example 12.16
A hollow steel shaft of external diameter 200 mm is to transmit 2 MW at 400 rpm.
If the maximum allowable shear stress in the shaft material is 80 MPa, calculate the
internal diameter of the shaft.
If instead of this hollow shaft, a solid steel shaft of the same weight per unit length
and the maximum allowable shear stress of 90 MPa is employed, what would be the
torque carrying capacity of this shaft compared to that of the hollow shaft?
Solution
Hollow Steel Shaft Solid Steel Shaft
D2=200mm fs= 90 MPa

We know,

As weight per unit length and material is same for both shafts, we get,

-
Ts---f, (for solid shaft)
Js R

Ts= 13.832 x lo6 N m m

Example 12.17
A solid aluminium shaft 100 cm long and of 5 cm diameter is to be replaced by a
tubular steel shaft of the same length and the same outside diameter, i.e. 5 cm, such
that each of the two s h a h could have the same angle of twist per unit torsional
moment over the total length. What must be inner diameter of the tubular steel?
Modulus of rigidity of steel is three times that of aluminium ?
Solution
Solid Aluminium Shaft Tubular Steel Shaft

Here, we have following relationship :

-6s= - 9,
Ts TA
Angle of twist per unit torsional moment is same for both shafts.

We know that,

or

From Eq. (12.12),

Example 12.18
A solid shaft of 20 cm diameter has the same cross-sectional area as a hollow shaft
of the same material with inside diameter of 15 cm. Find the ratio of horse powers
transtrnjtted by the two shafts at the same angular velocity.
Solution
&lid Shaft Hollow Shafi
O=20cm Dl = 15 cm
Here, it is given that A, = AH and C, = CH(due to same material)

X
A - -X(D:-D~~) = -'IFx ( D ~ ~ - I ~ ~ )
H - 4 4
 Torsion
Since A, = AH,therefore we get,

Now, we know,
Power transmitted by hollow shaft - ---850 7th -
- -TH 1.7.
Power transmitted by solid shaft T, 500 7th
Example 12.19
A thin tube of length L, diameter d and.weight density w per unit volume is used to
transmit torque. The maximum permissible stress for the shaft material isf, .
Determine the torsional strength to weight ratio.
Solution
Length = L
Diameter = d, radius = r
Weight density = w per unit volume

where, t is thickness of the thin tube.

Hence, we get, T = 2x?xtxf,
Weight of shaft, W = 2xrtL3( w (Weight = volume x density)
Torsional strength - - 2~9% - d
Thus,
Weight - W - 27trtLxw Lw
This ratio is very important in aircraft design.
SAQ 6
The external and internal diameters of a hollow shaft are 40 cm and 20 cm
respectively. Find the maximum torque which the shaft can transmit. if the angle of
twist is not to exceed 1" in a length of 10 metres.
Take C = 0.8 x lo6 kg/cm2.

A l~ollowshaft of diameter ratio is required to transmit 500 kW at 110 rpm, thc

8
maximum torque k i n g 20 9% greater than the mean. The shear stress is not to
exceed tiO ~ / r n m ~ the twist in a length of 3 in is not to exceed 1.4".
and
Calculate the maximum extcrnal diameter satisfying these conditions.
Take C = 84 kN/mrn2
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~u~tuoru dlrr~sr~lil
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I ]!UrS"n 01 sr 8 ~ 0111
sasf='JlS auuaq.L I'm
8 OvS sflags t tqptqs sassalp
 0, = CY,
where,
a, ,0, are stress components.
y, ,yo are strain components.
8 is the angle of twist.
$ is the stress function which depends on the shape of the cross-section of the
member. It is called Randtl Stress Function.
t
On combining Eqs. (12.14), (12.15), (12.16) & (12.17) and substituting in
L
Eq. (12.13). we get

If the unit angle of twist 8 is specified for a given torsion member and $ satisfies the
boundary condition, i.e. 0 = 0 on the boundary, then the Eq. (12.18) uniquely determines
the stress function $ (x, y). Once 8 has been determined, the stresses are given by
Eqs. (12.14) and (12.15) and the torque is given by
T = 2 1 1 $hdy (12.19)
Equations of equilibrium for the torsion member are

where, z axis is considered to be the axis of the twist.

12.5.1 S ~ l i dNon-circular Section Shafts
Let the boundary of the cross-section for a given member be specified by the relation

Furthermore, let the torsion member be subjected to a specified unit angle of the twist and
define the stress function by the relation,

where, B is constant. This stress function is the solution of the torsion problems, provided
a 2 ~a 2 ~
F (x, y) = 0 on the lateral surface of the bar and -+ - = constant. Then, the constant
ax2 ay2
B may be determined by substituting Eq. (12.20) into Eq. (12.18).
Elliptical Cross-section
Let the cross-section of a torsion member be bounded by a11 ellipse. The stress
function cp for the elliptical cross-section may be written in following form :

x2
since F (x, y) = - +
h2
'
b2
- 1 = 0 on the boundary.
S * ssea in Shafts & Shells On substituting, we obtain in terms of the geometrical parameters (h,.b), shear
aod Tbennal Stresaw modulus, C and unit angle of twist, 0 which is as follows :

Figure 1223 :Ellipse

With $ determined, the shear stress components for the elliptical cross-section are,

The maximum shear stress&,, occurs at the boundaty nearest the centroid of the
cross-section. Its value is

The torque T for the elliptical cross-section torsion member is obtained by

substituting i$ in Eq. (12.19). Thus, we obtain

Determination of I,, I, and A in terms of b, h, allows us to write

and

~ 7 ~ =bCJ~ h (torsional
~ rigidity)
h2 + h2
Equilateral Triangle Cross-sectloh Torsion

Let the boundary of a torsion member be an equilateral triangle. The stress function
.is given by the following relation :

Proceeding as for the elliptical cross-section, we find

xch4 = GJ (torsional rigidity)

Therefore,

Flpre 1224 :Equilateral Triangle

Rectangular Crw-section
The indirect method used for elliptical cross-section and equilateral cross-section is
not valid for rectangular cross-section. Special methods (Boresi and Chong) are
required to obtain the torsion solution for rectangular cross-sections. Some of the
results are surnmarised here.
The maximum shear stress,&,,, and the angle of the twist, 0, are given by

where,&, ,is the maximum shear stress at the centre of the long side at the
boundary.
Y

Figure 12.25 :Rectangle

 I
Values of the parameters kl and k2 h e tabulated for several values of the ratio bh.
The factor k2C ( 2 4 = CJ (torsional rigidity)
;. J = k, (2b)(2h)'
f,,
,may be expressed in terms of 0.
L,., = 2C0hk3

where, k3 = k2-
kl '
Table 121 :Torsional Parameters per Rectangular Cross-sectlon

?
Other Cross-sectlon
There are many torsions members whose cross-sections are so complex that exact 1
I
analytical solutions are difficult to obtain. However, approximate solutions may be
obtained by Qandtl's membrane analogy.
12.5.2 Thin Walled Non-circular Section Shafts
In the preceding section we saw that the determination of stresses in non circular members
generally requires the use of advanced mathematical methods. In the case of thin walled
hollow non-circular shafts however, a good approximation of the distribution of stresses in
the shaft may be obtained by a single computation.
Consider a hollow cylindrical member of non-circular section subjected to a torsional
loading shown in Figure 12.26.

While the thickness t of the wall may vary within a transverse section, we shall assume
that it remains small compared to the other dimensions of the member. Let us consider a
small portion AB hounded by two transverse planes Ax apart, and by two longitudinal
planes. Since Ule portion AB is in equilibrium, the sum of the forces exerted on it is the
longitudinal x direction must st zero. The forces exerted on the small element are shearing
forces FA and F, .

,
FAmay be expressed as the product of the longitudinal shearing stressf, on the small face
at A and of the area tA . Ax of that face.

Similarly,
 Torsion
On substituting Eqs. (12.22) and (12.23) in Eq. (12.21), we get,
L* ( t A h ) - ~ d ( l B h ) = 0
Of, L A ~=AL R ~ B (12.24j
Eq. (12.24) expresses that the product f, t of the longitudinal shearing stressf, and of the
wall thickness t is constant throughout the member. Denoting this product by V,
q = fs t = constant
This quantity 'q ' is referred to as shearflow in the wall of the hollow shaft.
i We shall now derive a relation between the torque T applied to a hollow member and the
shear flow q in its wall. We consider a small element of the wall section of length ds
shown in Figure 12.27 (a). The area of the element is dA = d, t and the magnitude of the
shearing force d, exerted on the element is

The moment clMo of this force about an arbitrary point o within the cavity of the member
may be obtained by multiplying d F by the perpendicular distance p from o to the line of
the action of d F [Figure 12.27 (b)].

Figure 1227

We have
dM, = p d F = p (q (1s) = q @ ds)
But the product is equal to twice the area cia of the shaded triangle. Thus we have
clM,, = q 2 (la
Integrating

I
Here. dM, represents the sum of the moments of all the elementary shearing forces
exerted in the wall section, and since this sum is equal to the torque T applied to the hollow
member.
I
.-. T = ( 1 =~ q~(2 da)
T = 2qo
where, a is the area bounded by the centre line of the wall cross-section.
The shearing stressf, at'any point of the wall may be expressed in terms of the torque T if
we substitute for q.

where, t is the wall thickness at the point considered and a the area bounded by the centre
line [Figure 12.27 (c)]. For elastic deformation the distribution of stresses across the wall
may be assumed uniform, and the above equation will yield the actual value of the
shearing stress at a given point of the wall.
The angle of twist of a thin-walled hollow shaft may be obtained by using the method of
energy. Assuming the elastic deformation, it may be shown that the angle of twist of a thin
walled shaft of length L and modulus of rigidity Cis as follows :

where the integral is computed along the centre line of the wall section.
The Prandtl Elastic-Membrane (Soap-Film) Analogy
The equation that defines the small displacement of a plane elastic membrane
subject to lateral pressures is identical in mathematical form to the stress function
equation $. Hence, the displacement function of the membrane is mathematically
equivalent to the stress function, provided that the boundary shape of the membrane
is identical to the boundary shape of the cross-section of the torsion member. We
consider the physical and mathematical procedures that lead to a complete analogy
proposed by Randl, between the membrane problem and torsion problem.

PLAN V I E W

K-: I l P F VIE*

g the (x, y) plane that has the same shape as the cross-section
Consider an o ~ n i n in
of the torsion bar to be investigated. Cover the osening with a homogeneous elastic
membrane, such as a soap film, and apply pressure.
At tbe bounday the deflection of the membrane is zero.

Figure 1229
Having the deflection surface of the membrane represented by contour lines, several
important conclusionsiegarding stress distribution in torsion can be obtained.
Consider any point B on the membrane. The deflection of the membrane along the
contour line through this point is constant. We have
 The corresponding equation for the stress function Q is as follows :

This expresses that the projection of the resultant shearing stress at a point B on the
normal N to the contour line is zero and therefore we may conclude that the
shearing stress at a point B in the twisted bar is in the direction of.the tangent to the
contour line through this point. The curves drawn in the cmss-section of a twisted
bar, in such a manner that the resultant shearing stress at any point of the curve is in
the direction of the tangent to the curve, are called lines of shearlng stress. n u s ,
the contour lines of the membrane are the lines of shearing stress for the
cross-section of the twisted bar.
The magnitude of the resultant stressf, at B is obtained by projecting on the tangent
the stress components a,, and a,, . Then
f, = a, cos (N,) - ox,cos (Ny)
On substitution,

-
cln -- &
' % z = a y 9aYZ = ax9 cos (NJ = dn' cos (N,,) dn
we obtain,

Thus, the,magnitude of the shearing stress at B is given by the maximum slope of

the membrane at this point. It is only necessary in the expression for the slope to
replace plS by 2C9.From this it can be concluded that the maximum shear acts at
the points where the contour lines are close to each other.
It can be concluded that double the volume bounded by the deflected membrane and
the xy plane represents the torque, provided plS replaced by 2C9.
1 The membrane analogy is useful not only when the bar is twisted within the elastic
@ limit but also when the material yields in certain positions of the cross-section.
One Side of the Membrane
The pressure causes the membrane to bulge out of the (x, y) plane, forming a curved
surface. If the pressure is small, the slope of the membrane will also be small. Then,
the lateral displacement z (x, y) of the membrane and the Prandtl torsion stress
function Q (x, y) satisfy the same equation in (x, y). Hence, the displacement
z (x, y) of the membrane is mathematically equivalent to the stress function $ (x, y),
provided that z (x, y) and Q (x, y) satisfy the same boundary conditions: This
condition requires the boundary shape of the membrane to be identical to the
boundary shape of the cross-section of the torsion member.
Consider an element ABCD of dimensions dx, dy of the elastic membrane shown in
Figure 12.28.Let 'p ' be the pressure per unit area of the membrane and 'S' be the
uniform tension per unit length of its boundary. Let 'z' be the lateral displacement
of an elastic membrane subjected to a lateral pressure 'y'. The net vertical force due
to the tension S acting along edge A l l of the membrane is

Sdysina = - S d v t a n a = -Sdy- az
ax
d For small displacements, sin a - tan a.
And similarly the net vertical force due to the tension S (assumed to remain constant
for sufficiently srnall values of y) acting along edge BC is

Similarly for edges AB and DC, we obtain

sf mssea in Shafts & Shews The equation of the equilibrium of element is as follows :
and Thermd Stresses

or.

As noted above the Randtl membrane analogy is based on the equivalence of the
torsion equation given below,

a2. a2z P
and the membrane equation, A
az+aJ= - S
By comparing these two equations, we arrive at the following analogous quantities.

z = k$,e=k2ce
S
where k is a constant of proportionality.

Hence,

Assuming that the shearing stress remains constant during yielding, the stress
distribution in the elastic zone of the cross-section is represented by the membrane
as before, but in the plastic zone the stress will be given by a swface having a
constant maximum slope corresponding to the yield stress.
Example 12.20
The rectangular section torsion member shown in Figure 12.30 has width of 40 mm.
The fust 3 m length of the torsion member has a depth of 60 mm, and the remaining
1.5 m length has a depth of 30 rnm. The torsion member is made of steel for which
C = 77.5 GPa. For T,= 750 N m and T2= 400 N m, determine the ~llllximumshear
stress in the torsion member. Detennine the angle of twist of the free end. The
support at the left end prevents rotation of this cross-section but does not prevent
warping.

Figure 12.30

b 30
For the left portion of the torsion member, - = - = 1.5
h 20
h
FromTable 12.1,for- = 1.5, we get, kl = 0.231, k2 = 0.196.
h
b 20
For the right portion of the torsion member, - = - = 1.33
h 15
b
Interpolating for - = 1.33, we get, kl = 0.223, k2 = 0.178
h
The torque in the left portion of the torsion member is
T = T1+T2 = 1.15kNm
The maximum shear stress in tl~isportion of the torsion member is
 Torsion
The torque in the right portion of the torsion member is equal to T2= 400 N m.
The maximum shear stress in this portion of the torsion member is
- 400,000 = 49.8 MPa
"" - 0.223 (40) (30)'
Hence, the maximum shear stress occurs in the left porti~nof the torsion member
and is equal to 5 1.9 MPa.
The angle of twist 8 is equal to the sum of the angles of twist for the left and right
portions of the torsion member.
Thus, we get,

0 = 0.0994 radian.
Example 12.21
Usingf, = 40 MPa, determine the largest torque which may be applied to each of
the brass bars and to the brass tube shown in Figure 12.31. Note that the two solid
bars have the same cross-sectional area, and that the square bar and square tube
have the same outside dimensioi~s.

Figure 1231

Solution
Bar with the Square Cross-section
For a solid bar of rectangular cross-section, the maximum stress is given by,

For -= 20 = 1. we get k1 = 0.208 : k2 = 0.141

-
h 20
Here, f,,
,= f,d l = 40 MPa.

Thus,

7'1
40 MPa =
0.208 x (0.04)x (0.04)'

Bar with Rectangular Cross-section

b 32
For - - - - - 2.56
h 12.5
By interpolating, we get, k, = 0.259
-
Thus,
Stresses in Shafts & Sheb
a d Thennal Strases

Square Tube
For a tube of thickness t, the shearing stress is given by
T

where a is the area bounded by the centre line of the cross-section.

T3
Thus, 40 MPa =
2 ~ 0 . 0 0 6x 1.156 x 10"

Structural alumirt~u~ll tubilrg of 60 mln x 100 nlnl n:ctsilgu!arcr..!~:..; . . i . i i , . , i . ,. ,,

fabricated by extrusio~i.Deler~uinethe shearing stress ill each i)!' ~h;.r i $ i : l .;. : i t . - I ; :
[)orlion of such tuhirlg n:hen it is .;uhj~:cti.d to a torque o C 3 kh rlr. ;!s,i:ii;ii;lm.:
( a ) a urnform4 nun wall ~ h ~ c i u ~[Flpure
css 12.32 (a)]. ar~d
(h) thal ;is n result of clttfcclivc fabrication, wails ,113 : m ! A C are :i~ r ~ li lt ~i : i : ~ ,;,ti:,;
walls Bl:) a11J C'il ;~rc.5 null l l i i ~ k1F'ig;lft: 1 2.32

Figure 12.32

12.6 CONCEPT OF PLASTIC TORSION

Consider a torsion member made of an elastic-perfectly plastic material, that is, one whose
shear stress-straindiagram is flat-topped at the shear yield stressf, . As the torque is
gradually increased, yielding starts at one or more places on the boundary of the
cross-section and spreads inward with increasing torque. Finally, the entire cross-section
becomes plastic at the limiting, fully plastic torque.
We know that

These equations are valid for both the elastic and plastic regions of each cross-section of a
torsion member. At the fully.plastic torque, the resultant shear stress isf, =.fv at every
point in the cross-section.
 Torsion

and

This equation uniquely determines the stress function Q, (x, y) for a given torsion member
for fully plastic conditions. Since the unit angle of twist does not appear in the equation,
the deformation (twist) of the torsion member is not specified at the fully plastic torque.
Eq. (12.26) is used to construct the stress function surface for the cross-section of a given
torsion member at fully plastic torque. We know that Q, = 0 on the boundary. Eq. (12.26)
indicates that the absolute value of niaximum slope of Q, everywhere in the cross-section is
a constant equal to f, ; therefore, the magnitude of Q, at a point is equal tof, times its
distance from the nearest boundary, measured along the perpendicular from the point to
the nearest boundary. The contour curves of constant Q, are perpendicular to the direction
of maximum slope and hence, are parallel to the nearest boundary.
Consider the problem of constructing the stress function Q, for a square cross-section with
sides 2a, as indicated in Figure 12.33. At a given point P, the resultant shear stress isf,
and is directed along a contour curve of constant Q,: the elevation of the stress function at
point P is equal to f, times its perpendicular distance to the nearest boundary. The stress
function Q, for the square cross-section is a pyramid of height (f, a). This condition is
so-called sand heap analogy, because sand poured on a flat plate with the same dimensions
as the cross-section of the torsion member tends to form a pyramid similar to that indicated
in Figure 12.33.

BOUNDARY @:o

CONTOUR CURVE OF
CONSTANT @

Figure 1233 :Stress Function Surface f o r a Fully Plantic Square Cross-section

The fully plastic torque Tpfor the square cross-section may be obtained by means of
T = 2 JJ~,dx~r4v
which indicates that the torque is equal to twice the volume under the stress function.
Since the volume of a pyramid is equal to one third-of the area of the base times the height.

The fully plastic torques for a few con&n cross-sections are listed in Table 12.2 and are
compared with maximum elastic solutions for these cross-sections. Expressions for the
fully plastic torques for a number of eomnon structural sections are listed in Table 12.3.
I In the calculations of the fully plastic torque for a hollow torsion member, the method of
analysis is similar to that for elastic torsion of the hollow torsion member, since the sbess
function @ (x, y) is flat-topped (has zero slope) over the hollow region of the torsion
member. In order to simplify the analysis, only hollow torsion members of constant wall
thickness are considered. For such torsion members, the fully plastic torque, Tpis obtained
by subtraction from the fully plastic torque, T,,of a solid torsion member having the
boundary of the outer cross-section, tlic fully plastic torque, T,,of a solid torsion memhcr
having a cross-section identical to tlie hollow region.
Stresses in Shafts & SheMn Thus, for such members,
and TRenral Stresues

Table 12.2 :OY, Ty,TI and %for !%me Common Cmss-sections

TP
Maximum Elastic
Section Torque (TY)and Unit
Torque (Tp)
Angle of Twist (%)
squan? 8 3
Ty = 1.664fsy a3 5fv a
f
2 a
=
,
1.475 f,
2Ca
1.605

+: 2a -4
L
Rectangle 8 2 20 3
I--za tl TY = 7fsyba -f,3 a 1.69

T, = 3.936 f, a"
1.074fV 1.SO
b/a=2 2Cn 4fSYba2

Equilateral Triangle 2 247 3

TY = m f v y f va 1.67

ey = 2?Y
Ca

ka-+
--
circle R 2n 3
Ty = fv a3 7 fa ~ 1.33

9 = &Y
Ca

Example 12.22
A rectangular section torsion member has dimension of 100 mm by 200 mm and is
made of a steel for which the shear yield point is f, = 100 MPa. Detennine Tpfor
the cross-section and the ratio of T, to Ty ,where Ty is the maximum elastic torque.
Solutbn
Here, 2a = '100 mu and 2b = 200 mm

For -nh --
, 50
= 2, Ty = 3.9361,n3

Now, Ty = 3.936 x 100 x (50)~ = 49200 N m

 20 20
Also, T, = -f, $ = -x 100 x ( 5 0 ) ~= 83333.33 N m
3 3

Thus, we get, - 83333'33 = 1.6938

49200
Table 12.3 :Tp for Some Common Structural Sectlons

Section Code Section Diagram

(a>

(b) &,I

(c)

I--- a ---4 Fa+

-
-7-
[p7
(dl
tl < t2

1 2 E2
k a - + Fa+

(e>
tl > t2

+ ---I a +'--I
Stress- in S b A & Shells Fully Plastic Torque (Tp)for various section codes (Table 12.3) are as follows :
and Thermal Strevsea

For (a) T~ = fi.?(:+b-if)

\ 1

For (b) [
TP = fsy 4 2[b-$]+$[a+~)-ilt:]

For (d)

t13
For (e) a t ~ + b t ~ -3 - - t ~ t l )

12.7 SUMMARY
(1) A shaft of circular section is said to be in pure torsion when it is subjected to equal
and opposite end couples whose axes coincide with the axis of the shaft.
(2) The product of the turning force and the distance between the point of application of
the force and the axis of the shaft is known as torque, turning moment or twisting
moment.
(3) When a shaft is subjected to a torque, then

where,
q = Intensity of shear stress on a layer, at a distance r from the centre of the shaft,
fs= 'Intensity of shear stress on the outermost layer of the shaft i.e. a distance R
from the centre of Che shaft,
C = Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material,
0 = Angle (in radians) through which the cross-section of the shaft has been
twisted as a.result of the torque, and
I = Length of the shaft.
(4) Polar monlent of inertia denoted by J, is the moment of inertia of a plane area with
respect to an a.xis perpendicular to the plane of the figure i.e. moment of inertia about
Z axis. For shatt section, J is moment of inertia about the axis of the shaft.

J =
It04
-- (for solid shaft)
32

J = -
k
32 (4'- D : )
(for hollow shaft)

where, D = Diaiueter of the solid shaft,

11, = Intenlal diameter of the hollow shaft, and
D2 = Extenial diameter of the hollow shaft.
J
( 5 ) The ten11 -
R
is known as torsional section modulus or polar modulus, Z,,,.

7e03
Thus, polar modulus for n solid shaft. 5=16
Polar modulus for a hollow shaft. Zp =
1 6D2 (D; - D: )
(6) Strength of the shaft is defined as the maximum torque or power the shaft can
transmit from one pulley to another. It is also known as resisting torque or torsional
moment of resistance.
 IC Torsion
For solid shaft. T = ig fs D'

IC
For hollow shaft, T = -
1602
fs (D:- D;')

where, fs = maximum shear stress at the outermost layer.

The torsion equation is

The torque required for unit twist

(3
. ?
is called the torsional stiffness of the shaft.
T
Torque divided by the angle of twist per unit length -is called the torsional
0/L
rigidity. It is also equal to C x J,
The shearing strain is maximum ($,,,) on the surface of the shaft where r = R.

The shearing strain @ at any distance r from the axis of the shaft as

9 =

Power transmitted by the shaft is as follows :

,
r
9max

p = - 2 M hp (in MKS Units)

4500
p =-
2* watts (in SI units)
60
= T o watts

where, - - angular displacements in radiawsec.

o = -2rCN
60
N = Number of revolution per minute.
When a thin tube of circular section of diameter D and thickness ' t ' subjected to a
torque T,

The shear stress,& = - 1

~ Z R ~ T
4 TL
and the angle of twist, 0 = -
ICn3tc
(14) For non circular cross-sections, the torque is equal to twice the volume between the
stress function and the plane of the cross-section.
T = 21 J @ d x d Y
(15) For thin walled non-circular section shafts,
T
the shear stress.& = 3and

the angle of twist, 0 =

TL
T &
4u C t
where the integral is computed along the centre line of the wall section.
n is the area bounded by the centre line of the wall cross-section and t is the
thickness of the thin tube.
(16) The Prandtl's membrane analogy is used for Inany torsion members, whose
cross-sections are so complex that exact analytical solutions are difticult to obtain.
(17) The Prandtl's niembrane analogy is based on the equivalence of following :
Str~ssesm S h d & SbeRe the torsion equation :
and Thennal Stresses

and, the membrane equation :

where, $ = the stress function,,

Z = the lateral displacement due to lateral pressure p, and
S = the surface tension.
(18) When a torsion member made of an elastic-perfectly plastic material, subjected to a
torque and if the entire cross-section becomes plastic at the limiting, then the member
is said to be subjected to fully plastic torque.

12.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
Torque based on shear stress,

Torque based on angle of twist,

The maximum torque then can be applied safely to the shaft is smaller of the above
two values, i.e. 222.7 x lo6 N mm.
SAQ 2

We know,

T = 3.183 x lo3N m = 3.183 x lo6N mm

Diameter of the shaft based on its strength, i.e. stress,

Diameter of the shaft based on its stiffness, i.e. angle of twist,

The required shaft diameter will be the larger of the above two values,
i.e. 82.55 mm.
SAQ 3

We have,
SAQ 4

We have, T = -It f , ~ =~3605Nm

16

P = 67.95 kW
SAQ 5
Power of the shaft, P = 45 kW = 45,000 W
Let the torque between B and C of the shaft be TBC.

Also.

Thus, LBC= 25.94 ~ / m m ~

Similarly, f,, = 58.36 ~ / m m ~
Hence, the greatest shear stress occurs in the 50 mm diameter shaft.
Therefore, Maximum shear stress = 58.36 ~ / m r n ~ .
Twist of the Shaft
Let OBc be the twist of the shaft portion BC,

Let OBA be the twist of the shaft BA.

:. Angle of twist of A with respect to C = QBA+ QBc

0 = 0.10986 + 0.01626 = 0.12613 radian
0 = 7'14'
SAQ 6

We have,

Maximum torque, T = 3290 x lo3kg cm

Stwses m Shafb & Shells SAQ 7
a d Thennal Stresses
We have,

Therefore, T = Tm, = 43.4 x lo6N mm

.
Tm, = 1.2Tm, = 52.08 x lo6 N mm
We shall find out the diameter of the shaftboth for its strength and stiffness.
For strength,

We have,

D2 = 1 . 6 5 102mm
~ = 165mm
For stiffness,

We have,
T -
C8
J 1

Also,

Suitable diameter for the shaft is 298 mm, i.e. greater of the two values.
SAQ 8
For strength,

For stiffness,
T - C8
We have,
J 1

Thus, I get, -
16m2 .-- 32Tl
-
~ f , RC8
 Torsion
We have, p = - 2-
60

Putting the value of T in following equation :

Thus, we get, Dl = 120.9 mm

SAQ 9

We have,

T = 38.197 x 10' N m = 38.197 x lo6 N mm

Let D be the diameter of the solid shaft.
T --f -
- s
We have,
J* R*

D = 134.47 mm
Let D, and D, are the internal and external diameters of the hollow shaft.

(134.47)~- [(137.4212- (68.711~1

.'. Saving in weight = x 100
(134.47)~
= 21.7 %
SAQ 10

Safe twisting moment, T = 7th 9 r

---2

4TL
Twist of the tube, 0 = -
nD3rc

= 0.016 radian = 0.917'

Stresses in Shafts & Shells SAQ 11
and Thermal Stresses
Tubing of Uniform Wall Thickness
The area bounded by the centre line. a = 96 mm x 56 mm = 5.376 x 1 0 - h 2
96mm -r( shear stress in each wall,fr = -
T
2ra
3x103~m
-
2x( 4x m)x (5.376 x m2
= 69.8 MPa
Tubing with Variable Wall Thickness
Observing that the area a bounded by the centre line is the same as in the case of
uniform wall thickness and substituting successively I = 3 mm and r = 5 mm.
3 x l d ~ m
fr*a = 'A' = 2 x (3 x = 93.0 MPa
m) (5.376 x rn2)
and

Thus, we note that the stress in a given wall depends only upon its thickness.