Biological and Cultural Evolution

Biological evolution- refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited traits of biological
populations from one generations to another.

Biological evolution is based on the theory of evolution that was introduced by the famous English naturalist and geologist
Charles Darwin (1809-1882).

Cultural evolution or Sociocultural evolution- refers to the changes or development in cultures from a simple form to a
more complex form of human culture. Sociocultural evolution happens as a result of human adaptation to different factors
like climatic changes and population increase.

Natural selection- “it is the outcome of processes that affect the frequencies of traits in a particular environment. Traits
that enhance survival and reproductive success increase in frequency over time”. –Ember and Peregrine (2002)

2 Types of Evolution

Microevolution- is a change in the genetic make-up (DNA) which is inherited by offspring from their parents.

Macroevolution- speciation or creating another species.

The Birth of Culture

 Natural selection and adaptation concepts are similar to cultural evolution.

 The changes that happened morphologically to human beings from knuckle to bipedal walking helped humans
create culture.
 Bipedalism is an evolutionary change that probably led us to a lot of advantages.
-it helped humans improved long-distance walking for hunting and gathering food.
-it creates other ways for survival.

The reasons for the bigger brain:

1. Environmental reasons. Physical challenges like finding, hunting, or remembering sources of food provide
selection pressure for bigger brains.
2. Social Factors. Interacting with others favored people with brains large enough to anticipate the actions of
others.
3. Cultural Factors. People who were able to hold on to accumulated knowledge and share it within the generation
and to another generation. Ex. Cooking

The Evolution of the Brain

Australopithecus afarensis (400cc) 3.9-2.9 million years ago.

 Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) found by Donald Johanson and Tom Grayon Nov. 24, 1974, at Hadar in
Ethiopia.

Homo habilis (510-752cc) 2.35-1.5 million years ago

 The earliest member of the genus Homo.

 Older hominin species.
 Morphology is almost the same as the features of an ape.
 Means “handyman”

Homo erectus (600-1015cc) 1.25-0.3 million years ago

 The earliest in the human lineage.

 Fossils found in Africa.
 This species represents the transformation of the earlier hominins to modern humans.

Neanderthals (1300-15000cc) 500-25 thousand years ago

 Closest extinct human relatives.

 There are excavated sophisticated tools.
 They made use of fire.
 They live in a shelters and wore items of clothing.
 They have burial rituals.
Cultural Adaptation and Evolution

 Biological adaptation and evolutionary changes influence the creation of human cultures.
 Cultural adaptation plays a critical role in the evolution and survival of our species.

- Cultural adaptation- is the capacity of human beings and societies to overcome changes in the
environment through the modifications of their culture.

 Biological and cultural adaptations influence and shape human behaviors.

 Tools that humans create and use are associated with cultural evolution.
 Modern humans are using technologies to address contemporary problems.

Stages of Evolution (HomiHabiEreSap)

Hominid- (a man-like primate) during the age of mammals, the primates were the highest order of mammals.

Homo Habilis- (handy man) invented stone tools

Homo Erectus- (upright man) first manlike creature because they walked straight, used fire, made stone weapons, and
hunted large animals.

Homo Sapiens- (wise man) muscular man, live in small groups of families as hunters or cave dwellers.

The Need for Socialization

Socialization- refers to the progress of shaping an individual’s behavior, belief system, and mindset to be in accordance
with a group or society’s values, tradition, and beliefs through continuous interaction with others.

The Role of Socialization

Talcott Parsons- attempt to develop a unified theory of society.

-He analyzed the dynamics between society and its various institutions whose functions affect and maintain
social order and equilibrium. These institutions are:

1. Economic institutions- help society survive in its environment through economic production.

2. Political institutions- facilitate the balance of power, programs, and policies that respond to the needs and demands
of the people.

3. Legal institutions- aid in the enforcement of rules and norms on how people should behave in society.

4. Cultural practices and institutions- ensure that traditions, values, and beliefs systems are passed on to the next
generation.

Agents of Socialization

Family – the basic unit of most societies.

Peer Groups- refer to people who share similarities in age, interests, and even social status who regularly interact with
each other.

School- shares a significant portion of its contribution to an individual’s knowledge and behavioral development.

Religion- values formation and belief system are closely associated with religion.

Government- formulating laws and programs for citizens to follow.

Mass Media and Social Media- individuals are influenced by what they see and hear in television shows, movies, and
other forms of media.

Theories on Self-Development and Socialization

1. Freud’s Theory of Personality Development (Sigmund Freud)

 Three Classification of Self
 Id- is the primal, biological, and instinctive impulses or desires which eventually become repressed.
 Ego- is the decision making aspect of the human mind that seeks to strike a compromise between the
demands of the Id without violating the principles and values brought about by the Superego.
 Superego- is the part of an individual that wants to comply with social norms in order to be liked and
respected by other members of society.
2. Mead’s Theory of the Self (I and Me)
 “Me”- embodies our self-consciousness, being aware of how we are seen by other members of society.
 “I”- represents our instinctive selves which creatively and immediately responds to the values and
behavior adopted by “Me”.
3. Cooley’s Looking Glass Self
 Individual discover and develops himself or herself by being aware and adapting to the perception or
judgment of others accordingly.

HOW DOES ONE BEHAVE IN SOCIETY: EXPLORING CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE

Norms- are formed by groups that establish a constant set of practices and principles its members live by.

Conformity- is the act or practice of being at one with a group’s goals and adhering to the means of achieving
those goals.

Types of Conformity

Private Acceptance- this happen when the acceptance and internalization of group and values are not only
practiced inside the group but are also upheld by members when they are outside the group.

Compliance- when group members merely comply with the group’s practices, the unity within the group
remains weak and fragile.

Deviance- is generally defined as the act of going against the established norms and practices of groups and
society.

Effects of Deviance in Groups

-can enriched the group’s decision making
-a constructive group conflict occurs when the group engages in healthy tension in a discussion where they
carefully weigh the pros and cons of different options before they decide.

Theories of Deviance
1. Functionalist Perspective-
-having a member with deviant behavior can strengthen the positive function of a group.
-the unity of the group becomes stronger amid tension as the group finds a common problem to
solve.

2. Conflict Theory- this behavior is usually geared towards challenging the system that perpetuates
their situation.

3. Labeling Theory- posits that individuals exhibit deviant behavior when they are labeled as deviants.
They internalize these labels and begin to adopt the looks and practices associated with this behavior.

Types of Deviance

Innovation- this happens when an individual believes in the group’s objectives but not with the means to get
there.

Ritualism- this occurs when a member does not agree with the goals of the group but accepts the means of
getting there.

Retreatism- this happens when individuals do not accept both the group’s goals and means of getting there. In
this case, the individual retreats or shuts off completely from the group.
 Rebellion- this occurs when individual decides to completely change the course of the group by introducing a
new goal and means to get there.

Social Behavior Shaped by Conformity and Deviance

-Social Behavior is continuously shaped by other people and groups an individual is exposed to through the
socialization process. But as people steadily undergo self-development, they now choose and exhibit conformity
and deviance in various groups depending on the circumstances.

The Prehistoric Ages

“Around 2.5 million years, humans lived on Earth without leaving written record of their lives, but they left
behind other kinds of remains and artifacts.”
-Lesley Kennedy

The Stone Age

- refers to the prehistoric period when humans made tools and weapons with stone and organic materials
such as bone, horn, and wood.

The stone age was divided into three period:

1. The Paleolithic Period
2. The Mesolithic period
3. The Neolithic period

1. The Paleolithic Period

-Also called as "old stone age" (roughly 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 B.C.), early humans lived in caves or
simple huts or tepees and were hunters and gatherers.
-They used basic stone and bone tools, as well as crude stone axes, for hunting birds and wild animals.

In Paleolithic Period there are subdivisions:

A. Lower-or Early Paleolithic
B. Middle Paleolithic
C. Upper- or Late Paleolithic

A. Lower-or Early Paleolithic

- From the earliest known tool used around 2.5 million years ago, with simple
cores, flaked pieces, and later large bifaces, up to roughly 250,000 years ago.

B. Middle Paleolithic
- From c. 250,000 years ago, with a new focus on retouched flakes and prepared cores, which continued to be
popular in certain areas until as late as c. 30,000 years ago.

C. Upper- or Late Paleolithic

- Beginning to pop up around 50,000/40,000 years ago, this industry saw a huge proliferation with regard to
both tool shapes and source materials (now also a lot of bone, antler, and
ivory), which in some areas was carried on beyond the end of the last ice
age all the way up to c. 10,000 years ago.

2. The Mesolithic period

-Also called "middle stone age" (about 10,000 B.C. to 8,000 B.C.), humans used small stone tools, now also
polished and sometimes crafted with points and attached to antlers, bone or wood to serve as spears and
arrows.

-They often lived nomadically

in camps near rivers and other
bodies of water. Agriculture
was introduced during this time, which led to more
permanent settlements in villages.

3. The Neolithic period

-Also called "new stone age" (roughly 8,000 B.C. to 3,000 B.C.), ancient humans switched from
hunter/gatherer mode to agriculture and food production. They domesticated animals and cultivated cereal
grains.
- They used polished hand axes, adzes for ploughing and tilling the land and started to settle in the plains.
Advancements were made not only in tools but also in farming, home construction and art, including pottery,
sewing and weaving.