MODULE 10 - 11 Stress, Coping and Immune Function

1/30/2021 MODULE 10 - 11 Stress, Coping and Immune Function
MODULE 10 - 11 Stress, Coping and Immune Function
Site: New Era University Printed by: Art Adiel T. Balajadia

PSY213-18/PSYCH 11-17 - Biological/Physiological Date: Saturday, 30 January 2021, 10:11 PM
Course:
Psychology
Book: MODULE 10 - 11 Stress, Coping and Immune Function
https://college.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=74825 1/16
Description
Lesson 1: Stress and Coping

Lesson 2: Immune Function
Table of contents
1. Introduction/Overview
2. Learning Outcomes
3. Stress and Coping
4. General Adaptation Syndrome
5. Immune Function, Stress and Health
1. Introduction/Overview
Stress As a Response
Stress as a response model, initially introduced by Hans Selye (1956),
describes stress as a physiological response pattern and was captured within
his general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model. This model describes stress as a
dependent variable and includes three concepts:
1. Stress is a defensive mechanism.
2. Stress follows the three stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
3. If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could result in diseases of adaptation or
even death.
Later, in The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future (1983), Selye
introduced the idea that the stress response could result in positive or negative
outcomes based on cognitive interpretations of the physical symptoms or
physiological experience (“The General Adaptation to Stress Model“). In this way,
stress could be experienced as eustress (positive) or dystress (negative). However,
Selye always considered stress to be a physiologically based construct or
response. Gradually, other researchers expanded the thinking on stress to include
and involve psychological concepts earlier in the stress model.
The response model of stress incorporates coping within the model itself. The
idea of adaptation or coping is inherent to the GAS model at both the alarm and
resistance stages. When confronted with a negative stimulus, the alarm response
initiates the sympathetic nervous system to combat or avoid the stressor (i.e.,
increased heart rate, temperature, adrenaline, and glucose levels). The resistance
response then initiates physiological systems with a fight or flight reaction to the
stressor, returning the system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or more generally
accommodating the stressor, which can lead to adaptive diseases such as sleep
deprivation, mental illness, hypertension, or heart disease. Thus, along with the
early conceptualization of stress as a physiological response, early research on
coping was also born. As early as 1932, Walter Cannon described the notion of self-
regulation in his work The Wisdom of the Body.
Stress As a Stimulus
The theory of stress as a stimulus was introduced in the 1960s, and viewed
stress as a significant life event or change that demands response, adjustment, or
adaptation. Holmes and Rahe (1967) created the Social Readjustment Rating Scale
(SRRS) consisting of 42 life events scored according to the estimated degree of
adjustment they would each demand of the person experiencing them
(e.g., marriage, divorce, relocation, change or loss of job, loss of loved one). Holmes
and Rahe theorized that stress was an independent variable in the health-stress-
coping equation — the cause of an experience rather than the experience

itself. While some correlations emerged between SRRS scores and illness (Rahe,
Mahan, & Arthur, 1970; Johnson & Sarason, 1979), there were problems with the
stress as stimulus theory. The stress as stimulus theory assumes:
1. Change is inherently stressful.
2. Life events demand the same levels of adjustment across the population.
3. There is a common threshold of adjustment beyond which illness will result.
Rahe and Holmes initially viewed the human subject as a passive recipient of
stress, one who played no role in determining the degree, intensity, or valence of the
stressor. Later, Rahe introduced the concept of interpretation into his research
(Rahe & Arthur, 1978), suggesting that a change or life event could be interpreted
as a positive or negative experience based on cognitive and emotional factors.
However, the stress as stimulus model still ignored important variables such as prior
learning, environment, support networks, personality, and life experience.
Stress As a Transaction
In attempting to explain stress as more of a dynamic process, Richard
Lazarus developed the transactional theory of stress and coping (TTSC)
(Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), which presents stress as a product of a
transaction between a person (including multiple systems: cognitive, physiological,
affective, psychological, neurological) and his or her complex environment. Stress
as a transaction was introduced with the most impact when Dr. Susan Kobasa first
used the concept of hardiness (Kobasa, 1979). Hardiness refers to a pattern of
personality characteristics that distinguishes people who remain healthy under life
stress compared with those who develop health problems. In the late 1970s, the
concept of hardiness was further developed by Salvatore Maddi, Kobasa, and their
graduate students at the University of Chicago (Kobasa, 1982; Kobasa & Maddi,
1981; Kobasa, Maddi, & Kahn, 1982; Kobasa, Maddi, Puccetti, & Zola, 1985; Maddi
& Kobasa, 1984).
Hardiness has some notable similarities with other personality constructs in
psychology, including locus of control (Rotter, 1966), sense of coherence
(Antonovsky, 1987), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), and dispositional optimism
(Scheier & Carver, 1985), all of which will be discussed in the next section.
Researchers introduced multiple variables to the stress-as-transaction model,
expanding and categorizing various factors to account for the complex systems
involved in experiencing a stressor (Werner, 1993).
The nature of stress was described in multiple ways:
1. acute,
2. episodic or intermittent, and
3. chronic.
Different types of stressors emerged, such as event, situation, cue, and

condition, which then fell into categories based on locus of control, predictability,
tone, impact, and duration.
Theories of Stress as a Response, Stimulus, and Transaction

In his book Psychological Stress and the Coping Process (1966), Lazarus
presented an elegant integration of previous research on stress, health, and coping
that placed a person’s appraisal of a stressor at the center of the stress experience.
How an individual appraises a stressor determines how he or she copes with or
responds to the stressor. Whether or not a stressor is experienced as discomforting
is influenced by a variety of personal and contextual factors including capacities,
skills and abilities, constraints, resources, and norms (Mechanic, 1978). Lazarus
and Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of interpretation further in their model of
stress appraisal, which includes primary, secondary, and reappraisal components
(see Figure below, “The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping”). Primary
appraisal involves determining whether the stressor poses a threat. Secondary
appraisal involves the individual’s evaluation of the resources or coping strategies
at his or her disposal for addressing any perceived threats. The process
of reappraisal is ongoing and involves continually reappraising both the nature of
the stressor and the resources available for responding to the stressor.
The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping, by J. Walinga.
2. Learning Outcomes
After taking this module, the students will be able to:
1. describe the major physical and psychological responses to stress;
2. understand the concept of GAS (general adaptation syndrome)
3. develop his/her own coping strategies fitted for his/her own needs
4. create plan of care for building a better immune system throughout his/her lifespan
3. Stress and Coping
"When our memory is clouded by stress, our attention span to learn, recall, and focus is reduced."
Stress is the body's reaction to any change that requires an adjustment or response. The body reacts to these changes with physical, mental
and emotional responses. Stress is a normal part of life. You can experience stress from your environment, your body and your thoughts. Even
positive life changes such as a promotion, a mortgage or the birth of a child produce stress.
Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or
nervous. Stress is your body's reaction to a challenge or demand. In short bursts, stress can be positive, such as when it helps you avoid danger
or meet a deadline.
What are the warning signs of stress?
Dizziness or a general feeling of "being out of it."

General aches and pains.
Grinding teeth, clenched jaw.
Headaches.
Indigestion or acid reflux symptoms.
Increase in or loss of appetite.
Muscle tension in neck, face or shoulders.
Problems sleeping.
The human body is designed to experience stress and react to it. Stress can be positive, keeping us alert, motivated and ready to avoid
danger. Stress becomes negative when a person faces continuous challenges without relief or relaxation between stressors or feels
overwhelmed. As a result, the person becomes overworked, and stress-related tension builds.
The body's autonomic nervous system has a built-in stress response that causes physiological changes to allow the body to combat stressful
situations. This stress response, also known as the "fight or flight response,” is activated in case of an emergency. It releases a stress hormone
called cortisol. However, this response can become constantly activated during prolonged periods of stress. This continual activation of the stress
response causes wear and tear on the body – both physical and emotional.
Stress that continues without relief can lead to a condition called distress – a negative stress reaction. Distress can disturb the body's internal
balance or equilibrium, leading to noticeable physical/behavioral, emotional/social, and intellectual responses.
Physical/behavioral responses, or warning signs of stress, may include:
Upset stomach and other digestive issues, including ulcers, appetite changes, gas, diarrhea and constipation.
High blood pressure
Sexual problems
Sleeping problems.
Aches and pains, backaches, chest pain, migraine headaches and eye pain.
Tiredness or exhaustion.
Change in appetite
Emotional/social responses to stress may include:
Mental health issues, such as depression, panic attacks or other forms of anxiety and worry.
Being critical of yourself or others.
Withdrawing from relationships or lacking motivation.
Being newly fearful, jealous, guilty or suspicious.
Feelings of worthlessness or low self-esteem.
Being restless or unable to sit still.
Intellectual responses to stress may include:
Having a hard time concentrating, paying attention, or remembering things.

Having a hard time judging distance, using words or numbers.
Losing your creativity.
Paying too much attention to detail, perfectionism.
Thinking too much about the past.
Thinking about suicide or death.
In addition to all of these things, research suggests that stress also can bring on or worsen certain symptoms or diseases. Stress is linked to
six of the leading causes of death: heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, liver cirrhosis and suicide.
Stress also becomes harmful when people engage in the compulsive use of substances or behaviors to try to relieve their stress. These
substances or behaviors include food, alcohol, tobacco, drugs, gambling, sex, shopping, playing video games and searching the Internet. Rather
than relieving the stress and returning the body to a relaxed state, these substances and compulsive behaviors tend to keep the body in a stressed
state and cause more problems. The distressed person becomes trapped in a vicious circle.
Concepts of Stress Management training. Stress reactions take five general forms:
Subjective experience of distress (feeling tense, anxious, worried, harassed).
Physical symptoms in response to stress (such as raised blood pressure, tension headaches, upset stomach).
Responding to stress with unhealthy habits (smoking, overeating, overdrinking).
Suffering a decline in performance.
Increased conflicts with people, or decreased satisfaction in personal relationships.
To reduce stress, you must be able to:
Be aware of initial signs of stress reaction.

Develop basic stress management skills.
Be able to apply the stress management skills in real life.
Stress management skills include:
Relaxation through deep breathing techniques, relaxation imagery, tension-relaxation contrasts, cue-controlled relaxation and biofeedback.
Cognitive techniques that help you review your attitudes and values, restructure your thinking, set goals, use positive imagery, rehearse
mentally and schedule effectively.
Behavioral changes to better manage interpersonal situations and distress. You’ll learn to check your assumptions, share your expectations with
others, be assertive, exercise and eat and drink sensibly.
Relationship review to be able to look at past hurts, forgive, communicate feelings, listen and reward the people in your life.
Coping with Stress

There are many ways that people strive to cope with stressors and feelings of stress in their lives. A host of literature, both popular and
academic, extols the practice of stress management and whole industries are devoted to it. Many techniques are available to help individuals cope
with the stresses that life brings. Some of the techniques listed in Figure 16.6, “Stress Management Techniques,” induce a lower than usual stress
level temporarily to compensate the biological tissues involved; others face the stressor at a higher level of abstraction. Stress management
techniques are more general and range from cognitive (mindfulness, cognitive therapy, meditation) to physical (yoga, art, natural medicine, deep
breathing) to environmental (spa visits, music, pets, nature).
Stress Management Techniques
Stress coping, as described by researchers such as Lazarus and Folkman, implies a more specific process of cognitive appraisal to
determine whether an individual believes he or she has the resources to respond effectively to the challenges of a stressor or change (Folkman &
Lazarus, 1988; Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). The appraisal literature explains the response or coping process in terms of problem-focused coping or
emotion-focused coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), also referred to as active and passive coping styles (Jex, Bliese,
Buzzell, & Primeau, 2001). As well, approach and avoidance-style measures of coping exist involving assertiveness or withdrawal (Anshel, 1996;
Anshel & Weinberg, 1999; Roth & Cohen, 1986). When faced with a challenge, an individual primarily appraises the challenge as either threatening
or non-threatening, and secondarily in terms of whether he or she has the resources to respond to or cope with the challenge effectively. If the
individual does not believe he or she has the capacity to respond to the challenge or feels a lack of control, he or she is most likely to turn to an
emotion-focused coping response such as wishful thinking (e.g., I wish that I could change what is happening or how I feel), distancing (e.g., I’ll try
to forget the whole thing), or emphasizing the positive (e.g., I’ll just look for the silver lining) (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). If the person has the
resources to manage the challenge, he or she will usually develop a problem-focused coping response such as analysis (e.g., I try to analyze the
problem in order to understand it better; I’m making a plan of action and following it). It is theorized and empirically demonstrated that a
person’s secondary appraisal then determines coping strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). Coping strategies vary from positive thinking to
denial and are measured and tested using a variety of instruments and scales such as the COPE inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989).
The COPE Inventory Scale of Coping Techniques
4. General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome
Modern research done by Cannon (1929) demonstrate that a variety of stressors, including extreme cold, lack of oxygen, and emotional
experiences, have the capability of stimulating the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. In response, the body prepares for what
Cannon called "fight of flight" where in heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration all increase. Functions that are not necessary during emergencies
like digesting food, are inhibited. Stored energy is released, and blood vessels at the surface of the skin contract to drive blood from the surface
preventing excessive bleeding due to injury and toward the skeletal muscles preparing for exertion.
Hans Selye extend Cannon's findings during a career that spanned 40 years (1936-1976). Selye investigated the effects of various stressors
on the amount of time rats were able to swim in a tank until they sank to the bottom when they were rescued. Selye's stressors included cold water,
cutting off the rats' whiskers, restraint, electric shock, and surgery. Regardless of the stressor used, Selye (1946) observed a consistent reaction,
which he labeled the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
The GAS consisted of three stages as shown above. When the stressor is first perceived and identified, an alarm reaction is initiated. This is
the same state that Cannon described as the fight or flight response. If the stressful situation continues past this initial alarm stage, we enter into
the resistant stage. This stage is less physiologically dramatic than the alarm reaction, but our bodies expend considerable energy coping with
stress while also attempting to maintain our normal activities. During this stage, judgment and resistance to disease can deteriorate. If stress
continues further, we enter the final exhaustion stage, in which strength and energy are at very low levels.
Exhaustion can lead to disorders such as depression. In rare cases, such as the stress of forced death marches in time of war, exhaustion can
lead to death. Like in 1942, Walter Cannon described the case of a young healthy African woman who apparently died of stress after leaning that a
fruit she had just eaten was spiritually forbidden. Cannon (1942/1957) referred to the case as a "voo-doo" death.
5. Immune Function, Stress and Health
The immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that defends the body against infection. The immune system keeps a
record of every germ (microbe) it has ever defeated so it can recognize and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the body again. When an
individual is faced with an emergency, our stress response system prioritizes body functions. Those functions that are not necessary for handling
the immediate emergency are taken offline. But unfortunately for those suffering chronic stress, one of those expendable systems is the immune
system which is the body's frontline defense against infection and cancer. As a result, stress can lead to greater frequency and severity of
illnesses.
The immune system produces two types of white blood cells or lymphocytes, that protect us from invaders. The B lymphocytes produced in
bone marrow, release antibodies that destroy foreign substances of a type that the body has previously encountered. Routine immunizations
activate B lymphocytes by providing them the opportunity to form antibodies against a variety of disease-causing organisms. T lymphocytes,
produced by the thymus gland, directly attack cancer cells and other foreign substances. In addition, the T lymphocytes interact with the B
lymphocytes by either boosting or suppressing their activity. When we are stressed, the immune system's ability to fight off antigens is reduced.
That is why we are more susceptible to infections. The stress hormone corticosteroid can suppress the effectiveness of the immune system (e.g.
lowers the number of lymphocytes).
Physical and Psychological Responses to Stress
To be able to manage emergency situations successfully, the physical, cognitive, and behavioral responses must be coordinated. Let us
assume as an example, that a human ancestor is facing a hungry lion. Physically, the sympathetic division of of the autonomic nervous system is
preparing our ancestor either to escape or to fight. In a parallel process, the cognitive system becomes highly aroused and vigilant as the
hypothalamus instructs the adrenal glands, thru the pituitary gland, to release the stimulating hormone cortisol. Behaviorally, we would expect that
our ancestor would try to escape the stressor rather than fight.
Physical reaction includes increased heart rate. Adrenaline leads to the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and reduced activity in
the parasympathetic nervous system. Adrenaline creates changes in the body such as decreases (in digestion) and increases (sweating, increased
pulse and blood pressure). Some of the psychological and emotional signs that you're stressed out include: Depression or anxiety. Anger,
irritability, or restlessness. Feeling overwhelmed, unmotivated, or unfocused.

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1/30/2021 MODULE 10 - 11 Stress, Coping and Immune Function

MODULE 10 - 11 Stress, Coping and Immune Function

Site: New Era University Printed by: Art Adiel T. Balajadia

Lesson 1: Stress and Coping

3. Stress and Coping

4. General Adaptation Syndrome

5. Immune Function, Stress and Health

coping equation — the cause of an experience rather than the experience

Different types of stressors emerged, such as event, situation, cue, and

Theories of Stress as a Response, Stimulus, and Transaction

The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping, by J. Walinga.

After taking this module, the students will be able to:

1. describe the major physical and psychological responses to stress;

2. understand the concept of GAS (general adaptation syndrome)

3. Stress and Coping

What are the warning signs of stress?

Dizziness or a general feeling of "being out of it."

Physical/behavioral responses, or warning signs of stress, may include:

Emotional/social responses to stress may include:

Having a hard time concentrating, paying attention, or remembering things.

To reduce stress, you must be able to:

Be aware of initial signs of stress reaction.

Stress management skills include:

Coping with Stress

Stress Management Techniques

The COPE Inventory Scale of Coping Techniques

4. General Adaptation Syndrome

Hans Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome

5. Immune Function, Stress and Health

Physical and Psychological Responses to Stress

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