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5.3.4 Dynamic Range

 the number of PCM bits transmitted per sample determined by determined by
several factors – maximum allowable input amplitude, resolution and dynamic
range.
 Dynamic range (DR) – the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the
smallest possible magnitude (other than 0 V) that can be decoded by the DAC
converter in the receiver.
 mathematically expressed
V max V max
DR  
V min resolution
where DR = dynamic range (unitless ratio)
Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude that can be discerned by the
DAC’s in the receiver

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5.3.4 Dynamic Range

 Dynamic range is generally expressed as a dB value

V max
DR  20 log
V min
where DR = dynamic range (unitless ratio)
Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude that can be discerned by the
DAC’s in the receiver

 the number of bits used for a PCM code depends on the dynamic range. The
relationship between dynamic range and the number of bits in a PCM code is
2 n 1  DR
and for a minimum number of bits 2n – 1 = DR

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5.3.4 Dynamic Range

 Ex : For a PCM system with the following parameters, determine (a)
minimum sample rate (b) minimum number of bits used in the PCM code (c)
resolution (d) quantization error
Maximum analog input frequency = 4 kHz
Maximum decode voltage at the receiver = ±2.55V
Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB

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5.3.4 Coding Efficiency

 Coding efficiency – ratio of the minimum number of bits
required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the actual number
of PCM bits used.

min_ number _ of _ bits

coding _ efficiency  100
actual _ number _ of _ bits

 number of bits should include the sign bit !

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5.3.5 Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio

 Generally, the quantization error or distortion caused by digitizing an analog
sample expressed as an average signal power-to-average noise power ratio.
 For a linear PCM codes (all quantization intervals have equal magnitudes), the
signal power-to-quantizing noise power ratio is determined by
v2 / R
SQR(dB)  10 log
where R = resistance (ohms)
 
q 2 / 12 / R
v = rms signal voltage (volts)
q = quantization intervals (volts)
v2/R = average signal power (watts)
(q2/12)/R = average quantization noise power (watts)
 if R is assume to be equal
v2 v
SQR(dB)  10 log 2  20 log
q / 12  q 
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5.3.6 Companding
 Companding is the process of compressing and expanding to
improve the dynamic range of a communication system.
 a companding process is done by firstly compressing signal
samples and then using a uniform quantization. The input-output
characteristics of the compressor are shown below.
 2 compression laws recognized by
CCITT :
μLaw : North America & Japan
A-Law : Europe & others

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5.3.7 Line speed / Transmission bit rate

 Line speed is the transmission bit rate at which serial PCM bits
are clocked out of the PCM encoder onto the transmission line.
 Line speed/transmission bit rate can be expressed as

Line speed = samples/seconds x bits/sample

line speed = transmission rate (bps)

samples/second = sampling rate fs
bits/sample = no of bits in the compressed PCM code

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5.4 Parameters in Digital Modulation

5.4.1 Information Capacity
 Information capacity – a measure of how much information can be
propagated through a communication systems and is a function of
bandwidth and transmission time.
 represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried
through a system in a given unit of time
 the most basic digital symbol used to represent information is the
binary digit, or bit.
 Bit rate – the number of bits transmission during one second and is
expressed in bits per second (bps).
 Bit rate is used to express the information capacity of a system.

 mathematically expressed, information capacity I

I B  t

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5.4.2 M-ary encoding

 in an M-ary encoding, M represents a digit that corresponds to the
number of conditions, levels, or combination possible for a given
number of binary variables.
 the number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions
is expressed mathematically as
N  log 2 M
where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, levels, or combination possible with
N bits
 from above, the number of conditions possible with N bits can be
expressed as 2N  M
 Ex : with 1 bit → 21 = 2 conditions
2 bits → 22 = 4 conditions
3 bits → 23 = 8 conditions
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5.4.3 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

 Bit rate – refers to the rate of change of digital information, which
is usually binary.
 Baud – refers to the rate of change of a signal on a transmission
medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.
 Baud can be expressed as
1
B 
ts
where Baud = symbol rate (baud per second)
ts = time of one signaling element (seconds)
signaling element = symbol
 for a given bandwidth B, the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B.
Using the multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel
capacity is
f b  2 B log 2 M
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5.4.3 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

where fb = channel capacity (bps)
B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hertz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
 above formula can be rearranged to solve for the minimum
bandwidth necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carrier as
follow  fb 
B   
 log 2 M 

 since N = log2M above formula can be expressed as

 fb 
B   
 N 
where N is the number of bits encoded into each signaling element
(symbol).
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5.5 Digital Modulation

 Given an information signal which is digital and a carrier signal represented
as follow :

 A digitally modulated signal is produced as follow :

 If the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal,
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying) is produced.
 If the frequency (f) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal,
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is produced.
 If the phase (θ) of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, PSK
(Phase Shift Keying) is produced.
 If both amplitude and phase are varied proportional to the information signal,
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is produced.

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5.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying

 digital information signal directly modulates the amplitude of the analog carrier.
 mathematically, the modulated carrier signal is expressed as follow :

A 
v ask ( t )  1  v m ( t )  cos(  c t )  (1)
2 
where vask(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave
vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency

 in the above (1), modulating signal vm(t) is a normalized binary waveform,

where +1V = logic 1 and -1V = logic 0.

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5.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying

 for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = +1V, and (eqn 1) reduces to

A 
v ask ( t )  1  1 cos(  c t )   A cos(  c t )
2 
 and for logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1V, and (eqn 1) reduces to

A 
v ask ( t )  1  1 cos(  c t )   0
2 
 so the modulated wave vask(t), is either Acos(ωct) or 0, means the carrier is either
“on” or “off”. ASK is sometimes referred as on-off keying (OOK).

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5.5.1 Amplitude Shift Keying

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5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying

 general expression for FSK :
v fsk ( t )  V c cos 2   f c  v m ( t )  f t  (2)

where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude
fc = analog carrier center frequency (Hz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating signal)
Δf = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency

 from (2), the peak shift in the carrier frequency (Δf) is proportional to the
amplitude of the binary input signal vm(t).
 the direction of the shift is determined by the polarity of signal ( 1 or 0 ).
 the modulating signal vm(t) is a normalized binary waveform where a logic 1 =
+1V and a logic 0 = -1V.

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5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying

 for logic 1 input, vm(t) = +1, equation (2) becomes

v fsk ( t )  V c cos 2   f c   f t 
 for logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1, equation (2) becomes

v fsk ( t )  V c cos 2   f c   f t 
 the carrier center frequency fc is shifted (deviated) up and down in the
frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown below.

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5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying

 mark (fm) = logic 1 frequency

 space (fs) = logic 0 frequency

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5.5.2 Frequency Shift Keying

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5.5.3 Phase Shift Keying

 modulation technique that alters the phase of the carrier.
 in a binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N (number of bits) = 1, M
(number of output phases) = 2, one phase represents a logic 1 and another
phase represents a logic 0.
 as the input digital signal changes state (i.e. from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1), the phase of
the output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180º.

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5.5.3 Phase Shift Keying

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In the case of PSK, there is only one basic function of Unit energy which
is given by

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A Coherent BPSK is characterized by having a signal space

that is one dimensional (N=1) with two message points
(M=2)

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Quadrature Amplitude Shift Keying(QASK)

or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)

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Coherent Binary FSK

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In BFSK, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is switched

between two values in response to the binary code. We can consider
the BFSK waveform as a composition of two BASK waveforms of
different carrier frequencies.

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Coherent BFSK
Receiver/Demodulation

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