Module 1: The Foundations of Scientific Thinking

The Development of Modern Science: How have philosophical arguments influenced the development of modern scientific research?

 explore epistemology and alternative ways of knowing e.g., navigation.

Epistemology branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge.

Knowledge requires belief (acceptance that something is true without proof), justification, and objective truth. Knowledge is acquired through:
 Senses (empiricism), reason (rationalism), intuition, emotion, beliefs, testimony (experiences of others), language, imagination.
Scientific knowledge relies on observations, experimental evidence, rational arguments, and scepticism. It advances through slow,
incremental steps (evolutionary progression) or giant leaps of understanding (revolutionary/paradigm shifts). Science attempts to explain
natural phenomena through laws (describe patterns/relationships) and theories (possible explanations with supporting evidence but no
proof). Scientific knowledge is subject to revision and is affected by social/historical context.
Limits: Science does not make moral or aesthetic judgements, prescribe how to use scientific knowledge or explore supernatural phenomena.
NAVIGATION: science of determining the position of a vehicle and guiding it to a specific destination. Uses senses, intuition, memory, observation,
testimony (pass on knowledge). Early navigators relied on their senses staying close to the shore.

 Compasses: indicate direction relative to the Earth's magnetic poles, are used in navigation on land, sea, and air.
 Celestial Navigation (2000 BC): uses the stars, moon, sun, and horizon to calculate position. Useful on the open ocean, where there are
no landmarks. Navigators must be familiar with the different constellations at different times of year, and in the different hemispheres.
Sextants are used to measures the angle between horizon and a celestial object.
 Radio Navigation: can tune into a radio station and use an antenna to find the direction of the broadcasting radio antenna. Position can
be determined by measuring the time it takes to receive radio signals (bounce electromagnetic waves off an object and back to a
receiver) from the stations of known locations.
 Maps: constructed through memory, communication via oral stories/written accounts and reasoning.
 GPS (highly accurate): is a satellite-based navigation system where the GPS device receives a signal from the satellites, and it calculates
position based on the time it takes for the signal to transmit and the exact position of the satellites.
 Micronesian Stick chart: shows wave patterns/currents, the shells represent atolls/islands; used to navigate without compass.
 describe the influence of empiricism on scientific inquiry.

‘Natural philosophy’ develops explanations of the natural world. Natural philosophers began to redefine how knowledge of the natural world
should be constructed using science. Empiricism is a branch of philosophy that emphasises ‘prior experience’, constructing knowledge after
collecting information through our senses. Observations are important for knowledge construction which becomes evidence/explanations for
natural phenomena and then knowledge. Most scientific knowledge is empirical. Empiricism demands that all scientific information be based on
evidence and tested through observations or experimentation which is central to the development of scientific understanding.

EMPIRICISM (dates to Ancient Greece): Knowledge gained via sensory experience + tested
via observations/experiments  constructs knowledge after experiences.
Example: Knowing that hot items burn you/shouldn't be touched. Via observational
studies/controlled experiments. When new theories are proposed, scientists look for
experimental evidence to support or oppose the theory. Example: Galileo disputed
Aristotle’s geocentric model of the solar system and observed the planets through his
telescope proving the heliocentric model was correct.
Don’t believe in absolute truths. Claim that individuals have no innate knowledge.
Experimental science is the paradigm of knowledge. Emphasizes the use of experiments
and observation to collect evidence and draw conclusions.
 compare induction and deduction with reference to scientific inquiry.
RATIONALISM: basing opinions/actions on reason.
Example: Knowing that A=w ×l . Taking Einstein’s theory of
general relativity to make predictions about the existence of
black holes.
Believe in intuition, claiming individuals have innate
knowledge/concepts/ideas when they are born. Universe has
absolute laws.

Induction (process of generalisation): specific observation  pattern recognition  tentative hypothesis  general conclusion/theory. Allows
explanations of related phenomena to be constructed.

Deduction (using general ideas to derive specific scientific knowledge): existing theory  formulate hypothesis  collect data/observation 
analyse data  do/don’t reject the hypothesis (confirmation). Aims to test an existing theory. Often used to make predictions.

Induction (Bacon): creating a general theory from specific observations.
Definition is used by researchers to develop ideas and hypotheses. It is more
exploratory and open-ended. Results reached via an inductive approach
hold true until they are disproved  for the theory to be true every
inductivist inference must be true which is almost impossible  theory
still valid if it explains most observations.
Example Charles Darwin makes observations about how individuals in a
population are adapted to their environments e.g., the beaks of
different populations of finches  made 2 inferences: individuals with
inherited traits that are more suited to the local environment are more
likely to survive, the survivors will pass on their traits  theory of
evolution by natural selection.
Influence relies on repeated observations (relates to empiricism) placing strong
on emphasis on the use of experiments and observation to gather
scientific data/draw conclusion. Experiments seek to test hypotheses against
inquiry actual observations. In order to be considered accurate, theories and
hypotheses must be observed and evaluated.
 assess parsimony/Occam’s razor and its influence on the development of science: Science works with competing ideas.
Deduction (Aristotle): deriving a conclusion from a theory.
involves starting from a set of general premises and then drawing
a specific conclusion. If the premises are valid, deductive
reasoning's conclusions cannot be false.
 Limitation: Theories they are based on might not always
be true  false conclusions.
Discovery of the electron by J.J Thompson: Used general theory
surrounding the effect of electric and magnetic fields on negatively
charged particles and made predictions around the effects of
these fields on cathode rays if they consisted of negatively
charged subatomic particles  predictions were true  cathode
rays consist of negatively charged particles  Conclusion: atoms
are not indivisible they are composed of electrons and protons 
Plum pudding model.
Root of rationalism- everything in the universe functions in
accordance with discernible, natural principles. Allows us to
deduce true conclusions about the world around us through
logical reasoning.
 Parsimony Occam’s Razor
Definition tells us to choose the simplest scientific explanation that fits the Tool to remove unlikely explanations (in the case of multiple
evidence (more assumptions = more possibilities of it being wrong) explanations the simplest solution is most likely the correct one).
Example “Isn’t God the simplest explanation of how the Earth was created?”- “You have a headache?”, “Oh no… you might have the Black Death!”
existence of a divine being who created the world in seven days is It is more likely that you’re dehydrated or a cold.
less simple than big bang theory.
History Occam: “Plurality must never be posited without necessity”- “other things being equal, simpler explanations are generally better.
 Before the 16th century, the geocentric model of the solar system (Earth at the centre of the solar system) required complicated
features (e.g. epicycles) to explain some unusual phenomena. Was replaced by the heliocentric model (Sun in the centre).
 William of Ockham (1285-1348) was an English philosopher.
 Historically the validity of Occam’s razor has been debated, critics mention that it prioritises simplicity over accuracy and one
cannot define “simplicity”. They state the competing theories of creationism vs. evolution as an example in which the simplicity of
an explanation depends on both temporal and cultural contexts.
Influence helps scientists to modify and specify their theoretical models through the development stage, it allows them to “shave away” unnecessary
on assumptions and start with the simplest hypothesis. Used as a "rule of thumb" to guide scientists in developing theoretical models. Simpler
scientific theories cause paradigm shifts making fewer assumptions/exceptions. Cannot be applied to ideas which are equally plausible/complex.
inquiry Other considerations: testable? Are some ideas better at producing broader explanations? Are some ideas a better fit with existing ideas?
 analyse the importance of falsifiability in scientific research.

Falsifiability: claim that all scientific ideas should be falsifiable (be able to be proved false- confirmation usually comes from risky theories which
could actually prove your theory wrong) through testing. E.g., “All cars are red” can be proven false by observation If a claim cannot be falsified,
then it cannot be scientific- pseudoscience (it is easy to find confirmation of a theory if you’re looking for) e.g., God is real Falsification impacted on:

- differentiating scientific ideas from non-scientific ideas

- Hypothesis (tentative explanations of a narrow set of related phenomena) testing: aims to reject what is false through statistical
analysis. To test a null/alternative hypothesis, a controlled experiment must be conducted and data generated in the experiment
which can be analysed. Hypotheses cannot be proven to be true, and they can only be rejected/not rejected based on evidence
collected. Issues arise as complex or new scientific ideas are not possible to falsify.

In the traditional view of doing science: observations are made, hypotheses are created, make predictions (deductions) and facts are tested.
Therefore, Hypotheses are shown to be correct, and theories are strengthened with more evidence. However, scientists have bias (preconceived
notions), the only observation made is what is being looked for (theories are shaped by our assumptions)

Freud could use almost any data point work in service of his theory  could read the past differently to maintain some confirmation of his theory.
Popper said methods like Freud that only served to confirm beliefs were pseudo-science and they could be used to prove anything. Einstein instead
of looking backward and using past data to ‘predict’ the present he was looking ahead and predicting future states of affairs  risky science.

Popper observed issues with the idea of scientific method:

 theory loading of perceptions and facts (have a theory first before we make an observation)
 often new discoveries were serendipitous (by luck or chance).
 Sometimes scientific understanding isn’t incrementally progressive.

IMPORTANCE: Determines whether something is actually scientific therefore generates theories that are testable. Popper wanted to emphasize
whether a theory was testable. He said science should be committed to the search for negative evidence rather than confirming predictions. “every
false belief we discover is actually good, because that gets us that much closer to the truth”. Search for positive evidence takes us away from
learning something new, no amount of positive evidence proves a law certain and absolutely true, but one contradictory piece of evidence will
disprove it. Thus, we should always be willing to revise our beliefs/be open that they might be wrong. Problems:

 New theories often confirmed prior theories/fix what was wrong (no need to throw everything out with first contradictory piece of
evidence)
 Problem if apparent falsifiable information isn’t’ falsifiable but it is incorrect.
 How wrong is wrong? There are always assumptions, and gaps between theoretical and experimental data.
 Raven paradox “all ravens are black” can be observed and tested and thus became a law. However 1 in 10000 ravens are albino which
are more visible to predators and suffer health problems therefore are rare to see. Thus, thousands of ravens could be sampled even
though there are albino birds (chances of seeing are very slim).  shows the dangers of generalisations
 evaluate the significance of confirmation bias, including theory-dependence of observation: Observations are an important element of
scientific inquiry e.g., Marshall and Warren’s study on the microbial cause of gastric ulcers. Observations that Helicobacter pylori are
frequently associated with gastric ulcers was crucial in discovering that bacterium caused the disease.

Confirmation bias (Bad): Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one’s perceptions (disregard things that conflict
with your ideas). Causes poor experimental design/data. Caused by media/politics and strengthened with time (longer belief = more time to collect
evidence as support and less willing to let go). Usually increased status level = increase in confirmation bias. It is bad because people trust scientific
findings because they believe that scientists are intelligent and follow validity to ensure results; scientists are humans and are equally likely to fall
prey to bias. It causes research to become one sided as they tend to look for and present research evidence that supports their own hypothesis. To
avoid use negative or blind controls.

- Example (national pride provided significant motivation for scientists work): A German engineer had just discovered x-rays. A French
scientist Blondlot announced he discovered N-rays and became famous. They were supposedly observed as a corona around an
electrical discharge from certain crystals only observed by the human eye. Scientists outside France were suspicious. US scientist
visited the lab. During one of the experiments he removed the crystal that supposedly generated the N-rays, after which Blondlot
failed to notice the absence of N-rays”  The French needed something stranger and more useful than X-rays to exist.

Theory-dependent observations: observations that are dependent on theories- prior knowledge of scientific theories may influence the inferences
we draw from observations and how we analyse/interpret them. May also be responsible for professional intuition where an expert may be able to
arrive at a conclusion without conducting much analysis. It can lead people to derive different conclusions from the same observations.
  use historical examples to evaluate the contribution of cultural observational knowledge and its relationship to science, including:
- post - 49000 BCE, exemplified by Aboriginal cultures
- pre – 1500 CE, exemplified by Greek and Egyptian cultures and those of the Asia region

Modern science is descended from many different philosophical traditions. Scientists employ various approaches to investigate and construct
explanations of natural phenomena. Scientific knowledge has been a powerful force for shaping evolution of human societies.

Indigenous: Traditional knowledge (existed over 60,000 years): develops explanations of natural phenomena which is transmitted orally.
understandin  Aboriginal societies developed mythical tales of constellations/astronomical phenomena e.g., Warlpiri people explained a solar
g of eclipse as a sun-woman being hidden by the moon-man as he makes love to her. Provided information for seasonal changes, and
management as guideposts for celestial navigation. Time, calendars, and information about seasons were developed using astronomical
of knowledge. Rate at which a star twinkles was associated with seasonal shifts. Starlight colour indicates likelihood of rain.
ecosystems.  Bush medicine: Traditional knowledge is used to identify new substances from native plants that have medicinal and
therapeutic value (antibiotics, antimicrobials, and antiviral products) e.g., process of preparing cycad seed via leaching the
water-soluble toxins in an open stream to remove cycasin.
 Traditional ecological knowledge: Developed extensive knowledge about local Australian ecosystems which is still used for
managing ecosystem and landcare. Understanding of role of bushfires in the functioning of local ecosystems is proving to be
critical for modern fire management systems. Use of fire: to protect the trees, help to produce budding and spores in plants;
helps regrowth. Removing areas so there isn’t enough fuel left for burning. Based on imperial observations.
Greek: Geometry and mathematical proofs:
contributed to  Pythagoras Theorem AND Euclid- geometry (mathematical proofs and geometric discoveries are still relevant and taught)
philosophy/  Archimedes- Archimedes Principle (buoyancy), displacement/volume, centre of gravity, and Archimedes spiral
science in the  Aristotle contributed to the prevalence of logic and reason in scientific and philosophical inquiry/observations.
role of Observations and theories made about planetary movements, the Earth’s axis, and the sun at the centre of the solar system.
reason/injury.  Aristarchus was the first to develop astronomical models describing the heliocentric system (sun at centre). His advancements in
Emphasised physics and astronomy contributed to modern knowledge of the universe and the solar system (proved heliocentric system).
logic/rational  Hippocrates was credited as being the founder of modern medicine. He had a systematic and empirical investigation of diseases.
observation.  Medicine- challenged idea sickness came from demons (diseases had natural causes and could be cured with natural remedies)
Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture.
Egyptian  Paper/writing: one of the first civilisations to create/use writing and keeping record of events (The first form was through
hieroglyphics). Papyrus was the first form of paper from the papyrus plant. Allowed for knowledge to be documented.
 Time: created a calendar based off the cycle of the star Sirius and applying astronomy principles to develop an accurate calendar
which is divided into 12 months, 365 days and 24-hour units.
 Construction/architecture: Giza which was built through the creation of the ramp and lever which are still used today.
 Ships and Navigation: used the knowledge of aerodynamics to create their ships and were able to catch wind and push vessels
through water. Developed the concept of using rope trusses strengthening the beams of their ships.
 Medicine: they had cures for both humans and animals through their knowledge of anatomy (practised through mummification
and preservation of the dead)  early analysation of the brain provided an insight into neuroscience.
 Mathematics: geometry. Maths and numbers were used to record business transactions (developed the decimal system)
 Use of chemical compounds: through mummification. Now the same chemical compounds can be used to fabricate thin solar
cell absorbers to help with energy conversions.
 Determined the annual flooding of the Nile and the alignment of the pyramids towards the pole stars.
Asian:  “Four Great inventions”: papermaking, printing, gunpowder, and the compass: changed the whole face and state of things
scientists and throughout the world; in literature, warfare, and navigation. Had an impact on the development of Chinese civilization.
engineers  Herbal medicine: A Chinese scientist, extracted the active ingredient from the herbal remedy for Malaria to develop a
have made therapeutic treatment. He isolated the extract, proving its effectiveness against both types of malarial parasites, determining the
significant chemical structure of the active ingredient, Artemisinin  now an established antimalarial drug.
scientific  Moveable Type printing: Individual clay characters where glued to an iron plate to form words and paragraphs. After printing
innovations, the hardened pieces are redistributed and pieced together into another page.
findings and
 “Rockets”: invented them by applying a counterforce produced by ignited gunpowder. Was used in military and entertainment.
technological
advancement.  Gunpowder: was invented by Chinese alchemists about 1000 A.D by mixing Sulfur, charcoal, and saltpetre.
(Song  Compass: navigational instrument that shows directions. The compass was invented by Chinese between the 2nd century BC
Dynasty) used on Chinese ships, enabling them to navigate. Arab traders brought it to the West.
 First seismoscope, which can detect earthquakes accurately from afar. To indicate direction of an earthquake, device dropped a
bronze ball from 1 of 8 projections (dragon head shaped) into corresponding metal object, each representing a direction.
 select one example from the following list to analyse the paradigm shift and how evidence is used to support new theories to explain
phenomena and their consequences:

Thomas Kuhn (1962) saw science moved ‘normal’ or ‘revolutionary’ phases. Paradigm shift is a change in scientific thinking created through new
evidence/theory to explain a phenomenon which was not fully understood previously occurring in 3 stages:

1. Normal science dominates: verifying the prevailing concepts through observation and experimentation. Hypotheses that are supported
by evidence will be retained, while those that are not, are rejected building a body of scientific knowledge.
2. Scientists note that there are anomalies to the prevailing paradigms (cannot be explained by contemporary concepts) create turmoil.
3. Anomalies force scientists to search for new explanations thus more unconventional, creative, and risky work can be done (transition to
extraordinary science). Creates a paradigm shift which occurs via theory replacement (geocentric  heliocentric) or theory modification
(Newtonian mechanics were modified to include Einstein’s theories of relativity).

Paradigms: Argues that scientists work within a paradigm (whole way of thinking/acting within a field) made up of cumulative discoveries.
findings  All of the background information: laws, concepts, rules, postulates and theories (deep rooted)
develop  Experimental and instrumental resources (how science is done), machines and models.
into a  Methodology
dynamic  Cultural assumptions (metaphysics)
body of  Language used (meaning of words)
knowledge Science work in communities, new scientists are indoctrinated into the scientific knowledge that conforms to the existing paradigm.
Normal Most scientific work is puzzle solving. The paradigm dictates the scientific work that is done, the problems that are solved. Scientists are
science conservative they do not question the paradigm but work to refine it.
Rejecting Kuhn thinks that scientists work within a paradigm, not seeking to disprove it (doesn’t believe that falsification occurs). Popper adjusted that
falsification scientists need observations AND an alternate theory (paradigm) before a paradigm can be rejected.
Scientific momentous changes occur where there is a complete upheaval in what is accepted as science. Eventually a new paradigm is accepted and
revolutions normal science resumes. Kuhn’s work is used for arguments that there are no objective truths. Didn’t believe science progressed linearly.
Anomaly observation that cannot be explained by the current paradigm causing creativity to come up with a new paradigm.
Lavoisier and oxygen: Since Ancient Greek times the composition of all matter was thought to contain the 4 elements: air, water, earth, fire.

Phlogiston theory (1670s) by Georg Ernst Stahl: was the dominate theory for 100 years and stated the existence of a fire like element ‘phlogiston’
(colourless odorless fluid, couldn’t be seen or measured) contained within combustible bodies that is released during combustion. Metals were
believed to contain low amounts of phlogiston whilst hydrocarbons were believed to contain high amounts of phlogiston. Combustion releases the
phlogiston from the substance into the air decomposing into phlogiston and ash/calx (charcoal loses weight when burned). More phlogiston =
better burning. They thought combustion in a closed container stop, because the air inside becomes saturated with phlogiston.

 Anomaly: when iron/mercury is heated it gains weight (Metals when strongly heated in air, produced a calyx that weighed more than the
original metal), however they thought the reactions should always cause a decreased weight because it was releasing phlogiston.

Lavoisier established that this process was combustion which required oxygen to occur (in a closed container the flame goes out because it uses up
all the oxygen). He started with the hypothesis that something had to be taken out of the air rather than released into it. He repeated experiments
with the production and decomposition of mercury oxide in a swan necked flask. When decomposed, the mercury oxide was found to produce a
gas that could sustain life and allow flames to burn. He also discovered mass or matter stays the same even when it changes form/shape. He also
identified the fuel needed for something to combust was also used for animals to breathe.

Influences on Current Scientific Thinking: What currently influences scientific thinking?

 analyse the current influences on scientific thinking, including but not limited to: economic, political and global

Who pays for scientific research? Governments e.g., CSIRO, companies e.g., pharmaceutical research, non-profit organisations e.g., cancer council,
and philanthropists e.g., Bill Gates foundation.
Definition Advantages Disadvantages
Economic the production, distribution, and Health programs (e.g., vaccination programs; Mid-1950s: there was Scientific consensus that
consumption of resources. education; public awareness programs) that smoking increases the likelihood of lung cancer. But
Resources are limited, distribution focus on preventing diseases have yielded tobacco companies formed their own research
is incredibly significant to society. huge economic benefits. Programs reduce teams, to claim otherwise. This was effectively used
Always a financial gain or cost that economic burden placed on the health care to delay regulations on the tobacco company. Richer
is involved in scientific research, system (maintenance of health costs: $105.8 countries can do more research.
which can influence and drive the billion from 2022-23).
direction of research/development.
Political set of activities associated with the Sputnik: First artificial Earth satellite (Russian) Eugenics: practice of improving the human species
governance of a country or an area. that initiated the ‘Space race’. Genetic by selectively mating people with specific desirable
The government or political parties engineering. hereditary traits. Aims to reduce human suffering by
in power has a lot of influence on “breeding out” disease, disabilities and undesirable
the development of science characteristics. E.g., In 1900s, forced sterilisation of
(progress or limit direction that people in mental health institutes (women could not
aligns more with the majority receive funding for childcare unless they become
power). sterile). During Adolf Hitler’s time many Germans
who were mentally or physically disabled were
euthanised with lethal gas/injections. Prior to the
Renaissance scientists were persecuted for reporting
on discoveries that didn’t support ideologies.
Global the whole world governs the Human Genome Project (HGP): international World War 2 demonstrated Germany and Japan’s
process of scientific inquiry as well. scientific research project with the goal of technological prowess. The government’s focus on
Aided recently by the increased determining the nucleotide base pairs that the investment in Science on a massive industrial
international communication. make up human DNA, and of identifying and scale proved instrumental and beneficial in these
mapping all of the genes of the human countries’ war efforts. Many millions of people died.
genome. It took the effort of scientists all over US developed nuclear weaponry as the
the world to complete this 13-year (approx.) “thunderclap” to end the war, which led an era of
project. It was a massive collaborative effort. panic/fear- the ‘cold war’.
Climate long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have been the main
change driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil and gas), which produces heat-trapping gasses.
study  Weber, 2015: personal experience with climate change (particularly extreme weather events), political ideology, age, gender, and
nationality, and situational influences; and the role of different processing models affects the actions of people and countries in
dealing with climate change.
 Economic: Short term economic interests e.g., China blocked the Copenhagen negotiations in 2009. Climate change research can be
highly costly or would represent a huge shift in their domestic income (e.g. countries relying heavily on coal industry/exports).
Countries in agriculturally dependent settings are more likely to invest in climate change research.
 Political: Groups for climate change action: climate justice movement, youth climate movement. 70% of liberal Democrats (see
scientists/research in a positive light) trust climate scientists to give full and accurate information about the causes of climate
change, compared with just 15% of conservative Republicans (more sceptical). Some conservatives believe that climate change
 research has become politicised and funded by left leaning groups, therefore any results will have a left leaning bias, which causes
them to be sceptical of results obtained.
 Global: affects large numbers of people leading to increased conversation and push for more research/funding e.g., UN set targets
for climate change/carbon emissions (In 1997 the Kyoto Protocol and in 2016 the Paris Agreement was adopted by the UN with the
aim of reducing global warming) however this has not been adopted or reached by all countries.
Society Has changed science over time e.g., during the wars, governments funded war-time research (unlocking nuclear energy). Science responds to
the needs of society: e.g., over the last 15 years, science has responded to the HIV/AIDS epidemic with a increasing our understanding of viral
infections, the immune system and how it interacts with viruses, and drugs.
 Funding (comes from society/organisations) has a massive influence on the path of science and is needed to progress. Many
research topics are expensive (salaries, lab equipment, workspace, field research) e.g., particle physics, needs a multi-billion-dollar
particle accelerator. Indirect (political priorities shape funding programs of government funding agencies e.g., National Institutes of
Health), OR direct (individuals or private foundations provide donations to support particular research or a monetary prize is
offered for solving a particular scientific problem e.g., 25-million-dollar prize offered in 2007 for the invention of a viable technique
for re-moving carbon dioxide from the atmosphere). Looking for economic gain e.g., medical treatment/drug production, have
increased biotechnology research, yielding breakthroughs in genomic sequencing and genetic engineering (and monetary benefits).
 Cultural influence: shape expectations, values, beliefs, and goals e.g., a scientist may refuse to participate in research that conflicts
with their beliefs or values. Joseph Rotblat (very ethical views): grasped the implications of splitting atoms—the energy they release
could be used to start a chain reaction, culminating in a massive release of energy (atomic bomb). Rotblat was worried about the
enormous cost to human life as a weapon and avoided following up on the idea. After World War II, Rotblat channelled his physics
towards medical applications and in 1995 won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts towards nuclear nonproliferation.
Conclusion Scientific inquiry (Idea  design  obtaining data  interpretation  use of findings) is driven by human qualities and desires. Society
determines how its resources are deployed to fund work. Scientists are influenced by the interests and needs of society and often direct their
research towards topics that will serve society. Economic, political and global factors all impact each other. It is important to be scientifically
literate (understanding the scientific process, being comfortable with scientific jargon, analyse information for positives/negatives, make sure
information is up to data, consistent and reputable, have a dose of questioning) to understand this world in a more objective way.
 analyse the influence of ethical frameworks on scientific research over time, including but not limited to: human experimentation,
experimentation on animals, biobanks and use of research data

Ethics: moral principles that govern a person's behaviour. Involves acting in the ‘right’ spirit out of concern for ones fellow living organisms.
Scientific ethics calls for honesty and integrity in all stages. The system of ethics guides science, from data collection to publication and beyond and
is deeply integrated into the way scientists work, the validity and reliability of their work and scientific knowledge in general depends upon
adhering to that ethic. Many of the ethical principles relate to the production of unbiased scientific knowledge, which is critical when others try to
build upon or extend research findings. The open publication of data, peer review, replication, and collaboration required by the scientific ethic all
help to keep science moving forward by validating research findings and confirming or raising questions.

Human research Conducted with or about people/their data/tissue. E.g., through taking part in surveys/interviews/focus groups, undergoing
psychological, physiological or medical testing/treatment, being observed, having access to personal documents, collection of body
organs, tissues, fluids or breath. Access to their information (in individually identifiable, re-identifiable or nonidentifiable form) as part of
an existing published or unpublished source or database.
 Despite best intentions/careful planning still involves significant risks and is possible for things to go wrong (technical errors,
or neglect). Rare occasions have involved deliberate/appalling violation of human beings.
Research by Nazi doctors in WW2 was horrific e.g., forced inseminations, amputations, injections with disease. Therefore, the
Nuremberg Code was developed in 1948 which is a set of 10 guideline for the ethical treatment of human participants in research. Was
the first international document that outlined the requirement of obtaining consent. Ethical frames: set of codes that guides behaviour:
1. Autonomy/informed consent is essential (legal capacity to consent, able to exercise power of choice without force, coercion
etc. should have sufficient knowledge about experiment e.g., purpose, duration, hazards to make an enlightened decision).
2. Maleficence: No subject should be intentionally harmed/physical/mental suffering should be avoided + NO expectation of
death or inquiry.
3. Beneficence: benefits should outweigh the risks (Results should justify experiment e.g., if a medication is going to have big side
effects it should be worth the risk).
4. Proper preparation/precautions should be taken.
5. Only qualified scientists should conduct medical research (requires a degree of skill and care) AND scientists must be papered
to end the experiment if subjecting individual to risk.
6. Subjects have the right to end the experiment at ay time.
7. Justice: equal access to care, benefits, and compensation.
8. Human experiments should be based on animal experimentation.
9. Confidentiality: respect for privacy and maintaining anonymity.
10. No-deception- maintaining open and truthful communication.
Example: Stanford prison experiment lead by Philip Zimbardo (1971)- two-week simulation of a prison environment that examined the
effects of situational variables of participants reactions/behaviours. Participants wanting to participate in a “psychological study of
prison life” were recruited offering $15 per day and assigned to being prisoners or guards (instructed to prevent prisoners from
escaping). The psychological abuse of the prisoners by the “guards” became increasingly brutal and a psychologist instructed the end of
the experiment. Critiqued as one of the most unethical psychology experiments in history. The harm inflicted promoted universities
worldwide to improve their ethics requirements for human subjects of experiments. Study was unscientific and fraudulent.
The Belmont report (1979) forms the cornerstone for the basic ethical principles and guidelines used to resolve the ethical problems in
conducting of research with human subjects. The three basic ethical principles:
1. Respect for persons: Individuals should consent to participate in studies and those who cannot give their consent, such as
children, people with diminished abilities, and prisoners, need to be protected. (people used to test on vulnerable people).
2. Beneficence: The researcher must not harm the participants, minimise risks, and maximise possible benefits.
 3. Justice: fairness in procedures for selecting participants.
In Australia: Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs) review all research proposals involving human participants to ensure that they
are ethically acceptable. There are more than 200 HRECs in research organisations across Australia, Including the National Statement on
Ethical Conduct in Human Research 2007 which requires many types of human research to undergo ethics review.
Animal Used to understand animal biology or models to understand human biology. E.g., veterinary science, behavioural studies.
experimentation National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) has governing principles (respect for animals must underpin all decisions/
actions involving the care and use of animals for scientific purposes) and ethical framework to guide decisions and actions of all people
involved in the care and use of animals for scientific purposes. Also regulated by Animal Ethics Committees. Research proposals must be
cleared to adhere to this code of ethics (only applied to vertebrae since most invertebrates don’t feel pain). e.g.,
 using animals only when it is justified + supporting the wellbeing of the animals involved.
 avoiding or minimising harm, including pain and distress, to those animals.
 Experimentation on cosmetics is controversial and banned in Australia achieved by legislation.
 applying high standards of scientific integrity + Replacement (of animals with other methods e.g., mice, cell cultures),
Reduction (in the number of animals used- sample size) and Refinement (of techniques used to minimise animal harm) at all
stages of animal care. Knowing and accepts responsibilities.
Currently, animals are still used in many experiments and testings for pharmaceutical products used for humans e.g. medicinal,
cosmetic, chemical. Possibility of growing human organs in other animals to be harvested for humans. T
Biobanks/use of biorepository that stores biological samples (e.g., tissues or genetic analysis) for use in research. Have become an important resource in
research data medical research, supporting many types of contemporary research like genomics and personalised medicine. Give researchers access
to data representing a large number of people. Samples in biobanks and the data derived from those samples can often be used by
multiple researchers for cross purpose research studies e.g., performing genome-wide association studies using large collections of
samples which represent tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals can help to identify disease biomarkers. Many researchers
struggled to acquire sufficient samples prior to the advent of biobanks. Uses:
 Ancestry tracing + Genetic analysis of 900 crime offenders in Finland identify two genes linked with violent crime.
 Increased understanding of the genetics behind certain diseases
 Might not get access to health care because of genetic discrimination revealed from biobanks.
Issues: informed consent of donors, sensitive collection of samples from vulnerable donors, privacy of personal and medical
information- confidentiality (specimens should be anonymized), donors have some right to return of results and to withdraw from
research, commercialisation/sharing of benefits (people’s genomes can be sold and who owns the benefits), the oversight institution
reviewing biobanks should be independent of the biobank. Public consultation: Communities should participate in writing
laws/standards for research. Resource sharing: results of studies should go the widest possible audience.
Use of research Data is shared through peer review publications, data repositories and conference presentations. NHMRC has a code for the use and the
data sharing of research data, promoting the “core principle of justice”. Australian National Data Service has a code of ethics which guides in
their use of research data offering guidelines and are in continual evolution/updates to accommodate new forms of data that are
available (e.g., social media).
 Encourages further scientific enquiry/innovation, leads to new collaborations. Maximises transparency and accountability,
reduces the cost of duplicating data collection.
 Ethics of obtaining data from unethical research such as Nazi Human trials. Risk on how the information will be used/analysed
Module 2: The Scientific Research Proposal

Developing the Question and Hypothesis: What are the processes needed for developing a scientific research question and initial hypothesis?

 conduct an initial literature search to identify the potential use of a contemporary, relevant publicly available data set.
Literature research: collect relevant, timely research topic (which should have a real-world societal impact and identifies gaps/questions),
synthesizes it into a cohesive summary of existing knowledge in the field (figures out the strengths and weaknesses to create an informed decisions
about developing/structuring a research question which can employ the most appropriate methods) and gaining a wider perspective. Figures out if
there is enough information, narrows down an idea to a specific testable question.

Literature review: critical analysis of published sources or literature (consolidate the information available for a particular area of researchProvides
summary, classification, comparison and evaluation of the literature. E.g., what was been accepted, areas of conflict, problems or issues that
remain unsolved, emerging trends, how research extends, builds on other research, looks at assumptions and methodologies used. Must contain
an outline of the purpose, introduction to research area, analysis of the information provided and a synthesis of the conclusions.

Large data sets: advantageous as they are more reliable due to anomalies being more easily identified. Must be evaluated on their relevance.

Developing scientific research question: done by looking at the gaps in the literature review and areas for improvement. Shouldn’t be too broad or
specific, should be falsifiable, testable. The hypothesis is then formulated based on the question linking the dependent and independent variables.
Hypothesis consider: environmental and ethical impacts, relevance and importance to the study, availability of secondary data or ability to gather
primary data. Is developed when there is a good knowledge base on the subject.
Factual Looking for a casual relationship and describing it e.g., what buffer is required to separate proteins on a gel?
Comparative Usually identify 2 alternatives to a situation and compare e.g., does bioethanol produce less greenhouse gas than diesel fuel?
Predictive Constructing scenarios on how things might be in the future e.g., will a lower pH of seawater increase the rate of ice melting?
Problem solving Propose solutions to existing problems e.g., does the use of a cover reduce evaporation from swimming pools?
Paradoxical Explore an apparently contradictory situation to make a suggestion e.g., how can we fertilise crops without creating algal blooms?
 evaluate the resources associated with the initial scientific hypothesis derived from the literature.
Primary: Should be able to be performed in the school laboratory environment in the given time restraints, equipment limitations, ethical
restrictions (human experimentation) and handling restrictions on agents. Will the data collected be enough to be considered a large data set.
Secondary: is useful because the primary results can be compared to known results.
Accuracy Parallax error, reflection of publicised results, accurate measuring devices used?
ReliabilityRepeat the experiment with consistent results (reduces likelihood of outliers). Large sample size, outliers excluded. Reliable data sets have a
large number of citations. Author credentials, biased, reputable? Current? E.g., respected source. relevant?
Validity Control group, variables kept constant, independent variable changed, dependent kept the same, method appropriate for aim, peer viewed?
 assess the process involved in the development of a scientific research question and relevant hypothesis
o Is the question too broad? E.g., trying to cover too much information/answers too many questions.
o Is the question too specific?  too difficult to find enough information to address question.
o Does the project address and relevant and important issue?
o Is it feasible? Can I access the equipment? Is it possible within the timeframe?
o Fills in the gaps of the research.
 develop the rationale: justification for choosing topic of study/explains why research is being performed (benefits to wider community).
 develop a detailed plan to investigate the scientific hypothesis including:
- Null hypothesis: no relationship exists between the two variables. Alternative: prediction about the expected outcome.
- Methodology: describes the procedure to follow so researcher will be able to address objectives. Should be developed based on the
difficulty making measurements, availability of equipment. Good methods controls extraneous variables and selects controls.

Methodology and Data Collection: How is an appropriate methodology developed to collect valid and reliable data?

 assess and evaluate the uncertainty in experimental evidence, including but not limited to: systematic errors and random errors.
 assess and evaluate the use of errors.
 compare quantitative and qualitative research methods.
 investigate the various methods that can be used to obtain large data sets, for example: remote sensing and streamed data:
 propose a suitable method to gather relevant data, including large data set(s), if appropriate, applicable to the scientific hypothesis

Uncertainty quantitative measurement of variability (margin of doubt- true value is thought to fall within). Limits of accuracy
 Analogue instrument – half the smallest division
 Digital instrument – smallest measurement possibly
Absolute uncertainty e.g. 2.59 cm ± 0.02 cm OR Percentage uncertainty e.g. 2.59 cm ± 1 %
NOTE: When multiplying or dividing values with uncertainty, add relative uncertainties of each value to find
the relative uncertainty of the result.
 Accuracy: difference between a measurement and the true accepted value.
 Precision: how closely a set of values agree with each other.
Errors inherent in the experimental process and won’t go away by doing the experiment more carefully
Mistakes human blunders, can be fixed by redoing the experiment better
Experiment Systematic: same extent each time (consistent but reduces accuracy). Hard to detect and thus cannot be eliminated by repetition and can
al errors only be reduced by refining the experimental method. Causes: Instrumental: flawed reading, poor calibration, not taring, poorly maintained
instruments. Observational: researcher incorrectly reads a measurement e.g., parallax error. Environment: lab conditions.
 Reducing: calibrate equipment and operate correctly to avoid parallax error.
Random: measurements differs in magnitude or direction from the true value randomly/inconsistently. Affects the precision. Easily
detected. Reduces reliability. Fixed by refining the experimental method and can be reduced by repetition. Outliers can be eliminated.
Causes: difficulty reading, reaction time, Fluctuations in the experimental environment e.g., instrument failing due to low battery.
Fixed Uncertainty: measurements taken by devices (e.g. stopwatches) have a set error value.
Mean Uncertainty: mean is not going to be exactly equal to the true value.
Error bars Can communicate how the spread of data are around the mean. When standard deviation error bars overlap quite a bit t’s a clue that the
difference is not statistically significant.
Qualitative Has categorical variables. Measurement of types, may be represented by a name, symbol or code. E.g., country of birth. Use sensory
methods (listening, observing) to gather and organise data into patterns or themes. Nominal or ordinal.
Quantitative Measures of values and are expressed as numbers- numeric variables E.g., how many children do you have? Can be discrete or continuous.
Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative
v. Purpose Explain/gain insight + understanding of phenomena Explain, predict and/or control phenomena through
quantitative through intensive collection of data. Inductive focused collection of numerical data. Deductive
Examples Unstructured/open ended questions  disorganised Experiments, observations, surveys.
data e.g., interviews or structured closed questions 
restricts responses and may have pre coded bias.
Hypothesis Tentative, and evolving. Specific, testable, stated prior to study.
Sampling Purposive: intent to select ‘small’ not necessarily Random: intent to select ‘large’ representative samples
representative samples in order to generalise results to a population.
measurement Written word/observations- ongoing. Numerical (numbers)- at the end
Design/method Flexible, minimal disturbance, considers many variables Structured, inflexible, descriptive correlation.
Data Conclusions are tentative reviewed on an ongoing basis. Conclusions and generalisations are formulated at the
interpretation end of the study with a degree of uncertainty.
Advantages Can reveal extra information E.g., facial expressions. Can be analysed mathematically. Not biased. Allows for
Disadvantages Difficult to organise, produce disorganised data, comparison, predication, causation, and trends
responses can be restrictive.
Primary is collected by yourself, or collected at the source, or set up by you & collected by someone else. More accurate information, less expensive,
data Current. Time consuming, Difficult to collect.
Secondary Gathering/using existing data. Less expensive, easier to collect, cost effective. Not current, error rate is high, questionnaire may have been
data poorly designed.
Continuous Data: measured on an interval scale such as length or weight. It does not have a precise value. E.g., height
Discrete Data: obtained by counting e.g., number of students.
Ordinal Data: numerical value and can only be placed in a suitable category e.g., grades A to E
Nominal Data: group of objects or ideas that can be collectively grouped with no inherent rank or order e.g., gender or race
Binary Data: only two possible states e.g., positive or negative.
Ways to Interview method: a series of questions a researcher addresses personally. Interviews can be structured and unstructured.
collect data  Pros: Full range/depth of information, misunderstandings are avoided by carefully defined terms, More likely to respond, Flexible.
 Cons: timely, costly. Personal prejudices, biases, hard to analysis and compare, interviews can bias client responses
Observational study: used to answer a research question based purely on what the researcher observes.
 Advantages: Complete set of data are usually obtained, suitable in studying small fraction of the subjects of interest, can record
events as they occur, Reduction of bias is evident, Reliable/objective data are obtained, Useful in studying small communities.
 Disadvantages: difficult to interpret behaviour, can’t observe motivation, expensive.
Experimental method: manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable.
 Advantages: Absent of bias, quick in data collection, more reliable and objective, best way for data collection in Scientific research
 Disadvantages: time consuming, incorrect method = incorrect results.
Census: study that obtains data from every member of a population.
 Advantages: representative of the whole population
 Disadvantages: hard to plan, expensive, resources costly, questions can be hard to interpret, can be inaccessible, lack of interest.
Remote Detecting/monitoring physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance through sensors
sensing detecting electromagnetic radiation. No physical contact with the object. Allows for real-time observations over large areas without having
to make on-site observations, speeding up the ability for data collection.
 Passive remote sensors: detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from an observed object or scene.
 Active: provide their own energy. Electromagnetic radiation illuminates the object/scene and then detect the radiation that is
reflected or backscattered from that object e.g., Radar (radio detection/ranging) or lidar (light detection and ranging) instruments.
Examples: satellite-based sensors monitor the surface of the earth e.g., ocean temperatures. Large forest fires can be mapped from space,
allowing rangers to see a much larger area than from the ground. Tracking clouds to help predict the weather. Used to access hard to reach
and dangerous locations, can be faster, cover a greater area and not disturb sensitive environments.
Streamed Data that continuously flows from a source to a destination to be processed and analysed in near real time e.g., wireless connection of
data sensors through Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Allows management to react and respond to crisis events much quicker as there is real time
monitoring. Offer continuous communication. Many devices record data continuously and “streamed” out of the sensor for further
processing/analysis. Large amounts of data in a short time. Allows for the collection of extremely large datasets.
Example: tracking wildlife using GPS sensors and measuring climatic data. Use of computers to gather/store data has made it possible to
increase the number of instruments that can be used to collect data. Electronic sensors and data collectors enable scientists to take
measurements very frequently or over a large time scale. Individual sensors can contain thousands or millions of discrete measurements.
PROCESSING DATA FOR ANALYSIS: How is data processed so that it is ready for analysis?

 investigate appropriate methods for processing, recording, organising and storing data using modern technologies
Recording data: very important to record all raw data, must consider ethical implications. Historically done on paper.
Organising data: so it is easily accessible and understood e.g., in a spreadsheet. E.g., by keywords, clear labels and colour coding.

DATA PROCESSING METHODS: steps taken to ensure that the measurements are of good quality and integrity.
1. Manual Data Processing: processed without using any machine or tool to get the required results. All the calculations and logical
operations are performed manually. Data is manually transferred. Very slow, and errors may occur. Used in an educational institute e.g.,
marks sheets, fee receipts, and other financial calculations (or transactions). Method is usually avoided because of very high probability
of error, labour intensive and very time-consuming. Primitive.
2. Mechanical Data Processing: processed by using mechanical devices e.g., typewriters. Becoming redundant. Used by Examination boards.
3. Electronic Data Processing: processed through a computer; Data and set of instructions are given to the computer as input, and the
computer automatically processes the data according to the given set of instructions. Very fast/accurate. E.g., computerized education
environment results of students are prepared through a computer.
4. Data cleansing: detecting and editing faulty measurements in datasets, while editing refers to replacing incorrect data (fixing data).

DATA STORAGE: archiving data in electromagnetic or other forms for use by a computer/device. There is remote data storage e.g., cloud
computing that can revolutionise the ways that users access data. Types of physical forms of data storage: random access memory (RAM- stored in
integrated circuits for immediate use) and associated formats, and secondary data storage on external drives (can hold enormous amounts of data
on a very small device)- archived for event-based access or research activities initiated by an end user. Cloud services/other new forms of remote
storage also add to the capacity of devices and their ability to access more data without building additional data storage.

Open data repositories: publicity accessible databases which host datasets from contributors.
 Encourages innovation. Time efficiency, cost efficient. Immediate/permanent access to research. Allows multiple people to analyse data.
 Consent and ethics: opening people’s confidential info. Security issues, competence of those analysing data.
 assess the impact of making a large data set from scientific sources public:
Large Hadron Collider Largest/most powerful particle accelerator (two high-energy particle beams travel at close to the speed of light before they are
2008 made to collide). Releasing data: inspires global research/interconnections, highly educational/valuable. Data is at different levels
of complexity from simplified analysis to ready-to-use online applications. Open Data Portal has data from ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and
LHCb collaborations- prepared for educational purposes e.g., international masterclasses on particle physics which benefit over
10,000 high-school students every year facilitating research and knowledge.
New research: a team from MIT released an article in Physical Review Letters explained a feature within high-energy particle
collisions allowing a previous scientific hypothesis to be verified.
 Prove the existence of nano particles that make up all matter. New particles are discovered. May explain dark matters
and realms of the universe. Rapidly accelerated development of quantum mechanics e.g., discovered the Higgs Boson
  Expensive ($4b), high levels of energy and heat produced. Academic property concerns.
Kepler telescope 2009 disused space telescope launched by NASA in 2009 to discover Earth-sized planets orbiting other stars. Discovered billions of
hidden planets. New research: discovery of exoplanets can be increased due to the sharing of new code. A pair of researchers
announced that they'd discovered two alien planets in the archival data gathered by NASA's prolific Kepler space telescope, using
Google machine-learning techniques based on the network of neurons in the human brain. They hope the release of this data will
prove a useful starting point for developing similar models for other NASA missions, like K2 (Kepler's second mission).
 Encouraged scientific collaboration and innovation as various scientists such as Shallue and Vanderburg developed
algorithms capable of Deep Learning, navigating and unstructured data in the dataset to identify planets of the very edge
of the telescopes sensitivity and discover new exoplanets.
Human genome international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying,
project 1990 mapping, and sequencing all of the genes of the human genome and identifying genetic markers associated with diseases.
 Purpose: provide researchers with the ability to understand the genetic factors in human disease, paving the way for
new strategies for their diagnosis, treatment and prevention.
 Making the data available: Fuelled the discovery of more than 1800 disease genes. Allows for the identification of
causes of rare diseases. Promoted open science. New in-depth research on huma health/disease quickly conducted
allowing for advanced screening and disease prevention measures that save lives. Faster sequencing methods- can
cheaply/rapidly process millions of bases quickly. Genetic tests reveal disease susceptibility. Wanted to be released
publicly quickly to make sure no one person could claim intellectual property/restrict public access. Allows for new
discoveries. Transparency. Rapid development of the understanding of genetics.
 Ethical concerns for the usage of entire human genome. Possibility of human cloning and editing (designer babies), quick
genome sequencing may form a genetic identify. Foetal genome testing  reveals potential diseases  may increase
abortion rate which lowers human diversity. Enormous resources needed to make technological shift to
open/interoperable databases accessible with common protocols/terminology.
 Outcome: discovered BRCA1/BRCA2 genes are markers for the development of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer.
Patterns and Trends: What tools are used to describe patterns and trends in data?

Aim of a statistical test: Is to attempt to quantify evidence against a particular hypothesis being true by using significance testing.

Hypothesis: use statistical tests determine whether to either accept or reject the null hypothesis:

 Null hypothesis (H0): there is no statistically significant difference between the groups tested.
 Alternative hypothesis (H1): there is a statistically significant difference between the groups tested.

In hypothesis testing, an alpha/α value (usually 0.05), is set to assess whether the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected. If p < 0.05: null
hypothesis is rejected, significant difference between samples, less than 5% occur due to random chance- Usually 0.01 is used for medicine. If p ≥
0.05: null hypothesis is accepted, no significant difference between the two samples.

 analyse and determine the differences between data and evidence

Data Pure information such as numbers, percentages, and statistics the result of scientific inquiry e.g., the size of each seed, the mass etc. Has no
intrinsic meaning on its own. Only becomes right or wrong in context.
Evidenc Data that is relevant and furnishes proof that supports a conclusion (e.g., viewpoint/argument). Data is only evidence when there is an opinion,
e viewpoint that it reinforces or refute- selects data to back up your opinion. (has perspective e.g., accounts for skewing factors)- exists with a
hypothesis. Explanations need evidence. Evidence contextualises and critically analyses the data.
 describe the difference between qualitative and quantitative data sets, and methods used for statistical analysis, including but not
limited to:
o content and thematic analysis

Qualitative data: use content and thematic analysis e.g., looking for patterns/recurring ideas and interpreting. Goal(s): to
provide insight into texts, identify intentions, communication trends, to determine responses to certain issues.

Content analysis: (Downe-Wamboldt/Morgan) research tool which determines the presence of certain words/concepts
within a text(s) researchers can analyse the presence, meanings, and relationships of such certain words, themes, or
concepts, to make inferences within texts. Uses:

 Reveal international differences in communication content.

 Examine trends and relationships within the text to provide insight.
 Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups.
 To identify/present important aspects of the content.
 To support of some argument.

STEPS: read transcripts, recordings etc. Developing an initial response category and classify all elements of discussion (ANALYSIS)  review
categories of discussion develop meaningful subcategories. Interpret responses in categories (INTERPRETATION)  develop interrelated
interpretations within sub/major categories- make inference about messages in texts (SYNTHESIS)  write detailed report (DOCUMENTATION).

Types: Conceptual analysis (establishing the existence and frequency of concepts most often represented by words or phrases e.g., a poet often
writes about hunger; you can determine how many times words such as hunger, hungry, famished, or starving appear in poems) and relational
analysis (examines relationships among concepts in a text e.g., identify what other words or phrases hunger or famished appear next to and then
determine what different meanings emerge as a result).

ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES
 looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence  Time consuming
gets at the central aspect of social interaction.  Subject to increased error.
 Allow for both quantitative and qualitative data.  Often devoid of theoretical base.
 can provide valuable historical/cultural insights over time.  Reductive- result in researcher missing nuance/cultural meaning.
  can be used to interpret texts.  Reliability: using a subjective approach
 provides insight into the complexities of human  Often disregards the context that produced the text.
thought/language.  Can be difficult to automate or computerize
Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke) (provides qualitative, detailed, nuanced account of data; identifies patterns- form of content analysis): e.g.,
interview. People overlook information that doesn’t fit with your preconceived assumptions of what people were going to say. Messy data  map
of most important themes (patterns are important to the description of a phenomenon). Process:

1. Familiarise yourself with your data.

2. Assign preliminary codes to your data to describe the content.
3. Search for patterns or themes in your codes.
4. Review themes (especially for reliability and validity) and then name them.
5. Produce report to emphasize, examine and record patterns within data.

ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Flexible: Many theories can be applied to this process across  Reliability concern due to unlike interpretations from researchers.
various range of epistemologies  Might miss variations in data.
 Analysis is well suited to vast data bases.  Difficulty classifying themes.
 Permits scientists to grow study range past individual experiences.  If the analysis excludes theoretical framework, then you get
 Helps in interpretation of themes backed up by data. limited interpretive power.
 Allows for categories to evolve from data/broader ideas.  Doesn’t allow for context.
 Allows for increased detailed interpretation.  Difficult to maintain sense of continuity of data in each account.
o descriptive statistics: process of using, summarising, and analysing statistics e.g., mean, median, etc. z score, error bars.

Quantitative data sets- data represented numerically: mostly use descriptive statistics- trends of central tendency and variation e.g., providing
information and highlighting the relationship between variables, looking for significant differences. Goal: highlights the important
properties/characteristics of quantitative data, summarises relationships and trends in visual and conclusive way e.g. graphs/charts.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: summarize and describe the main features of a INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: tool to draw conclusions/generalisations about a
dataset, such as its central tendency, variability, and distribution. population (beyond the data available) by examining random samples.
Organise, analyse, and present pre-existing data in a meaningful manner. Compares, tests, and predicts future outcomes. Tools- hypothesis tests,
Results are shown in charts, tables, and graphs. Provide descriptions of the analysis of variance etc. Infers trends or establish the significance of the
data set or population. Useful to see patterns. Can’t be generalized to other inferences made about a larger population. Includes:
populations. Includes measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) Confidence levels: gives us range of values for which we are sure that a
and measures of spread/variance (range, standard deviation, variance)- how given survey will overlap with the true value. 95% usually used.
the data deviates from the position. Measures of shape- symmetrical/not or Covers statistical/hypothesis testing- deciding whether the results support a
normal/kurtosis. Looks at frequencies, percentages, mean, mode etc. It is theory which allies to a population.
less obvious to determine whether there is a significant difference in means. Looks at relationships, distribution, and difference in means/variances.
 select and use appropriate tools, technologies and/or models in order to manipulate and represent data appropriately for a data set,
including but not limited to: spreadsheets, graphical representations and digital technologies

Nominal (qualitative/cat.) Ordinal (qualitative/cat.) Continuous (quantitative) Discrete (quantitative)

Data that doesn’t possess a natural Types that have a natural ordering Fractional numbers- take any value Fall under integers or whole
order. E.g., colour/gender. May only e.g., small, medium or large e.g., height or weight. numbers. E.g., number of phones.
be classified. o bar charts and pie charts, o Bar graphs, line graphs o Bar charts, scatter plots,
o bar/pie charts, column column and histograms. pie charts. Column
Qualitative: describes the object under discrete classes, can’t be counted or measured e.g., gender. Can use ANOVA. Pie charts and bar charts.

Quantitative: data tries to quantify things by considering numerical values e.g., price. Regression analysis can be used only for quantitative data.

Line graphs; independent variable is continuous or ordinal. Shows a change over time. Independent variable (that which you change) on
horizontal (x) axis. Dependent variable (that which you measure) on vertical (y) axis

Ungrouped data: line/bar (horizontal or vertical direction)/pie graph. Grouped data: histogram (frequency distribution)/frequency polygon.

Independent variable Dependent variable (units) Derived Quantity (units)

(units) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
 assess the relevance, accuracy and validity of the data and determine error, uncertainty and comment on its limitations.

Accuracy Accuracy of measuring devices, parallax errors? Reflect published results? (Rounding accuracy)
Validity Control group used? Method appropriate for aim? Controlled variables constant? Independent variable changed/dependent kept the same?
Reliability Repeating an experiment getting similar results. Take the average (outliers excluded). Sample size (large/small)
Limitations Assumptions, bias (double blind/blind), can be large amount of data to analyse, time consuming, difficult to generalise results. When using
sample sizes: large as possible, representative of population, individuals should be assigned to sample groups randomly. Experiment designs
should incorporate blind, double-blind studies. Most measurements contain random error which should be eliminated. Every aspect of a
scientific investigation must be scrutinised for errors.
Uncertainty a quantitative measurement of variability in the data- all data have a range of expected values as opposed to a precise point value.
 evaluate the limitations of data analysis and interpretation: justification of the stats test. Is there a small sample size or potential bias
(e.g., motivations of a company), sampling methods, time consuming, subjective interpretation of data, low quality data, ethical
implications, might be difficult or inappropriate to generalise results as samples might not be representative. Analysis is not always
objective. Context influences the capacity for a researcher's interpretation of results, with multiple interpretations of data possible
depending on past experience (cognitive bias). Participant expectations and researcher bias may alter the interpretation of the data. The
scope of understanding is restricted if available theories cannot explain data. Misinterpretation of complex models may impact a
researcher's understanding of a scientific concept. How to limit bias? Credibility checks, repetition, peer-reviews.

Statistics in Scientific Research: How does statistical analysis assist in finding meaning in the trends or patterns in data sets?
  apply appropriate descriptive statistics to a data set(s), including but not limited to:

mean (not- skewed data): average of the data set.

( x 1+ x 2 +...+ x n ) (sometimes be misleading as they are skewed by
o x=
n
outliers).
o mode: most common number in a data set (used for categorical data)
o median (can be used on skewed data- positive skew to right or negative skew to left): in the middle of the set of numbers.
o Variability: how spread scores are in a distribution.
o Z-score: describe the location of every score in a distribution e.g., whether the score is above/below the mean. (x-mean)/s.d
o standard deviation: measure of spread from the mean, can be used to detect outliers. A small standard deviation= low
variability (close together). One standard deviation is 68% of all data points, 2 are within 95% of the mean, 3 standard
deviations is 99.7% of all values. Population standard deviation = whole population. Sample (bias) = part of a population
o Range: difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.
o Normal distribution: pattern that is formed by the data points which is symmetrical around the centre.
o Quartiles: spread of a data set by breaking the data set into quarters- much less affected by outliers or a skewed data. IQR
describes the difference between the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q1): range of middle 50% of data.
 apply appropriate performance measures to the statistical analysis of quantitative data set(s) obtained from conducting a relevant
practical investigation, including but not limited to:
o error: deviation between measurement/true value or 2 values. Systematic: reduce accuracy. Random: reduce reliability/
precision. Statistical error: rejecting a true null hypothesis or retaining a false null hypothesis.
o Accuracy: difference between a measured value and the true or accepted value e.g. g = 9.8 ms-2.
o Precision: is how closely a set of values agree with each other.
o Bias (deviation between observations/data and an accurate description): something wrong with the way the sampling method
or measurements. Can’t usually be quantitively measured, increasing sample size doesn’t help- difficult to detect. Types:
 measurement bias: Incorrect measurements taken. E.g., poorly calibrated instruments, poorly trained survey takers.
 Sampling bias: Selection of a non-representative sample. Greater with smaller sample sizes. Can be predicted,
calculated, and accounted for.
 Expectancy bias- looking for certain results.
 Social desirability bias- respondents to answer questions that will be viewed favourably by others.
 Response-non-response- subjects only answering what they want to say/not answering what they don’t want to say.
 Reporting bias: researchers not publishing a hypothesis that was wrong or selectively using data to prove hypothesis.

Preventing bias: measuring instruments function well, correct technique, random/correct sampling. Good training/supervision for survey workers.

o data cleansing: process of detecting and correcting corrupt or inaccurate records e.g., have things have been entered correctly,
have we excluded certain data points. Data can be corrupted via computer malfunctions. Ensures accuracy and validity.

Extract: read from original data source, Transform- manipulate the data into a usable format and clean, ensure quality (same sig figs/reliability of
source), Volume: as much data as possible, Blanks: no blank spaces  removed or filled in, Recent: make sure the data is up to data.

 apply appropriate statistical tests of confidence to a data set(s), including but not limited to:
1. Observe the data: look at descriptive statistics e.g., mean, standard deviation etc. also comment on the sample size etc. Draw a graph.
2. Inferential statistics analysis: State hypothesis, α significance level, State any assumptions/requirements, Perform statistical statistics
(give reasons and justify why you picked to use this type of test), Analysis statistical test, compare values and p-values to determine
statistical significance, accept/reject null hypothesis, Make real life conclusion to your results.
o Student’s t-test: are comparing the means of two different samples.

One sample tests: used to compare means of a sample data to a population or a manufacturer’s claim.

Two sample t-test used to compare the means of: Paired: data is before and after from the same individual or group OR Unpaired: data is from
different individual or groups.

Degrees of freedom: number of independent pieces of information i.e. test samples used to calculate the estimate. Df = total number of samples. If
there are 2 different samples of 10 (unpaired), the df is 20-2 = 18. If 1 sample of 10 before and after (paired) the df is 10-1 = 9.

Accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis:

1. Tstat > Tcrit: statistically significant difference, reject null hypothesis. Tstat < Tcrit: not statistically significant difference, accept null.
2. If p < 0.05: null hypothesis is rejected, significant difference. If p >/= 0.05: null hypothesis is accepted, no significant difference.

One-tail versus two-tail:

 One tail t-test: looks for a difference in the mean (above OR below) in one direction only
 Two tail t-test: looks for a difference in the mean (above AND below) in both directions.
o Chi-squared test (categorical data- doesn’t have to be normally distributed): is performed on observed data that we want to
compare to expected values (from previous observation/expectation of proportions). E.g., Tulips are expected to have an equal
distribution of colours. Statistically significant when the P value is less than the alpha value, or when the critical value is less
than the chi squared value.

Data Expected Observed (O-E) (O-E)2 ( O−E )2 P-value Chi-squared Critical value
value
E
o F-test: comparing variance. Types:
1. Testing whether two population variances are equal/unequal (done before a two sample t-test): Null hypothesis = variances are equal,
expected F-value is 1. If one variance is significantly larger than the other the F-value would be very large.
 variation between sample means
F-test and hypothesis testing: f −test = . The F-statistic incorporates both measures of variability.
variation withinthe samples
Usual assumptions: observations are independently sampled; sample variances are equal. (normal distribution).

2. ANOVA (analysis of variance): used to determine if the means of multiple groups are equal (≥3 groups. If there were 3 samples the null
hypothesis would be there is no difference in the means across all samples). ANOVA tells you there is a difference between at least 2 of
the groups however doesn’t specify which ones. In order to identify exact groups individual t-tests should be carried out.

Accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis:

1. Fstat(value) > Fcrit: statistically significant difference, reject null hypothesis. Fstat < Fcrit: not statistical significant difference, accept the null.
2. Closer to 1 means it has equal variance.
3. If p < 0.05: null hypothesis is rejected, significant difference. If p >/= 0.05: null hypothesis is accepted, no significant difference.
 apply statistical tests that can determine correlation between two variables, including but not limited to: correlation coefficient.

Pearson’s coefficient: A single number that can represent the correlation or relationship between variables (strength of ONLY linear relationship).
From 1 to -1. It gives information about the magnitude and direction of the relationship.

 1 = strong positive relationship

 0.6 = moderate positive relationship
 0 no linear relationship
 -1 = strong negative relationship (inverse; one gets bigger while the other gets smaller)

Linear regression attempts to model relationships between 2 variables by fitting a linear equation to observed data.

Regression analysis: R2 value is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that is predictable from the
independent variable.

 describe the difference between correlation and causation AND explain the requirements to establish causation.

Correlation: tells us if 1 variable affects another, and to what extent (size/direction of relationship)  doesn’t automatically mean causation.

Causation: indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the other (causal relationship). Best way to establish is via a controlled study.

 Association (between independent and dependent variables): as one goes up (or down), the other goes up (or down) at the same time.
E.g., more smoking = more lung cancer. No association = no causal relationship.
 Time order: independent variable must come before a dependent variable (cause must come before effect).
 Nonspuriousness: relationship between 2 variables is spurious when it is due to changes in a third variable so what appears to be a direct
connection.
 Specificity: a single specific and defined cause is considered to be the reason for the correlation.
 Mechanism: process that creates the connection between the independent variable and dependent variable.
 Strength (high Pearson coefficient- r value)/consistency (almost every study conducted should have similar results).
 Coherence/plausibility: should be compatible with existing theories and knowledge, and not defy the laws of the universe.
 Consideration of alternative explanation.

Decisions from Data and Evidence: How is evidence used to make decisions in the scientific research process?
Data: factual information such as numbers, percentages, and statistics.
Evidence: is data that is relevant and furnishes proof that supports a conclusion.
 assess the benefits of collective (collectively making a choice from the alternatives presented; usually different to when individuals make
decisions- they usually are better due to synergy) and individual decision-making.

Advantages Disadvantages
Collective Wider range of ideas, experts, better accountability, Increased Bias, Possible conflict, time consuming. Conformity pressures
decision making productivity, more complete info is generated. Higher quality (squashing opinions). Group decisions can be dominated by 1+
decisions. Increased solution diversity. More input. members, less conflict.
Individual quicker sometimes. Decreased conflict. Potential to be faster. Bias. having one opinion can be problematic. No consultation
decision making Individuals don’t escape responsibility and are held accountable. with others, including experts. May allow for procrastination.
Saves time, money and energy. More focused/rational.
 demonstrate the impact of new data: Gravitational waves on general relativity AND mechanisms of disease transmission and control.
General relativity (1916): Einstein said that large objects (planets/stars) warp the fabric of space-time around them causing gravity.
 Predictions: collisions of very massive objects, like black holes, would cause observable ripples (gravitational waves: travel at the speed
of light) in the fabric of space-time.  (Waves are too small/weak to measure).
 Detection: Scientists have built a powerful instrument called LIGO (laser interferometer gravitational wave observatory) designed to
detect the ripples in space-time. “The success of gravitational-wave experiments rests on our ability to develop sophisticated technology
and data-analysis algorithms.”
 Observations: Gravitational waves were first detected in 2015 (although experimental evidence supporting their existence was earlier)
 Issues: Output from gravitational wave detectors is full of noise. Disentangling the signal requires decision. 2018: Danish scientists
claimed signal data was incorrectly disentangled, questioning LIGO's ability to distinguish between signal/noise (validity of detection).
 Results: Two different independent analyses have been completed that confirm that detection. US National science funded the physicists.
Gravitational wave observatories consist of two mutually perpendicular 4km vacuum pipes (to prevent air particles from interfering with
the laser) that run fixed wavelength lasers that are reflected in them. Gravitational waves caused the change in the interference pattern
of the two laser beams. It was later analysed that these waves came from two black holes that emitted gravitational waves.
 Impact: Einstein’s prediction is confirmed. Gravitational waves might allow physicists to understand the Big Bang. In the first instants of
the Universe, electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force were indistinguishable. When these forces separated showed up as a
“random hiss” in new instruments like LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna – a space-based interferometer).
 Mechanism of disease: Before Pasteur the belief was that disease was transmitted spontaneously generation. Swan neck experiment: with a neck
mould didn’t grow. Without a neck the mould grew showing. Paradigm shift: disease is caused by air-borne microbes and is not spontaneous.
 Transmissions of disease: designed a criteria to establish a causal relationship between a pathogen and a disease. Said each infectious
disease was caused by a specific pathogen. Criteria:
o The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease but not found in healthy organisms.
o The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture.
o The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced (inoculated) into a healthy organism- same symptoms.
o Microorganism must be re-isolated from diseased experimental host and identified as identical to the original causative agent.
 John Snow/Cholera: Miasma theory held that cholera was caused by a miasma, a noxious form of “bad air” emitted from rotting organic
matter. Snow was believed transmission of cholera was not caused by ‘bar air’. Supported by Edwin Chadwick, Florence Nightingale.
o History: 1854 in London there was a severe cholera (gastrointestinal infection. Symptoms: watery diarrhoea, nausea leading to
severe dehydration via heavy loss of fluids, circulatory collapse and death) outbreak.
o Obtained data: via direct observation and employing epidemiological practices. He mapped the outbreaks of chorea and where
they had sourced their water. Identifying the Broad Street pump as the central source of water for all the infected residents,
Snow convinced the residents to disable the pump using statistics, highlighting the plausible causal relationship between
sewage contamination in water and cholera incidence.
o Significance: after the removal of the pump, the outbreak ceased. Later provided support for germ theory. Snow’s findings led
to the changes in sanitation and water supply that finally ended the cholera epidemics in Europe and US in the 19th century.

Data Modelling: How can data modelling help to process, frame and use knowledge obtained from the analysis of data sets?

 evaluate data modelling techniques used in contemporary science associated with large data sets, including but not limited to:
predictive, statistical, descriptive and graphical

Data modelling: process of creating a data model for data to be stored in a database (applying mathematical processes to develop a mathematical
representation of the data). Set of tools/techniques used to understand/analyse how an organisation should collect, update, and store data.
 Helps in the visual representation of data. Enforces business rules, regulatory compliances and government policies on the data, ensure
consistency in naming conventions, default values, emphasizes on what data is needed and how it should be organized. Process: select
the correct/appropriate model, clean the data, interpret and communicate findings. Often applied to very large data sets. Utilises:
computers, various programs/software, artificial intelligence (machine learning).

Model: representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system that is used to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be
experienced directly. Good models have good explanatory and predictive powers. Can guide research by being simplified representations of an
imagined reality that enable predictions to be developed and tested by experiment. There may be more than one model proposed by scientists
and will argue about the ‘rightness’ of their model. Models are central to the process of knowledge-building.
 Example: Climate models- Future climate changes over the 21st century cannot be simply extrapolated from past climate. Global climate
models (GCMs)- mathematical representations of the climate system based on the laws of physics. GCMs are closely related to models
used for daily weather prediction. Climate models now incorporate interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, sea ice and land
surface. Confidence in models comes from their basis in fundamental physical principles, and from their ability to represent important
features of the current and past climate. GCMs have shown a substantial and robust warming signal resulting from increasing
greenhouse gas concentrations over several generations of model development. Uncertainties arise, in the details/timing of changes
coming from uncertainties in choosing parameters. These uncertainties are reflected in the ranges presented for projections - a broad
suite of climate variables have been reported on for these projections.
 Future climate models: depends on the evolution of future greenhouse gas concentration (as a result of human action). Multi-decadal
projections are also affected by the chaotic climate system or natural climate variability. Many groups have created varying global
climate models due to the justifiably different ways some physical processes are mathematically represented in these models.

Predictive predict what will happen in the future, built from data that is already known e.g., weather modelling, climate change.
 Advantages: predictions for the future, use to make informed decisions. Able to test scenarios that are not possible using physical
experiments. Can consider and incorporate a very large number of variables. Can avoid bias in the final answer. Can determine risk.
 Disadvantages: Only as good as the data that it is built upon: availability of data, size of data set, algorithms used, data from
machine learning (bias in algorithm construction leads to biased results). May be hard to compare models if the assumptions are
not the same. Future unknown changes cannot be accounted for. E.g., contemporary COVID models are limited by the availability of
data in Australia and often cannot be transferred to different areas of Australia.
Statistical Mathematical model that embodies a set of statistical assumptions. Finds relationships between data/make generalisations. Includes
confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and regression analysis.
 Advantages: used to find trends/relationships within the data. Patterns and correlations are clear and visible. If taken from large
samples the generalisability is high. Secondary data can be cheap and already complied. Can be reused to check other variables.
 Disadvantages: Need to correctly choose/apply the appropriate test, researcher cannot check validity, can’t establish causation
only draw patterns/correlations, can be manipulated to show the point the researcher wants to show, Often secondary data: harder
to access and check; could be misinterpreted
Descriptive Includes mean, mode, ranges, z scores. Describes a system and its relationship to its environment.
 Advantages: Communicates an overview or summary of data, especially large data sets. Straightforward, simple, Can make
comparisons between data sets, Prepare data for further analysis.
 Disadvantages: can be distorted by outliers or data cleansing. Can not be representative of the data set if very non-uniform
distribution. Only allows for inferences about the data set measured. Doesn’t identify causes. Can change overtime
Graphical Representation of data in a graphical form. A range of graphs can be used to help visualise the data (includes). Line graph. Scatter plots with
lines and curves of best fit. Column graphs. Pie and divided bar graphs. Box and whisker plots
 Advantages: summaries data, clearly visualise data and trends, comparisons, easily interpreted, attention grabbing (consider
colours, presentation, audience), easier to understand and compare
  Disadvantages: data can be distorted or manipulated (consider type of graph, scales used), misinterpreted. Bad plots can lead to
loss of precision and accuracy. Time consuming to data cleanse.
Module 4: The Research Report: How are the inferences, generalisations and conclusions derived from valid and reliable data reported?
 assess methods by which scientists communicate research findings, including but not limited to: the scientific peer-review process,
publishing in online and print journals, presenting at conferences, presentations in popular media.
 analyse trends, patterns and relationships in the data set to suggest modifications to the scientific research methods employed
 analyse the patterns and trends derived from the associated data set(s) relevant to the scientific research for inclusion in the report
 justify choices of mode and media for the presentation of the scientific research, based on purpose, audience and context.
 communicate scientific and/or technical information or ideas clearly and accurately using a variety of forms appropriate to purpose, for
example orally, mathematically, graphically or in writing.
Mode of communication: means of communicating e.g., visual, linguistic, aural, spatial or gestural.
Medium: channel/system through which communications are conveyed. e.g., ads, billboards, podcast, blog, ratio, scientific journal, magazine.
 Spatial communication: through awareness of arrangement of the room and the hierarchy of the room.
 Communication appropriacy: decided based on the purpose (clearly communicate a key message why scientific findings are meaningful,
usually shorter or more engaging things are better in communication. However more specific communication is designed to inform other
researchers is detailed), audience (for peers with a background in the research area, possibly newcomers. Effective scientific
communication shouldn’t exclude audiences; specialists want more detail whereas non-specialists need simpler vocabulary, analogies,
clear diagrams) and context (context of an audience must be considered regarding how they will best understand and trust the message..
Depending on the place of delivery, the level of detail, regardless of audience, may differ)

The scientific peer-review process: of subjecting an author's scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the
same field. Provides a trusted form of scientific communication. Highly competitive. E.g., The New England Journal of Medicine publishes just 6% of
its submissions. Encourage authors to meet the accepted high standards of their discipline and to control the dissemination of research data to
ensure false information is not published without review which fosters trust. Findings should be replicable. Modern day scientists no longer have
to worry about selling their findings. Reviewed by 1-4 people. Very slow (more than one year between submission and publication). Bias by the
editors. Stifles innovation in experimentation. Acts as a poor screen against plagiarism. Studies have found scientists have cognitive biases that give
people an advantage for someone who shares certain characteristics with themselves e.g., nationality/gender. Papers may be sent to research
competitors 1830s the Royal Society of London started soliciting formal reports about papers that were submitted to them for publication. People
are not paid or credited for the hours it takes to review 20-30 papers (lack of motivation to check properly). Some authors have created fake emails
to have their papers sent to themselves, between 1975 and 2012, there’s been a 10-fold increase in the number of scientific articles. In over 70% of
cases the restrictions were due to scientific misconduct. Some publish false information Process:
1. Ground of scientists complete a study and write it up. Submit it to a publication.
2. Journal editors send the article to several other scientists who work in the same fields.
3. Reviewers provide feedback on the article and tell the editor if the study is of quality to publish.
4. Authors may then revise their articles and resubmit for consideration.
5. Only articles that meet good scientific standards are accepted for publication.

Publishing in online and print journals: A journal article describes a study and report any details to evaluate the study (background information,
data, statistical research, graphs, maps). Recent times have seen mass publications of scientific articles with little/no peer review posing a risk to
advances in scientific knowledge. If selection criteria for a journal is more rigid, these journal hosting sites have reputable journals.
 Advantages: allows for the review process to occur. Informs others of work, reaches a specific audience. Online journals allows for
greater access, increased spread of information, accessibility technology e.g., test-to-speech, easier to search for articles by keyword, e
versions have extra content. Hard copies: good if you have difficulty reading from a screen.
 Disadvantages: expensive, can mean accessing articles is restricted by paywalls. Different journals have different reputations. There can
be a pressure to publish work to support a scientists reputation so may be rushed. Language barriers.

Presenting at conferences: structured events over 1+ days where scientists from an area meet to communicate advances in their field/disseminate
information to a wider audience. Include: Lectures (plenary, keynote, sessions) and Poster presentations.
 Advantages: Contribute and learn about the most recent advances in your field – work may be presented at any stage, not when
complete. Advocate for your discipline (inform others). Improve your communication skills. Networking, build personal profile.
 Disadvantages: Can be expensive, travel involved, environmental impact. Research in early stages may be misreported. Race and gender
bias in presenters often noted.

Presentations in popular media: often directed at a general audience without a specific scientific background. Non-expert audience. Purpose is to
inform/entertain/engage. Doesn’t use complex language and is designed to inform. If the media is delivering a health message it is very clear and
simple. Analogies are often used. E.g., Media: tv, radio, podcast, blogs, books, magazines etc. Veritasium youtuber.
 Advantages: reaches a wide audience, informs on scientific information, may inspire interest, action or change.
 Disadvantages: not peer reviewed, may contain misleading overly-simplified or incorrect information, may cause negative side effects.