VALUES EDUCATION

LET REVIEW UNIVERSITY

THE PERCEIVED SELF

Is composed of a set of self-cognitions regarding one’s traits, competencies and values. It is
reinforced through feedback. The type of feedback, which an individual receives, determines the
standard to measure the ideal self.

THE IDEAL SELF

Represents the set of traits, competencies and values an individual would like to possess.
Internalized competencies and values have been suggested as the basis of the ideal self and as an
internal standard for behavior. (Bandura, 1986)

SOCIAL IDENTITIES
Are those aspects of the individual’s self-concept that are derived from the social categories to which
he or she perceives him/herself as belonging to. Social identities link individuals to reference groups,
which establish a set of role expectations and norms that guide the individual’s behavior within each
of the social identities. For example: the identity of a Principal may be associated with leadership and
order (traits), analytical ability and competence (competencies), service and commitment (values).
These aspired traits, competencies and values associated, serve as the basis for the ideal self once
established the attributes then reinforced the identity.

SELF-ESTEEM
The evaluative component of the self-concept (Rosenberg 1998). It is the function of the distance
between the ideal self-perceived self. When the perceived self matches the ideal self, self-esteem is
relatively high. Low self-esteem occurs when the perceived self is significantly lower than the ideal
self. So how does one achieve Self-Esteem?

You must be competent to live: which means, be rational. You must deserve to live: which means, be
virtuous. Which denies from rationality? Thus, the key to self-esteem is a life of unbreeched
rationality. Then you can trust your mind, because your use of reason is uncompromised. Then you
are virtuous, because all of the virtues are expressions of rationality.

BECOMING MORE SELF-AWARE:

1. Understanding one’s attitude and emotions.
2. Explaining and disclosing your feelings
3. Request for feedback from others.

SELF DEVELOPMENT
Values are the beliefs, which we hold to be true - those noble ideals we struggle to attain and
implement in our daily lives. Derived from the natural and moral laws and not from an individual’s
opinions and feelings. They are based on objective, eternal and universal truths (e.g., freedom,
justice, peace, love family solidarity). Also rooted in a personal view of what works and does not work;
they may be accepted practices and ways of acting of a given people during a given period of time.
Are an integral part of human existence; as such they relate
to every aspect of life?

Values can be viewed as priorities that relate to a person’s behavior. Specifically, they are the
priorities one is motivated to act upon.
1. Academic formation – human intellect (to know the truth)
2. Personal formation - human will (to act, to choose good)
3. As part of the school curriculum – is the process values are formed in the learner under the
guidance of the teacher.
4. As a subject – values education has direct and immediate relevance to the personal life of the
learner
5. It is holistic because it involves all faculties of the learner.

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DECS (DEPED) VALUES EDUCATION PROGRAM (1988)
This program was motivated by the 1986 EDSA Revolution. It was also inspired by the 1987
Constitution that envisions a “just and humane society” for the Filipinos. This vision calls for a shared
culture and commonly held values such as “truth, justice, love, equality and peace.”

PHILOSOPHY OF VALUES EDUCATION PROGRAM:

Values Education is based on a rational understanding of the human person, specifically on
understanding of the Filipino as a human being in society and his/her role in the shaping of society
and the environment. The task of education is to help the Filipino know themselves better, develop
his/her potential, contribute to the growth of the Philippine culture, and must be able to bind together
human and non-human resources for the attainment of a just and humane society.

FORCES THAT SHAPE CONTEMPORARY VALUES

A. Foundation of the Filipinos’ Oriental Nature (Pre-colonial Filipino Values). Aeta, Indonesian,
Malayan, Hindu, Arabian, Chinese Interpersonal and social relationships revolve around blood ties,
marriage and ritual kinship.

a. Spanish influence
Spanish influence is manifested in our religious, political, economic, educational life, language, dress
and diet. Most of the population was converted to Hispanic Catholicism, and the visible aspects of
culture (e.g., personal names, vocabulary, urban architecture, fine arts, dress, cuisine, and customs)
were profoundly influenced or modified. (Harper and Fullerton, 1994)

Centuries of Spanish rule also imposed a severe colonial mentality and left Filipinos with “a legacy of
attitudes that are firmly embedded in society such as, equating light skin with beauty and high status,
the identification of anything foreign with superiority and indigenous with inferiority, and a conception
of officialdom as a system serving its own ends, not those of the people” (Gochenour, 1990, p. 6)

b. Americanization of Filipinos
American influences manifested in our political and social outlook. With the introduction of a
democratic system of government we became aware of our rights and privileges. The popularization
of education gave us the opportunity for –social mobility. Americans in the presumed spirit of white
paternalism and benevolence saw themselves as best owners of education, religion, public health,
development, and democracy to their “little brown brothers” (Gochenour, 1990). In fact, the American
educational system was adopted, and English (which children were required to speak in school) was
made the official language (Kang, 1996).

c. Japanese Occupation
Japanese influences manifested our love of work. Dignity of labor and working hard were one of the
values that Filipinos were widely known. This is evident because many Filipinos nowadays are
working abroad. Almost everywhere Filipinos are at hand working hard to earn more to support their
family. Many countries choose Filipinos to work in their country because they know of Filipinos’
perseverance and hard work.

FAMILY VALUES
The typical Filipino individual exist first and foremost as a member of a family and looks to the family
as the only reliable protection against the uncertainties of life. (Gochenour, 1990, p. 18)

Reliance on the family for love, support, and refuge has historically been as much an economic
necessity as it is a cultural tradition. The family is the source of one’s personal identity and of
emotional and material support. It also is the focus of one’s primary duty and commitment.
Dependence on, loyalty to, and solidarity with the family and kin group are of the highest priority
(Okamura and Agbayani, 1991).

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Family loyalty also might dictate that a young parent temporarily leaves his or her family and children
in order to pursue better educational, training, or employment opportunities in other countries
(Santos, 1983). This sense of family obligation begins early on when children are conditioned to be
grateful to their parents for their birth. A lifelong debt of gratitude or utang na loob (“debt from within”)
thereby creates binding relationships of love, respect, and obedience (PAPEP), 1982).

ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTS AND OTHER VALUES

Critics of the 1960s values studies maintain that concepts such as pakikisama, hiya, Amor propio,
and utang na loob have been inappropriately generalized from vernacular terms associated with
specific behaviors and situations into all pervading, organizing values and trait complexes (Lawless,
1969). They have been perceived as a central core of fundamental culture traits that create and
define an almost stereotypic Filipino character and have further been accepted as valid by scholars,
foreigners, and Filipino in general (Okamura and Agbayani, 1991).

Studies of Filipino values have focused on significantly fewer abstract concepts. A Philippine Senate
commissioned task force in 1988 conducted one of the most comprehensive of the Filipino character:

pakikipagkapwa-tao (having a regard for the dignity and being of others), family orientation, joy and
humor, flexibility, adaptability and creativity, hard work and industry, faith and religiosity and ability to
survive (Licuanan, 1988).

Each of this characteristic strengthens the Filipinos ability to survive and endure despite difficult times
and often little resources. Moreover, these characteristic cluster around distinctly religious beliefs and
a deep faith in God. This faith is evident in Filipinos’ ability to accept reality (including failure and
defeat) in terms of God’s will and to adopt a philosophical/religious attitude that cushions them from
disappointments. Filipino faith is related to the concept of bahala na (“it’s up to God” or “Leave it to
God”), which has tended to be incorrectly equated with an expression of fatalism and a passive
acceptance or resignation to fate. Bahala na can instead be viewed more positively as determination
in the face of uncertainty or stressful, problematic conditions. Although it is an indication of an
acceptance of the nature of things, including one’s own inherent limitations, bahala na operates
psychologically to elevate one’s courage and conviction to persist in the face of adversity and to
improve one’s situation (Enriquez, 1987; Okamura and Agbayani, 1991).

Apart from the more fundamental Filipino personality characteristics and values are those related to
physical appearance. Spanish and American colonial rule reinforced the Filipino tendency to equate
light complexion with high social status. “White” meant everything associated with the ruling classes:
worth, beauty, desirability, and power. The lighter skinned Filipino usually has either Chinese or
Spanish blood in the family line, but having Spanish ancestors is likely to be appoint of pride
(Gochenour, 1990).

Status is further integrally linked to education. Filipinos view education as a “passport to good jobs,
economic security, social acceptance, and as a way out of cycle of poverty and lower-class status,
not only for their children, but also for the whole family” (Santos, 1983, p.146). Education, then, is not
an individual but a family concern and considered to be an economic investment toward which family
members must contribute significant effort and often personal sacrifice. Once

VALUES EDUCATION
This practice reflects the value of utang na loob in which the debt of gratitude incurred to the whole
family ensures the graduate’s contribution to the family welfare, which takes precedence over
individual economic and social mobility (Santos, 1983). Thus, degree, diplomas, certificates, good
grades, and academic honor are much sought after symbols. Such achievements are typically
recognized with great pride and significant attention by extended family, friends, and the larger
community. Moreover, if one is well educated, Filipinos expect that person to talk, act.

THEORIES OF VALUES FORMATION

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1. Psycho-Analytic Theory
Psycho-Analytic Theory (Sigmund Freud) suggest that unconscious forces act to determine
personality and behavior. To Freud, the unconscious is that part of the personality about which a
person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs that are hidden,
because of their disturbing nature, from conscious awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious
is responsible for a good part of our everyday behavior.

2. Behaviorist View
Behaviorist View (John B. Watson) The behavioral perspective suggests that the keys to
understanding developing are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. If we know
the stimuli, we can predict the behavior. Behavioral theories reject the notion that individuals
universally pass through a series of stages.

Instead, people are assumed to be affected by the environmental stimuli to which they happen to be
exposed. Developmental patterns, then, are personal, reflecting a particular set of environmental
stimuli, and development is the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment.

3. Social-Cognitive Learning
Social-cognitive learning theorist Albert Bandura, when we see the behavior of a model being
rewarded, we are likely to imitate that behavior. Behavior is learned through observation and
imitation, not conditioning through reinforcement or punishment.

4. Cognitive Theory.
The cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think
about the world. The cognitive perspective emphasizes how people internally represent and think
about the world. There are two major theories:

No single person has had a greater impact on the study of cognitive development that Jean Piaget.
He proposed that all people pass is a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive
development. In each stage, he suggested that not only did the quantity of information increase, but
so did the quality of knowledge and understanding. Piaget suggests that the growth in children’s
understanding of the world can be explained by two basic principles. Assimilation is the process in
which people understand an experience in terms of their current state of cognitive development and
way of thinking. In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing
ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.

5. Socio-Cultural Theory
Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky proposes that a full understanding of development is impossible
without considering the culture in which children develop. Socio-cultural theory proposes that
children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with
adults and other children.

As children play and cooperate with others, they learn what is important in their society, and at the
same time, advance cognitively in their understanding of the world.

6. Ecological Theory.
The Ecological model, the major proponent of which is Urie Bronfenbrenner, seeks to explain
individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of the guidance, support, and
structure provided by society and to explain social change over time in terms of the cumulative effect
of individual choices (Berger, 2000).

According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, each person is significantly affected by interactions among a

number of overlapping ecosystems. At the center of the model is the individual.

Microsystems are the systems that intimately and immediately shape human development.
The primary microsystems for children include the family, peer group, classroom, neighborhood, and
sometimes a church, temple, or mosque as well. Interactions among the microsystems, as when
parents and teachers coordinate their efforts to educate the child, take place through the
mesosystem.
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Surrounding the microsystems is the exosystem, which includes all the external networks, such as
community structures and local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems that
influence the microsystems. And influencing all other systems is the macrosystem, which includes
cultural values, political philosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. Together, these
systems are termed the social context of human development.

7. Humanism Theory.
The humanistic perspective contends that people have a natural tendency to make decisions about
their lives and control behavior. The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of
humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives.

Carl Rogers suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying
wish to be loved and respected. Because it is other people who provide this positive regard, we
become dependent on them. Consequently, our view of our self-worth and ourselves is a reflection of
how we think others view us.

8. Evolutionary Theory.
The Evolutionary Theory stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution,
and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods (Santrock, 1999).

Evolutionary approaches grow out of the groundbreaking work of Charles Darwin. The evolutionary
perspective is also referred to as Ethological or Biological.

Konrad Lorenz discovered that newborn geese are genetically preprogrammed to become attached
to the first moving object they see after birth. His work, which demonstrated the importance of
biological determinants in influencing behavior patterns, ultimately led mentalists to consider the ways
in which human behavior might reflect inborn genetic patterns.

The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the field of
lifespan development, behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics studies the effects of heredity and
genetics on behavior. As technology improves, and researchers continue to map the human genome,
there is an increasing understanding of the role and function of the genetic codes and their influence
on development.

9. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

There exist structural bases that determine the process of perceiving value. This series of
progression depends on the person’s interaction with the environment. Moral reasoning is related to
moral behavior.

A. ETHICS
1. Ethics – comes from the Greek word ethos, meaning character or custom. According to Robert
C. Solomon, the etymology of ethics suggests its basic concern: (1) individual character, what
is meant by ‘good person’, and (2) the social rules that govern and limit our conduct, especially
the ultimate rules concerning right and wrong, which we call morality.

B. MORALITY
THE TERM MORALITY CAN BE USED EITHER:
1. Descriptively to refer to a code of conduct put forward by a society and that it is used as a
guide to behavior by the members of that society,
a. some other group, such as religion, or
b. accepted by an individual for her/his own behavior
2. Normatively to refer to a code of conduct that, given specified conditions, would be put forward
by all rational persons for governing the behavior of all moral agents.

PUBLIC SYSTEM REFERS TO GUIDE TO CONDUCT SUCH THAT

1. all persons to whom it applies all those whose behavior is to be guided and judged by that
system, know what behavior the system prohibits, requires, discourages, encourages, and
allows; and

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 2. it is not irrational for any of these persons to accept being guided and judged by that system.
a. refers to a code of conduct put forward by a society or some other group, such as
religion, or accepted by an individual for his/her own behavior.
b. also refers to a code of conduct that, given specified conditions would be put forward by
all rational persons.
c. refers to a doctrine or system of conduct relative to principles of right and wrong. It
encompasses

C. NATURE OF MORALITY
1. Moral talk is normative – meant to guide action it is often manifested by words like should,
ought, permitted, right and wrong when the action is prescribed and proscribe, exhort and
discourage, judge, praise and condemn actions.
2. Moral talk is evaluative – it refers to moral value of things, what matters morally and why. It is
manifested by words like good, valuable, important, fundamental, precious, sacred and
meaningful.

Morality as it relates to our behavior is important on three levels: (CS. Lewis)

1. To ensure fair play and harmony between individuals
2. To help make us good people in order to have a good society
3. To keep us in good relationship with the power that created us.

MORALITY AND OUR CONSCIENCE

Morality affects our daily choices, and those decisions are guided by our conscience. Many people
believe that our conscience is matter of the heart, and the basic concepts of right; wrong and fairness
are inherent in all of us.

The purpose of morality is to provide a frame work of optimum human survival. The standard of
morality, however, is absolute and immutable – long-term optimum human survival.

TRUE FREEDOM

The way forward involves liberation from both false freedom and moralism. Moral action is possible
only for a being that is free.

Freedom let the will to choose gives space for creativity, and implies release from determining factor.
Nevertheless, true freedom implies not only the power of self-chosen action but also the proper
orientation power. The power to do whatever he/she wants to do is not a true freedom because true
freedom is oriented to goodness.

Freedom includes the power to choose evil, but freedom is fulfilled and enhanced and sustained only
by choosing the good abusing liberty leads to losing it.

MORAL INTUITION
The more carefully you think through your great decision, the more spontaneous you will be in the
host of situations covered by those decisions. Though few have an appetite for studying and
discussing difficult moral cases, the intellectual dimension to morality is nonetheless essential. When
actions are not governed by our best thinking we are usually in the current of emotions whose
guidance is less reliable.

Human Acts – are actions performed by an agent with conscious knowledge and are subject to the
control of the will.

Acts of Man – are actions that are instinctive and involuntary and are not within the control of the will.

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS

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 1. Moral actions – are those actions that are in conformity with the norm of morality. They are
good actions and are permissible.
2. Immoral Actions – are those actions that are not in conformity with the norm of morality. They
are bad or evil actions and are not permissible.
3. Amoral Actions – are actions, which stand neutral in relation to the norms of morality. They are
either good or bad in themselves. But certain amoral actions may become good or bad
because of the circumstances intended to them.
4. Normal of Morality – are the standards that indicate the rightfulness or wrongfulness, the
goodness or evilness, the value or disvalue of a thing (R. Agapay, 1991) Kinds of Law
5. Natural Law – is a moral obligation that arises from human nature, compelling an individual to
be true to his nature as tao (R. Agapay, 1991)
6. Eternal Law – reveals the will of God. It contains the divine blueprints which bring order into
the universe because they direct all of creation and creatures to their respective end-goals (St.
Augustine)
7. Moral Law – contains universal truths and ethical principles that ought to guide the individual
conduct of man in matters of right and wrong (E. Esteban).

The determinants of morality in any given action

1. The morality of any given action is determined by three elements,

a. The end in view
b. The means taken
c. The Circumstances

Whoever knows this principle, does not thereby know the right and wrong of every action, but he/she
knows how to go about the enquiry. It is a rule of diagnosis?

The end of view may be either single, as when you forgive an injury solely for the love of Christ; or
multiple coordinate, as when you forgive both for the love of Christ and for the mediation of a friend,
and are disposed to forgive on either ground separately; or multiple subordinate, as when you would
not have forgiven on the latter ground alone, but forgive the more easily for its addition, having been
ready, however, to forgive on the former alone: or cumulative, as when you forgive on a number of
grounds collectively, on no one of which would you have forgiven apart from the rest.

Where there is no outward action, but only an internal act, and the object of that act is some good that
is willed for its own sake, there can be no question of means taken, as the end in view is immediately
attained.

HUMAN RIGHTS

Traditionally, human rights are defined as titles or claims to certain material and spiritual goods, or to
have access to such goods in order or human person to live a dignified life.

KINDS OF RIGHTS
A. PERSONAL RIGHTS
1. Right to life- primary condition of all human rights or the obvious reason that only person who
are alive that they can exercise their rights and thereby accomplish their mission in life.
2. Right to One’s Person- right over our own bodies and bodily faculties and energies. St. Paul
emphasized that our body is the temple of the Holy Spirit.
3. Right to One’s Personality- persons have the right to develop their own individual character.

B. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL RIGHTS

1. Right to Education- it is our right to avail of all possible means and opportunities to help us
develop physically, intellectually, spiritually and socially.
2. Right to Conscience- when it come to moral decisions, all human persons have the right to act
in accordance to their moral conscience.

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 3. Right to Religion- in so far as person is bound to seek the truth and accordingly worship the
Creator, they have the natural right to relate to God and to freely express and develop this
relationship within the teachings and practices of their chosen religion.

SOCIAL RIGHTS
1. Right to Honor/Respect- it refers to the credibility and esteem persons enjoy in the society.
2. Right to Free expression- refers to right to speak and right of assembly.
3. 3.Right to organize- we have the right to organize like organizations, that makes up an
essential ingredient of a free society.

VALUES EDUCATION | CHRISTIAN ETHICS

Ethics has something to do with the nourishment of right doings and the rejection of wrong doings.

CHRISTIAN ETHICS
1. Man is motivated to survive and to be good always because of mortality and the promise of
everlasting happiness after death.
2. It is a Humanistic Ethics in the sense that it requires a unique ethical obligations or unique
ethical source.
3. Obligation in the sense that we need and we must do good always for us to reach heaven.
4. Ethical courses in the sense that Scripture and church teaching makes things right or wrong
(legalism)

IT HAS TWO- FOLD SENSE:

1. Christian meaning -we are gifted with a profound Christian vision of the meaning of the world,
deeper understanding of the human person’s dignity as God’s image, and a clearer sense of
their final destiny.
2. Christian motivation -it focuses on behavior motivated by natural law, usually the law of Christ.
(suffered, died, arose out of love to mankind)

Filipinos have moral obligations motivated by a “must principle". if I do that what are the
consequences. If I don’t, again what are the possible consequences.

1. To respect my parents the value of honor and being caring.

2. I do afraid of the golden rule.
3. To be honest in the examination
4. The value of fairness and justice.
5. Hurt one’s self worth and violates the community's justice system.
6. To go to mass on Sunday with God and others.
7. The intrinsic nature of Diminishes one’s man, as related to God basic relationship and others.
8. To avoid going to sex parlors
9. Value of chastity of being true to one’s sexual integrity as a person.
10. Abuse of the God – given gift of sexuality.
11. To protect the secrets of a friend
12. The value of confidentiality
13. Destroys the reputation of another and violates the core of friendship.

FILIPINO ETHICS
1. We share on Universal Ethics and Morality but with a distinct Filipino flavor. Idea of moderation
such as in Greek; “meden agan”, and in Roman “ in medio stat virtus” with Filipino equivalent ; “Hindi
labis, hindi kulang, katamtaman lamang.”

The golden rule of Confucious is categorically imperative with Emilio Jacinto’s, “ Ang di mo ibig na
gawin sa asawa mo, anak at kapatid, ay huwag mong gagawin sa asawa, anak at kapatid ng iba”.

Another, is the eastern concept of “Harmony in Opposites” e.g. “Ang buhay ng tao’y gulong ang
kahambing:sa ibabaw ngayon, bukas sa ilalim” or “ malapit ma’t di lakarin,ay hindi mo mararating”

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2. When we speak of Filipino values – it does not mean it cannot be found to other cultures and
people. It is with a rank or priority depending on the culture.

FILIPINO ETHICS
1. China and Japan- great value in propriety and beauty
2. America – in promptness and efficiency
3. Filipinos- pakikisama and pagkatao

3. Due to different contexts, filipino values like Family centeredness, authoritarianism, smooth
interpersonal relations, hiya, kinship system, utang na loob, awa,

WITH FIVE PRINCIPLES ON:

1. Pagsasarili
2. Pagkakaisa
3. Pakikisama
4. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
5. Pagkabayani

4. Historical consciousness- on which moral values have evolved among our people e.g. moral value
of justice is universal and fundamental.

The Person -whole individual being that has the natural potential to know, love, desire, and relate to
self and others in a reflective way.

A person is a natural being and not a functional being. Natural in the sense that he has the functional
ability to know and love in a trans-sensible or immaterial way. So, abortion is the destruction of an
important and valuable form of human life.

Person is not an individual With a developed capacity for reasoning, willing, desiring and relating to
others. But he/she is an individual with a natural capacity for these activities and relationships.

2. Conception: Is the moment when the so called “fertilization” process is complete. The sperm and
ovum are not potential life. They are the potential causes of individual human life.

BEHAVIOURS OF MAN
Human behavior -is the population of behaviors exhibited by humans and influenced by culture,
attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.

• The behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with
some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable
limits. In sociology, behavior is considered as having social behavior, which is more advanced
action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of
behavior is evaluated relative to social norms and regulated by various means of social control.
• The behavior of people is studied by the academic disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social
work, sociology, economics, and anthropology.

FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

• Genetics –study of the function and behavior of genes.
• Attitude – the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the
behavior in question.
• Social norms – the influence of social pressure that is perceived by the individual (normative
beliefs) to perform or not perform a certain behavior.
• Perceived behavioral control – the individual’s belief concerning how easy or difficult performing
• the behavior will be.

MASCULINE PSYCHOLOGY
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Masculine psychology is a term sometimes used to describe and categorize issues concerning the
gender related psychology of male human identity, as well as the issues that men confront during
their lives. One stream emphasizes gender differences and has a scientific and empirical approach,
while the other, more therapeutic in orientation, is more closely aligned to the psychoanalytic tradition.
It also relates to concepts such as masculinity and machismo.

Born of the female body Jungian analysts Guy Corneau and Eugene Monickargue that the
establishment and maintenance of the male identity is more delicate and fraught with complication
than that of the establishment and maintenance of the female identity. Such psychologists suggest
that this may be because men are born of the female body, and thus are born from a body that is a
different gender from themselves. Women, on the other hand, are born from a body that is the same
gender as their own. “A woman simply is, but a man must become. Masculinity is risky and elusive. It
is achieved by a revolt from woman, and it is confirmed only by other men.”

Camille Paglia has commented that she believes that women are born, but men must "become." In
other words, masculinity is not something that is granted by birth but is something that must be
earned in adult life.

Role of the father Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung argued that a father is very important to a boy's
development of identity. In his book Absent Fathers, Lost Sons [2] Canadian Jungian analyst Guy
Corneau writes that the presence of the father's body during the son's developmental phases are
integral in the son developing a positive sense of self as masculine. Corneau also argues that if the
son does not develop positively towards the father's male body, then the son runs the risk of
developing negatively towards all bodies. Jacques Lacan argued that in the son's mind, the father's
body represents the law, and that the role of the father's body is to break the attachment the son feels
to the mother and by extension his own.

Freudian analysts claim that all sons feel they are in competition with their father and often feel in a
battle against the father. (Sigmund Freud referred to this as Oedipus Complex.) Freudian
psychologists claim that the risk the son runs are that in some cases it is more difficult to win the
battle against the father than to lose the battle against the father. This is because a common result of
winning the battle againstthe father is that the son suffers tremendous guilt.

ETHICS IN ADVERTISING

• Our reason for addressing these matters is simple. In today’s society, advertising has a
profound impact on how people understand life, the world and themselves, especially in regard
to their values and their ways of choosing and behaving. These are matters about which the
Church is and must be deeply and sincerely concerned.
• The field of advertising is extremely broad and diverse. In general terms, of course, an
advertisement is simply a public notice meant to convey information and invite patronage or
some other response. As that suggests, advertising has two basic purposes: to inform and to
persuade, and - while these purposes are distinguishable -both very often are simultaneously
present.
• Advertising can be very simple -- a local, even ‘neighborhood,’ phenomenon – or it can be very
complex, involving sophisticated research and multimedia campaigns that span the globe. It
differs according to its intended audience, so that, for example, advertising aimed at children
raise some technical and moral issues significantly different from those raised by advertising
aimed at competent adults.
• We disagree with the assertion that advertising simply mirrors the attitudes and values of the
surrounding culture. No doubt advertising, like the media of social communications in general,
does act as a mirror. But, also like media in general, it is a mirror that helps shape the reality it
reflects, and sometimes it presents a distorted image of reality.
• Advertisers are selective about the values and attitudes to be fostered and encouraged,
promoting some while ignoring others. This selectivity gives the lie to the notion that advertising
does no more than reflect the surrounding culture. For example, the absence from advertising of
certain racial and ethnic groups in some multi-racial or multi-ethnic societies can help to create

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 problems of image and identity, especially among those neglected, and the almost inevitable
impression in commercial advertising that an abundance of possessions leads to happiness and
fulfilment can be both misleading and frustrating.

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