Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant

religious revival during the early 19th century in the
United States. It spread religion through revivals and
emotional preaching and sparked a number of reform
movements. Revivals were a key part of the movement
and attracted hundreds of converts to new Protestant
denominations. The Methodist Church used circuit
riders to reach people in frontier locations.

The Second Great Awakening led to a period of

antebellum social reform and an emphasis on salvation
by institutions. The outpouring of religious fervor and
A Methodist camp meeting in 1819 (hand colored
revival began in Kentucky and Tennessee in the 1790s
engraving)
and early 1800s among the Presbyterians, Methodists,
and Baptists. New religious movements emerged
during the Second Great Awakening, such as Adventism, Dispensationalism, and the Latter Day Saint
movement. The Second Great Awakening also led to the founding of several well-known colleges,
seminaries, and mission societies.

Historians named the Second Great Awakening in the context of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s
and 1750s and of the Third Great Awakening of the late 1850s to early 1900s. The First Awakening was
part of a much larger evangelical religious movement that was sweeping across England, Scotland, and
Germany.[1]

Spread of revivals

Background

Like the First Great Awakening a half century earlier, the Second Great Awakening in North America
reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the supernatural.[2] It
rejected the skepticism, deism, Unitarianism, and rationalism left over from the American Enlightenment,[3]
about the same time that similar movements flourished in Europe. Pietism was sweeping Germanic
countries[4] and evangelicalism was waxing strong in England.[5]

The Second Great Awakening occurred in several episodes and over different denominations; however, the
revivals were very similar.[3] As the most effective form of evangelizing during this period, revival meetings
cut across geographical boundaries.[6] The movement quickly spread throughout Kentucky, Indiana,
Tennessee, and southern Ohio, as well as other regions of the United States and Canada. Each
denomination had assets that allowed it to thrive on the frontier. The Methodists had an efficient
organization that depended on itinerant ministers, known as circuit riders, who sought out people in remote
frontier locations. The circuit riders came from among the common people, which helped them establish
rapport with the frontier families they hoped to convert.

Theology

Postmillennialist theology dominated American Protestantism in the first half of the 19th century.
Postmillennialists believed that Christ will return to earth after the "Millennium", which could entail either a
literal 1,000 years or a figurative "long period" of peace and happiness. Christians thus had a duty to purify
society in preparation for that return. This duty extended beyond American borders to include Christian
Restorationism. George Fredrickson argues that Postmillennial theology "was an impetus to the promotion
of Progressive reforms, as historians have frequently pointed out."[7] During the Second Great Awakening
of the 1830s, some diviners expected the Millennium to arrive in a few years. By the late 1840s, however,
the great day had receded to the distant future, and postmillennialism became a more passive religious
dimension of the wider middle-class pursuit of reform and progress.[7]

Burned-over district

Beginning in the 1820s, Western New York State experienced a series of popular religious revivals that
would later earn this region the nickname "the burned-over district," which implied the area was set ablaze
with spiritual fervor. This term, however, was not used by contemporaries in the first half of the nineteenth
century, as it originates from Charles Grandison Finney's Autobiography of Charles G Finney (1876), in
which he writes, "I found that region of country what, in the western phrase, would be called, a 'burnt
district.' There had been, a few years previously, a wild excitement passing through that region, which they
called a revival of religion, but which turned out to be spurious."[8][9][10] During this period, a number of
nonconformist, folk religion, and evangelical sects flourished in the region.

The extent to which religious fervor actually affected the region was reassessed in last quarter of the
twentieth century. Linda K. Pritchard used statistical data to show that compared to the rest of New York
State, the Ohio River Valley in the lower Midwest, and the country as a whole, the religiosity of the
Burned-over District was typical rather than exceptional.[11] More recent works, however, have argued that
these revivals in Western New York had a unique and lasting impact upon the religious and social life of the
entire nation.[12][13][14]

West and Tidewater South

On the American frontier, evangelical denominations, especially Methodists and Baptists, sent missionary
preachers and exhorters to meet the people in the backcountry in an effort to support the growth of church
membership and the formation of new congregations. Another key component of the revivalists' techniques
was the camp meeting. These outdoor religious gatherings originated from field meetings and the Scottish
Presbyterians' "Holy Fairs", which were brought to America in the mid-eighteenth century from Ireland,
Scotland, and Britain's border counties. Most of the Scotch-Irish immigrants before the American
Revolutionary War settled in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and down the spine of the Appalachian
Mountains in present-day Maryland and Virginia, where Presbyterian emigrants and Baptists held large
outdoor gatherings in the years prior to the war. The Presbyterians and Methodists sponsored similar
gatherings on a regular basis after the Revolution.[15]
The denominations that encouraged the revivals were based on an interpretation of man's spiritual equality
before God, which led them to recruit members and preachers from a wide range of classes and all races.
Baptists and Methodist revivals were successful in some parts of the Tidewater South, where an increasing
number of common planters, plain folk, and slaves were converted.[16]

West

In the newly settled frontier regions, the revival was implemented through camp meetings. These often
provided the first encounter for some settlers with organized religion, and they were important as social
venues. The camp meeting was a religious service of several days' length with preachers. Settlers in thinly
populated areas gathered at the camp meeting for fellowship as well as worship. The sheer exhilaration of
participating in a religious revival with crowds of hundreds and perhaps thousands of people inspired the
dancing, shouting, and singing associated with these events. The revivals also followed an arc of great
emotional power, with an emphasis on the individual's sins and need to turn to Christ, and a sense of
restoring personal salvation. This differed from the Calvinists' belief in predestination as outlined in the
Westminster Confession of Faith, which emphasized the inability of men to save themselves and decreed
that the only way to be saved was by God's electing grace.[17] Upon their return home, most converts
joined or created small local churches, which grew rapidly.[18]

The Revival of 1800 in Logan County, Kentucky, began as a traditional Presbyterian sacramental occasion.
The first informal camp meeting began in June, when people began camping on the grounds of the Red
River Meeting House. Subsequent meetings followed at the nearby Gasper River and Muddy River
congregations. All three of these congregations were under the ministry of Presbyterian Reverend James
McGready. A year later, in August 1801, an even larger sacrament occasion that is generally considered to
be America's first camp meeting was held at Cane Ridge in Bourbon County, Kentucky, under Barton W.
Stone (1772–1844) with numerous Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist ministers participating in the
services. The six-day gathering attracting perhaps as many as 20,000 people, although the exact number of
attendees was not formally recorded. Due to the efforts of such leaders as Stone and Alexander Campbell
(1788–1866), the camp meeting revival spread religious enthusiasm and became a major mode of church
expansion, especially for the Methodists and Baptists.[19][20] Presbyterians and Methodists initially worked
together to host the early camp meetings, but the Presbyterians eventually became less involved because of
the noise and often raucous activities that occurred during the protracted sessions.[20]

As a result of the Revival of 1800, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church was founded in 1810 near
Dickson, Tennessee[21] by the Revs: Samuel McAdow,[22] Finis Ewing,[23] and Samuel King[24] and
became a strong supporter of the revivalist movement.[25] Cane Ridge was also instrumental in fostering
what became known as the Restoration Movement, which consisted of non-denominational churches
committed to what they viewed as the original, fundamental Christianity of the New Testament. Churches
with roots in this movement include the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the
Evangelical Christian Church in Canada. The congregations of these denomination were committed to
individuals' achieving a personal relationship with Christ.[26]

Church membership soars

The Methodist circuit riders and local Baptist preachers made enormous gains in increasing church
membership. To a lesser extent the Presbyterians also gained members, particularly with the Cumberland
Presbyterian Church in sparsely settled areas. As a result, the numerical strength of the Baptists and
Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the Anglicans,
Presbyterians, Congregationalists. Among the new
denominations that grew from the religious ferment of the
Second Great Awakening are the Churches of Christ,
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Seventh-day
Adventist Church, and the Evangelical Christian Church
in Canada.[26][27]

The converts during the Second Great Awakening were

predominantly female. A 1932 source estimated at least
three female converts to every two male converts between
1798 and 1826. Young people (those under 25) also
converted in greater numbers, and were the first to 1839 Methodist camp meeting
convert.[28]

New movements

Adventism

The Advent Movement emerged in the 1830s and 1840s in North America, and was preached by ministers
such as William Miller, whose followers became known as Millerites. The name refers to belief in the soon
Second Advent of Jesus (popularly known as the Second coming) and resulted in several major religious
denominations, including Seventh-day Adventists and Advent Christians.[29]

Holiness movement

Though its roots are in the First Great Awakening and earlier, a re-emphasis on Wesleyan teachings on
sanctification emerged during the Second Great Awakening, leading to a distinction between Mainline
Methodism and Holiness churches.

Restoration Movement

The idea of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.S. after the American
Revolution.[30]: 89–94 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity without an elaborate hierarchy
contributed to the development of many groups during the Second Great Awakening, including the Latter
Day Saints, Baptists and Shakers.[30]: 89 Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly
appealing during this time period:[30]: 90–94

To immigrants in the early 19th century, the land in the United States seemed pristine,
edenic and undefiled – "the perfect place to recover pure, uncorrupted and original
Christianity" – and the tradition-bound European churches seemed out of place in this new
setting.[30]: 90
A primitive faith based on the Bible alone promised a way to sidestep the competing claims
of the many denominations available and for congregations to find assurance of being right
without the security of an established national church.[30]: 93

The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great
Awakening.[31]: 368 While the leaders of one of the two primary groups making up this movement, Thomas
Campbell and Alexander Campbell, resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp
meetings, the revivals contributed to the development of the other major branch, led by Barton W.
Stone.[31]: 368 The Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform
movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.[31]: 368

Culture and society

Efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the
late 19th century. Converts were taught that to achieve salvation they needed not just to repent personal sin
but also work for the moral perfection of society, which meant eradicating sin in all its forms. Thus,
evangelical converts were leading figures in a variety of 19th century reform movements.[32]

Congregationalists set up missionary societies to evangelize the western territory of the northern tier.
Members of these groups acted as apostles for the faith, and also as educators and exponents of
northeastern urban culture. The Second Great Awakening served as an "organizing process" that created "a
religious and educational infrastructure" across the western frontier that encompassed social networks, a
religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church-related colleges.[31]: 368 Publication
and education societies promoted Christian education; most notable among them was the American Bible
Society, founded in 1816. Women made up a large part of these voluntary societies.[33] The Female
Missionary Society and the Maternal Association, both active in Utica, NY, were highly organized and
financially sophisticated women's organizations responsible for many of the evangelical converts of the
New York frontier.[34]

There were also societies that broadened their focus from traditional religious concerns to larger societal
ones. These organizations were primarily sponsored by affluent women. They did not stem entirely from
the Second Great Awakening, but the revivalist doctrine and the expectation that one's conversion would
lead to personal action accelerated the role of women's social benevolence work.[35] Social activism
influenced abolition groups and supporters of the Temperance movement. They began efforts to reform
prisons and care for the handicapped and mentally ill. They believed in the perfectibility of people and were
highly moralistic in their endeavors.

African Americans
Baptists and Methodists in the South preached to slaveholders and slaves alike. Conversions and
congregations started with the First Great Awakening, resulting in Baptist and Methodist preachers being
authorized among slaves and free African Americans more than a decade before 1800. "Black Harry"
Hosier, an illiterate freedman who drove Francis Asbury on his circuits, proved to be able to memorize
large passages of the Bible verbatim and became a cross-over success, as popular among white audiences
as the black ones Asbury had originally intended for him to minister.[36] His sermon at Thomas Chapel in
Chapeltown, Delaware, in 1784 was the first to be delivered by a black preacher directly to a white
congregation.[37]

Despite being called the "greatest orator in America" by Benjamin Rush[38] and one of the best in the
world by Bishop Thomas Coke,[37] Hosier was repeatedly passed over for ordination and permitted no
vote during his attendance at the Christmas Conference that formally established American Methodism.
Richard Allen, the other black attendee, was ordained by the Methodists in 1799, but his congregation of
free African Americans in Philadelphia left the church there because of its discrimination. They founded the
African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) in Philadelphia. After first submitting to oversight by the
established Methodist bishops, several AME congregations finally left to form the first independent African-
American denomination in the United States in 1816. Soon after, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion
Church (AME Zion) was founded as another denomination in New York City.
Early Baptist congregations were formed by slaves and free African Americans in South Carolina and
Virginia. Especially in the Baptist Church, African Americans were welcomed as members and as
preachers. By the early 19th century, independent African-American congregations numbered in the several
hundreds in some cities of the South, such as Charleston, South Carolina, and Richmond and Petersburg,
Virginia.[39] With the growth in congregations and churches, Baptist associations formed in Virginia, for
instance, as well as Kentucky and other states.

The revival also inspired slaves to demand freedom. In 1800, out of African-American revival meetings in
Virginia, a plan for slave rebellion was devised by Gabriel Prosser, although the rebellion was discovered
and crushed before it started.[40] Despite white attempts to control independent African-American
congregations, especially after the Nat Turner uprising of 1831, a number of African-American
congregations managed to maintain their separation as independent congregations in Baptist associations.
State legislatures passed laws requiring them always to have a white man present at their worship
meetings.[39]

Women
Women, who made up the majority of converts during the Awakening, played a crucial role in its
development and focus. It is not clear why women converted in larger numbers than men. Various scholarly
theories attribute the discrepancy to a reaction to the perceived sinfulness of youthful frivolity, an inherent
greater sense of religiosity in women, a communal reaction to economic insecurity, or an assertion of the
self in the face of patriarchal rule. Husbands, especially in the South, sometimes disapproved of their wives'
conversion, forcing women to choose between submission to God or their spouses. Church membership
and religious activity gave women peer support and place for meaningful activity outside the home,
providing many women with communal identity and shared experiences.[41]

Despite the predominance of women in the movement, they were not formally indoctrinated or given
leading ministerial positions. However, women took other public roles; for example, relaying testimonials
about their conversion experience, or assisting sinners (both male and female) through the conversion
process. Leaders such as Charles Finney saw women's public prayer as a crucial aspect in preparing a
community for revival and improving their efficacy in conversion.[42] Women also took crucial roles in the
conversion and religious upbringing of children. During the period of revival, mothers were seen as the
moral and spiritual foundation of the family, and were thus tasked with instructing children in matters of
religion and ethics.[43]

The greatest change in women's roles stemmed from participation in newly formalized missionary and
reform societies. Women's prayer groups were an early and socially acceptable form of women's
organization. In the 1830s, female moral reform societies rapidly spread across the North making it the first
predominantly female social movement.[44] Through women's positions in these organizations, women
gained influence outside of the private sphere.[45][46]

Changing demographics of gender also affected religious doctrine. In an effort to give sermons that would
resonate with the congregation, ministers stressed Christ's humility and forgiveness, in what the historian
Barbara Welter calls a "feminization" of Christianity.[47]

Prominent figures
Richard Allen, founder, African Methodist Episcopal Church
Francis Asbury, Methodist, circuit rider and founder of the Methodist Episcopal Church
Henry Ward Beecher, Congregationalist, son of Lyman Beecher
 Lyman Beecher, Presbyterian
Antoinette Brown Blackwell, Congregationalist and later Unitarian, the first ordained female
minister in the United States
Alexander Campbell, Presbyterian, and early leader of the Restoration Movement
Thomas Campbell, Presbyterian, then early leader of the Restoration Movement
Peter Cartwright, Methodist
Lorenzo Dow, Methodist
Timothy Dwight IV, Congregationalist
Charles Grandison Finney, Presbyterian and anti-Calvinist, second president of Oberlin
College
"Black Harry" Hosier, Methodist, the first African American to preach to a white congregation
Adoniram Judson, early Baptist missionary.
Ann Lee, Shakers
Jarena Lee, Methodist, a female AME circuit rider
Robert Matthews, cult following as Matthias the Prophet
William Miller, Millerism, forerunner of Adventism
Asahel Nettleton, Reformed
Benjamin Randall, Free Will Baptist
Luther Rice, Baptist missionary to India, and Baptist missionary in the US South
Joseph Smith, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, early leader of the
Restoration Movement
Barton Stone, Presbyterian non-Calvinist, then early leader of the Restoration Movement
Nathaniel William Taylor, heterodox Calvinist
Ellen G. White, Seventh-day Adventist Church prophetess

Political implications
Revivals and perfectionist hopes of improving individuals and society continued to increase from 1840 to
1865 across all major denominations, especially in urban areas. Evangelists often directly addressed issues
such as slavery, greed, and poverty, laying the groundwork for later reform movements.[48] The influence
of the Awakening continued in the form of more secular movements.[49] In the midst of shifts in theology
and church polity, American Christians began progressive movements to reform society during this period.
Known commonly as antebellum reform, this phenomenon included reforms against the consumption of
alcohol, for women's rights and abolition of slavery, and a multitude of other issues faced by society.[50]

The religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening was echoed by the new political enthusiasm of
the Second Party System.[51] More active participation in politics by more segments of the population
brought religious and moral issues into the political sphere. The spirit of evangelical humanitarian reforms
was carried on in the antebellum Whig party.[52]

Historians stress the common understanding among participants of reform as being a part of God's plan. As
a result, local churches saw their roles in society in purifying the world through the individuals to whom
they could bring salvation, and through changes in the law and the creation of institutions. Interest in
transforming the world was applied to mainstream political action, as temperance activists, antislavery
advocates, and proponents of other variations of reform sought to implement their beliefs into national
politics. While Protestant religion had previously played an important role on the American political scene,
the Second Great Awakening strengthened the role it would play.[48]

See also
Methodism portal

Calvinism portal
Latter Day Saint
movement portal

Advent Christian Church

Christian revival
Christianity in the 19th century
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
Ethnocultural politics in the United States
Holiness movement
Restoration Movement
Seventh-day Adventist Church

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50. Alice Felt Tyler, Freedom's Ferment: Phases of American Social History from the Colonial
Period to the Outbreak of the Civil War (1944).
51. Stephen Meardon, "From Religious Revivals to Tariff Rancor: Preaching Free Trade and
Protection during the Second American Party System," History of Political Economy, Winter
2008 Supplement, Vol. 40, p. 265-298
52. Daniel Walker Howe, "The Evangelical Movement and Political Culture in the North During
the Second Party System", The Journal of American History 77, no. 4 (March 1991), p. 1218
and 1237.

Further reading
Abzug, Robert H. Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination
(1994) (ISBN 0-195-04568-8)
Ahlstrom, Sydney. A Religious History of the American People (1972) (ISBN 0-385-11164-9)
Billington, Ray A. The Protestant Crusade. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938.
Birdsall, Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening and the New England Social Order",
Church History 39 (1970): 345–364. JSTOR 3163469 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3163469).
Bratt, James D. "Religious Anti-revivalism in Antebellum America", Journal of the Early
Republic (2004) 24(1): 65–106. ISSN 0275-1275 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl
&q=n2:0275-1275). JSTOR 4141423 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4141423).
Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground; a Study on the American Camp Meeting. Garland
Publishing, Inc., (1992).
Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, Too, the Camp Meeting Family Tree. Hazleton: Holiness
Archives, (1997).
Bruce, Dickson D. Jr. And They All Sang Hallelujah: Plain Folk Camp-Meeting Religion,
1800–1845 (1974)
Butler, Jon. Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People. 1990.
Carwardine, Richard J. Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America. Yale University
Press, 1993.
Carwardine, Richard J. "The Second Great Awakening in the Urban Centers: An
Examination of Methodism and the 'New Measures' ", Journal of American History 59 (1972):
327–340. JSTOR 1890193 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1890193). doi:10.2307/1890193 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.2307%2F1890193).
Cott, Nancy F. "Young Women in the Second Great Awakening in New England," Feminist
Studies, (1975), 3#1 pp. 15–29. JSTOR 3518952 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3518952).
doi:10.2307/3518952 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3518952)
Cross, Whitney, R. The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of
Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850, (1950).
Foster, Charles I. An Errand of Mercy: The Evangelical United Front, 1790–1837, (University
of North Carolina Press, 1960)
Grainger, Brett. Church in the Wild: Evangelicals in Antebellum America (Harvard UP, 2019)
online review (http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54193)
Hambrick-Stowe, Charles. Charles G. Finney and the Spirit of American Evangelicalism.
(1996).
Hankins, Barry. The Second Great Awakening and the Transcendentalists. Greenwood,
2004.
Hatch, Nathan O. The Democratization of American Christianity. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1989.
Heyrman, Christine Leigh. Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt (1997).
Johnson, Charles A. "The Frontier Camp Meeting: Contemporary and Historical Appraisals,
1805–1840", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1950) 37#1 pp. 91–110.
JSTOR 1888756 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1888756). doi:10.2307/1888756 (https://doi.or
g/10.2307%2F1888756).
Kyle, I. Francis, III. An Uncommon Christian: James Brainerd Taylor, Forgotten Evangelist in
America's Second Great Awakening (2008). See Uncommon Christian Ministries (http://ww
 w.uncommonchristian.com/)
Long, Kimberly Bracken. "The Communion Sermons of James Mcgready: Sacramental
Theology and Scots-Irish Piety on the Kentucky Frontier", Journal of Presbyterian History,
2002 80(1): 3–16. ISSN 0022-3883 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0022-
3883). JSTOR 23336302 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23336302).
Loveland Anne C. Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800–1860, (1980)
McLoughlin William G. Modern Revivalism, 1959.
McLoughlin William G. Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform: An Essay on Religion and
Social Change in America, 1607–1977, 1978.
Marsden, George M. The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience: A
Case Study of Thought and Theology in Nineteenth-Century America (1970).
Meyer, Neil. "Falling for the Lord: Shame, Revivalism, and the Origins of the Second Great
Awakening." Early American Studies 9.1 (2011): 142–166. JSTOR 23546634 (https://www.js
tor.org/stable/23546634).
Posey, Walter Brownlow. The Baptist Church in the Lower Mississippi Valley, 1776–1845
(1957)
Posey, Walter Brownlow. Frontier Mission: A History of Religion West of the Southern
Appalachians to 1861 (1966)
Raboteau, Albert. Slave Religion: The "invisible Institution' in the Antebellum South, (1979)
Roth, Randolph A. The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and the Social Order in the
Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791–1850, (1987)
Smith, Timothy L. Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the
Civil War (1957)

Historiography
Conforti, Joseph. "The Invention of the Great Awakening, 1795–1842". Early American
Literature (1991): 99–118. JSTOR 25056853 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25056853).
Griffin, Clifford S. "Religious Benevolence as Social Control, 1815–1860", The Mississippi
Valley Historical Review, (1957) 44#3 pp. 423–444. JSTOR 1887019 (https://www.jstor.org/s
table/1887019). doi:10.2307/1887019 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1887019).
Mathews, Donald G. "The Second Great Awakening as an organizing process, 1780–1830:
An hypothesis". American Quarterly (1969): 23–43. JSTOR 2710771 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/2710771). doi:10.2307/2710771 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2710771).
Shiels, Richard D. "The Second Great Awakening in Connecticut: Critique of the Traditional
Interpretation", Church History 49 (1980): 401–415. JSTOR 3164815 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/3164815).
Varel, David A. "The Historiography of the Second Great Awakening and the Problem of
Historical Causation, 1945–2005". Madison Historical Review (2014) 8#4 online (http://com
mons.lib.jmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=mhr)

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