Scientific Method and Argumentation:

How scientists develop arguments and

criteria of scientific truth?

Philosopy of Science
Meita Lesmiaty Khasyar
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/science-magazines/science-philosophy-
and-practice-scientific-method

The scientific method is the approach used

by scientists in the discovery of new
scientific knowledge.
A simplified outline of this approach,
reduced to the making of observations, the
formation of hypotheses (possible cause-
and-effect explanations), and the testing of
hypotheses by further observations, is often
taught to students as the scientific method.
The Greek philosophers of
several centuries BC,
especially Aristotle (384–322
BC), were among the first
persons to think carefully
about how we acquire
knowledge about the natural
world—scientific knowledge.
Aristotle taught that science
depends on two basic forms of
reasoning, induction
and deduction
• Induction is the inference
(reasoning-out) of general
principles from specific
observations.
• For example, if we observe
without exception that heavy
objects fall straight downward
when released, we may reason
inductively that all objects
have some property in
common—mass—on which
some force associated with
the Earth acts—gravity.
Deduction, on the other hand,
is the prediction of particular
events or observations from
general principles or laws: It
is like induction working
backwards.

For example, once we have

proposed a law of gravitation, we
can deduce from it how a space
probe should behave en route
from Earth to Mars. If the probe
behaves as predicted, the law is
confirmed, at least thus far.

Image: nationalgeographic.com
 Both induction and
deduction are part of the
scientific method.
 From observations, laws
may be produced using
inductive reasoning.
 From these laws,
predictions may be
deduced.
 These predictions can be
tested by arranging further
observations.
 From these further
observations, adjustments
to the proposed scientific
laws may be made.
Image: Pinterest.com
A version of this scientific method was described by
the Arab scientist Ibn al Haytham (965–1039) in the
eleventh century.
The English philosopher and Franciscan monk Roger
Bacon (1219–1294) proposed a version of al Haytham's
method that even more closely prefigured the modern
ideal: observe phenomena, propose a hypothesis to
explain what is observed, make fresh observations to
test the hypothesis, and publish your work so that
others can check it.
In the 1600s, physicists (scientists who study the
fundamental laws governing all physical objects),
including Isaac Newton (1643–1727), proposed further
standards for scientific thought.
SCIENTIFIC ARGUMENTATION
“Observation and experiment are not the bedrock
upon which science is built;
rather they are handmaidens to the rational
activity of constituting knowledge claims
through argument
(Newton, Driver, Osborne 2000).”

Reasons scientists use arguments

 Interpretation of data
 Experimental designs
 Method of data analysis
 The appropriateness of a questions
 The Uses of Argument
(1958, revised 2003)
Cambridge University Press
When should students use arguments?

To refute claims made by other students

To defend their claims, designs, and
questions
Science is about evidence and reasoning
so students should never argue
To prove a point
 How scientists develop arguments and
criteria of scientific truth?

 Defend claims using evidence and reasoning

 Defend models using evidence
 Critique the claims of other scientists and
look for sufficient and appropriate evidence