History 2

www.tntextbooks.
in
UNIT Bahmani and Vijayanagar

Kingdoms
12
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge in
I
Sources of study for Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms
Foundation and consolidation of Bahmani Sultanate
Prolonged conflict between Bahmani kingdom and Vijayanagar
Military career and achievements of Mohammed Gawan
The strategic importance of Golkonda fort
II
Origin and development of Vijayanagar kingdom by Sangama brothers
Vijayanagar and Bahmani tussle-causes and consequences
Brief rule of Saluva dynasty followed by Krishnadevaraya’s illustrious career
Battle of Talikotta and decline of Vijayanagar kingdom
Adminstration, Society and Economy of the Vijayanagar kingdom
Rise of Nayak kingdoms.
make Devagiri (renamed as Daulatabad) as the

Introduction
capital to command the vast conquered territory
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, more effectively. But his experiments failed and
when the Delhi Sultanate was preparing to brought misery to the people. When he shifted
extend southwards, the Deccan and south the capital back to Delhi, his subordinates in the
India were divided into four kingdoms: the south declared independence. Thus Madurai
Yadavas of Devagiri (Western Deccan or present became an independent Sultanate in 1333.
Maharashtra), the Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra Zafar Khan who declared independence in 1345
(Karnataka), the Kakatiyas of Warangal (eastern at Devagiri shifted his capital to Gulbarga in
part of present Telengana) and the Pandyas of northern Karnataka. He took the title, Bahman
Madurai (southern Tamil Nadu). During the Shah and the dynasty he founded became known
two expeditions of the general Malik Kafur, first as the Bahmani dynasty (1347–1527). A few
in 1304 and then in 1310, these old states faced years earlier, in 1336, the Vijayanagar kingdom
defeat one after another and lost most of their was established by the Sangama brothers
accumulated wealth to the plundering raids Harihara and Bukka at Vijayanagara (present
of the Sultanate army. The Tughluq dynasty day Hampi) on the south bank of Tungabhadra.
continued its southern expeditions into southern During the next two centuries these two states
India under the rule of his military officers. fought continually and bitterly, to control the
Muhammad Tughluq (1325–51) even tried to rich Raichur doab, and also the sea ports of Goa,
175
XI History - Lesson 12.indd 175 01-03-2020 18:52:21

www.tntextbooks.in
Honavar, etc. on the west coast, which were the Ibn Battuta a Moroccan traveller (1333-45),
supply points of the horses needed for their army. Abdur Razzak from Persia (1443–45),
Nikitin, a Russian (1470–74), the Portuguese
Sources
visitors Domingo Paes and Nuniz (1520–37)
There are several provide remarkably rich information.
kinds of sources–
literary, epigraphical, and Thousands of inscriptions in Kannada,
archaeological– available Tamil, and Telugu, besides a number of
for the study of this period. copper-plate charters in Sanskrit are available
Several Persian accounts and the above sources add to the epigraphical
written by the court information. There are a rich variety of
historians of the Bahmani Sultanate, relating archaeological sources in the form of temples,
to Bahmani–Vijayanagar conflicts have palaces, forts, mosques, etc. Numismatic
survived. Though they contain some biased evidence is also available in abundance.
and exaggerated information they provide rare
I
eye-witness accounts relating to the battles, the
palace intrigues, the life and sufferings of the 12.1 Bahmani Kingdom
people on either side, etc. which are lacking in
inscriptions. The Kannada and Telugu literature, Alaudin Hasan Bahman Shah
like Manucharitram, Saluvabhyudayam, etc., (1347–1358)
patronized in the Vijayanagar court, give
genealogical, political and social information. Rivalry with the Vijayanagar kingdom
The Telugu work Rayavachakamu gives over the fertile Raichur doab, lying between
interesting details about the Nayankara system the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, not
under Krishnadevaraya. Several foreign only marked the early history of the Bahmani
visitors who came to South India during the kingdom, but continued to be an enduring
fourteenth to sixteenth centuries wrote about feature over two centuries. Bahman Shah had
their travels which throw useful light on the also to contend in the east with the rulers of
political, social, and cultural aspects. Of them, Warangal and Orissa. In order to facilitate
smooth administration, as followed in the Delhi
The Vijayanagar kings issued a large number Sultanate, he divided the kingdom into four
of gold coins called Varaha (also called Pon territorial divisions called tarafs, each under a
in Tamil and Honnu in Kannada). These governor. Each governor commanded the army
gold coins have the images of various Hindu of his province (Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Bidar,
deities and animals like the bull, the elephant and Berar) and was solely responsible for both
and the fabulous gandaberunda (a double its administration and the collection of revenue.
eagle, sometimes holding an elephant in each The system worked well under a powerful
beak and claw). The legend contains the king’s king, but its dangers became apparent under a
name either in Nagari or in Kannada script. weak ruler. For the greater part of his reign of
eleven years Bahman was engaged in subduing
the unruly in his kingdom and in establishing
order. His attempt to exact an annual tribute
from the state of Warangal, the Reddi kingdoms
of Rajahmundry and Kondavidu, led to frequent
wars. Bahman Shah emerged victorious in all
these expeditions and assumed the title Second
Krishnadevaraya - Gold coins
Alexander on his coins.
176 Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms

www.tntextbooks.in
Mohammed I (1358–1375) capital was shifted from Gulbarga to Bidar in

1429. The rule of Mohammad III (1463–1482)
Mohammed I succeeded Bahman Shah.
is worthy of mention because of his lieutenant
There was a decade-long war with Vijayanagar,
Mohammed Gawan, a great statesman.
most of which related to control over the Raichur
doab. Neither side gained lasting control over Mohammed Gawan
the region, in spite of the huge fatalities in
A Persian by birth, Mohammed Gawan
battles. Two bitter wars with Vijayanagar gained
was well-versed in Islamic theology, Persian,
him nothing. But his attack on Warangal in
and Mathematics. He was also a poet and a
1363 brought him a large indemnity, including prose-writer. The Mohammed Gawan Madrasa
the important fortress of Golkonda and the in Bidar, with a large library, containing 3000
treasured turquoise throne, which thereafter manuscripts, is illustrative of his scholarship.
became the throne of the Bahmani kings. Gawan served with great distinction as prime
minister under Mohammad III and contributed
Turquoise is a semi-precious stone sky extensively to the dynamic development of the
blue in colour. Turquoise throne is one of Bahmani Kingdom.
the bejewelled royal seats of Persian kings
Gawan fought successful wars against the
described in Firdausi’s Shah Nama.
rulers of Konkan, Orissa and Vijayanagar. He
was known for his administrative techniques.
Mohammed I established a good system of
He used Persian chemists to teach the
government that was followed by all the successor
preparation and the use of gunpowder. In his
sultanates as well as by the Marathas later. He
war against the Vijayanagar Kings in Belgaum,
appointed a council of eight ministers of state:
he used gunpowder. In order to tighten the
1. Vakil-us-sultana or lieutenant of the kingdom,
administration and to curb the power of
the immediate subordinate of the sovereign.
provincial governors, who functioned virtually
2. Wazir-i-kull, who supervised the work of all
as kings, Gawan divided the existing four
other ministers; 3. Amir-i-jumla, minister of
provinces of the Bahmani Sultanate into eight.
finance; 4. Wasir-i-ashraf, minister of foreign
This not only limited the area under the rule
affairs and master of ceremonies; 5. Nazir,
of each governor but also made the provincial
assistant minister for finance; 6. Peshwa who was administration more manageable. He placed
associated with the lieutenant of the kingdom; some districts in the provinces directly under
7. Kotwal or chief of police and city magistrate in central administration. Gawan sought to curtail
the capital, and 8. Sadr-i-jahan or chief justice the military powers of the governors by allowing
and minister of religious affairs and endowments. them to occupy only one fort in their territory.
He took strong measures for the suppression The other forts remained under the Sultan’s
of highway robbery. Institutional and direct control. The royal officers who were given
geographic consolidation under Muhammad land assignments as pay were made accountable
Shah laid a solid foundation for the kingdom. to the Sultan for their income and expenditure.
He built two mosques at Gulbarga. One, the The administrative reforms introduced
great mosque, completed in 1367, remainsan by Gawan improved the efficiency of the
impressive building. The next hundred years government, but curtailed the powers of the
saw a number of Sultans one after another, by provincial chiefs, who were mostly Deccanis.
succession or usurpation. All of them fought So the already existing rivalry among the two
with their southern neighbour, but without groups of nobles, Deccani Muslims and Pardesi
gaining much territory. In 1425 Warangal was (foreigner) Muslims, further intensified and
subdued and their progress further eastwards conflicts broke out. Gawan became a victim
was challenged by the Orissan rulers. The of this tussle for power, although he remained
Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms 177

www.tntextbooks.in
Golkonda Fort: The Raja Krishna Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty with Warangal as capital
constructed the Golkonda Fort on a granite hill. During 1495–1496 the fort was handed
over to Sultan Kali Kutub Khan as a Jagir (land grant). He reconstructed and rechristened
the mud fort into a granite fort and called the place Muhammed Nagar. Later, the Golkonda
fort came into the possession of the Bahmani dynasty. Still later, the Qutub Shahi dynasty
took over and made Golkonda its capital. Golkonda fort owes much of its present grandeur
to Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of Qutb Shahi dynasty. The subsequent
generations saw Golkonda being fortified further with several additions and the formation
of a beautiful city within. By the 17th century, Golkonda was famous as a diamond market. It
gave the world some of the best-known diamonds, including the ‘Kohinoor’.
The Golkonda Fort is located about 11 kms from Hyderabad on a hill 120 meters hight.
The Golkonda Fort is popular for its acoustic architecture. The highest point of the fort is Bala
Hissar. There is said to be a secret underground tunnel which leads from the Durbar Hall to
one of the palaces at the foot of the hills.
The Golkonda Fort also houses the tombs of the Qutub Shahis. There are two individual
pavilions on the outer side of Golkonda which serve as major architectural attractions. The Fort
comprises four other small forts within itself. It has cannons, draw bridges, royal chambers,
halls, temples, mosques, stables, etc. The Fateh Darwaza or the Victory Gate is the entrance to
the fort. Aurangzeb laid siege to this Golkonda fort in 1687 for about eight months but in vain.
It was due to the treachery of an Afghan gate keeper, the fort finally fell.
Golkonda Fort
fair and neutral in this conflict. Jealous of his Art and Architecture
success they forged a letter to implicate Gawan
The Bahmanis constructed many
in a conspiracy against the Sultan. Sultan,
buildings in cities such as Gulbarga, Bidar
who himself was not happy with Gawan’s
and Bijapur. Numerous mosques, madrasas
dominance, ordered his execution.
and libraries were built. The Jami Masjid at
Gawan’s execution augured ill for the Gulbarga, the Golconda fort at Hyderabad,
Sultanate. Several of the foreign nobles who Golgumbaz at Bijapur and the Chand Minar
were considered the strongest pillars of the at Bidar are some of the best specimens of
state began to leave for their provinces, leading Bahmani architecture. The Sultans developed
to the disintegration of the Sultanate. Indo-Saracenic style of architecture.

www.tntextbooks.in
N
Bahmani kingdom
W E
Vijayanagar kingdom
Surat
Burhanpur
Diu
Devagiri Berar
Ahmadnagar Go
da
Bidar v
Warangal ari BAY
ARABIAN Gulbarga
Golconda
SEA Bijapur OF
Raichur Doab Krishna BENGAL
Goa Talikota
Penukonda
Hampi Thirupathi
Udipi Sringeri
Halebid
nda A
Kanchi
ma
L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a
Calicut
n an d ni c o b a r
Srirangam Tanjavur
(I N DI A )
(I N DI A )
Madurai
i sl
ds n
an
ds
Sri Lanka
Map not to scale
I N D I A N O C E A N
Decline of the Bahmani Kingdom powerful by annexing Bidar and Berar in course
After the death of Sultan Mohammed of time. Though Ahmadnagar and Golkonda
III five of his descendants succeeded him on acted independently they finally joined with
the throne but they were kings only in name. Bijapur to fight with their common enemy,
During this period the Sultanate gradually broke Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar was utterly routed in
up into four independent kingdoms: Bijapur, the battle of Talikota or Rakshashi-Tangadi in
Ahmadnagar, Berar and Golkonda. Bidar where 1565. Thereafter, within a century, the Sultanates
the Bahmani Sultan ruled as a puppet became were vanquished one after another and taken
the fifth one. Among these Bijapur became over by the Mughal state.

www.tntextbooks.in
II the Tuluva dynasty (1505–1570) and the

Aravidu dynasty (1570–1650). The history of
12.2 Vijayanagar Empire this kingdom can be narrated in four stages.
Origin and Expansion In the beginning, the Vijayanagar kingdom
was one among many small principalities of
There are different traditions regarding
the time, under the rule of some local chiefs
the foundation of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
in different parts of south India. The three big
It is now generally accepted, on the basis
states of the thirteenth century, the Pandyas
of contemporary inscriptions, that the two
in Tamil Nadu, the Hoysalas in Karnataka
brothers Harihara and Bukka, the eldest sons of
and the Kakatiyas in Andhra had almost been
one Sangama, earlier serving the Hoysala rulers
destroyed by the military expeditions of the
of Karnataka, asserted their independence and
Delhi Sultanate in the first three decades of
laid foundation for a new kingdom in about
the fourteenth century, leaving a big political
1336. This happened soon after the death of
vacuum. The turbulent political situation
the Hoysala king Ballala III at the hands of the
Madurai Sultan. Initially the capital was in or provided an opportunity to the five Sangama
near about Anegondi on the north bank of the brothers, headed by Harihara, to consolidate
Tungabhadra river.But soon it was shifted to and expand the territory. Besides, the Muslim
the Hoysala town Hosapattana (near Hampi) Sultanate that had been established in Madurai
on the south bank. The capital was expanded a little earlier and the Bahmani Sultanate that
and renamed Vijayanagara, the city of Victory. came up in 1347 started to rule independently of
Thereafter, they proclaimed themselves the rulers Delhi. The Delhi Sultanate itself became weak
of Vijayanagara or of Karnataka-Vijayanagara. and did not take much interest in the south.
Harihara celebrated his coronation in 1346 at Within the first four decades the small
this city. Historians call this dynasty started by principality became a big kingdom through
Harihara and Bukka Sangama after the name the military activities of the five brothers in
of his father or forefather. Vijayanagara rulers different directions. First the entire core area
adopted the emblem of the Chalukyas, the boar, of the Hoysala kingdom in Karnataka was
or varahaas their royal insignia. incorporated into Vijayanagar. The coastal
parts of Karnataka were soon taken over and
According to somelater-day tradition,
remained an important part of the kingdom
Vidyaranya (also called Madhava), a renowned
Saiva saint and Sanskrit scholar, is said to until the end. As this gave access to several
have persuaded the brothers to abandon their port towns, good care was taken to administer
service to the Tughluqs and also to renounce this part under a successive line of pradhani or
Islam that they had adopted when they were governors. Under Bukka I, attention was turned
imprisoned by the Sultan in Delhi. Vidyaranya to Tondai-mandalam, covering the northern
is believed to have played an important role in districts of Tamil area, which was under the rule
the foundation of the Vijayanagara kingdom. of the Sambuvaraya chiefs. The prince Kampana
This is doubtful as, according to some (usually called Kumara Kampana), son of Bukka
inscriptions,Vidyaranya lived at the end of the I, carried out this work successfully with the help
fourteenth century, nearly sixty years after the of his faithful general Maraya-Nayak. He is also
foundation of Vijayanagar. given credit for slaying the Madurai Sultan and
bringing to an end that Sultanate in about 1370.
The Vijayanagar kingdom was successively This is mentioned in Madura-vijayam, a Sanskrit
ruled by four dynasties over a period of more work written by Kampana’s wife, Gangadevi. But
than three hundred years: the Sangama dynasty strangely, the Pandya country including Madurai
(1336–1485), the Saluva dynasty (1485–1505), was not annexed to the Vijayanagar kingdom at

www.tntextbooks.in
that time. It became a part of the kingdom only Viyayanagar empire went through a
around 1500, more than a hundred years later. crisis after Devaraya II. Quarrels on account
Until then only the northern and central parts of succession and the inefficient successors
of the Tamil country up to the Kaveri delta were encouraged the Gajapati king to dominate the
under the direct administration of the Sangama coastal Andhra. Between 1460–65, the Gajapati
and Saluva dynasties. army attacked many times and it conducted a
victorious expedition even up to Tiruchirappalli
Vijayanagar – Bahmani conflict
on the Kaveri river, causing much destruction
From the beginning, both the Bahmani on the way and plundering the wealth of many
and Vijayangar kingdoms were in constant temples. Taking advantage of the situation,
conflict. Capturing the territories, collecting the feudatories assumed independence. Thus,
tribute and the control of horse trade were the Tirumalaideva and then Konerideva began to rule
major issues of conflict. Each of them wanted independently in the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli
to annex and dominate the fertile area between area for some decades, during the interregnum
the Krishna and the Tungabhadra (the Raichur before the rise of the Saluva rule.
doab). Though neither of them succeeded fully,
Power passed on to the trusted commander
much bloodshed took place for some transitory
Saluva Narasimha who defended the kingdom
success. Some historians argue that religious
from the Gajapatis and recovered parts of
rivalry between the Hindu Vijayanagar and the
coastal Andhra. Around 1485 Saluva Narasimha
Muslim Sultanate was the basic cause of this
usurped the throne and declared himself as
continuous fight. Actually the Vijayanagar kings
king, starting the short-lived Saluva dynasty.
fought also with many Hindu, non-Muslim
He was assisted by his general and great warrior
rulers, like those of Warangal, Kondavidu,
Narasa Nayak, who tried to quell the rebellious
Orissa, etc., in which Muslim rulers took part as
local chiefs in the south. Saluva Narasimha died
allies sometimes and as enemies on other times.
in 1491 leaving his young sons under the care
The control of horse trade that passed through
of Narasa Nayak. Narasa Nayak became the de
Goa and other ports was another reason for the
facto ruler and took several steps to safeguard
fighting. Horses were necessary for the armies
the country until his death. In about 1505,
of both sides. In spite of continuous fighting,
his elder son Viranarasimha started the third
the Krishna river was more or less the dividing
dynasty, known as the Tuluva dynasty. He had
line between the two powers.
a short but eventful reign and was succeeded by
In coastal Andhra, the power struggle was his younger brother Krishnadevaraya.
between the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa and
Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar could not make much Krishnadevaraya (1509–29)
headway until the time of Devaraya II (1422–46), Krishnadevaraya is considered the greatest
who defeated the Orissa army in some battles. of the Vijayanagar kings. He built upon the
But these conquests were only to extract tribute, strong military base laid by his father and
and no territory was added. Devaraya II was elder brother. He tried to keep the greatness
the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He of the kingdom intact, by undertaking many
strengthened his cavalry by recruiting trained military expeditions during much of his reign.
Muslim cavalry for his army and giving archery Early in his reign he fought with the rebellious
training to his soldiers. Abdur Razaak, the Ummattur chief (near about Mysore) and
Persian ambassador who visited the Zamorin brought him to submission. He then had to fight
of Kochi and the Vijayanagar court during this almost continuously on two fronts, one against
time states that Devaraya II controlled a vast the traditional enemy, the Bahmani Sultans and
area. He received tribute from the king of Sri the other against the Orissa king Gajapati. There
Lanka too. are several inscriptions graphically describing

www.tntextbooks.in
The battle of Talikota (1565)

At Krishnadevaraya‘s death, his son
was a small child and so his younger brother
Achyutadevaraya became king. Soon some
succession disputes started as Ramaraya, the
son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya wanted to
dominate the affairs by crowning the infant as
king. Achyutadevaraya was however supported
by Chellappa (also known as Saluva Nayak),
the greatest Nayak of the day who controlled
Krishnadevarayar
a major part of the Tamil area. Soon after,
his seizure of many forts like Udayagiri, under
however, Chellapa became a rebel himself and
the control of Gajapati, during the course of this
Achyutadevaraya had to take a big expedition
eastern expedition. Finally, he put a pillar of to the south to subdue him. He had some
victory at Simhachalam. encounters with the Deccan sultans too. After
Krishnadevaraya had to undertake more his death in 1542, his nephew Sadasivaraya
than one expedition to repulse the Bahmani succeeded him and ruled for about thirty years
forces, which were intruding into his territory (1542–70). But real power lay in the hands of
on a regular annual basis. In some of these Ramaraya, who got support from many of his
ventures the Portuguese, trying to establish close kinsmen (of Aravidu clan) by appointing
their power in the Malabar and Konkan coast, them as Nayak of many strategic localities.
helped Krishanadevaraya with military aid, Ramaraya, a great warrior and strategist,
and got permission to build a fort at Bhatkal. was able to play off the Bahmani Muslim
Though he was quite successful for a time, his powers against one another. He entered into a
victories made the warring Bahmani sultans to commercial treaty with the Portuguese whereby
become united for their survival. the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was
There are some other reasons for the stopped. He fought with the Bijapur ruler and
celebration of Krishnadevaraya as the greatest after some time, he allied with the Bijapur
ruler of Vijayanagar. He made very large ruler against Golkonda and Ahmadnagar. This
donations to many of the greatest Siva and divide and rule policy provoked much enmity
Vishnu temples of the day- Srisailam, Tirupati, against Vijayanagar. Forgetting their mutual
Kalahasti, Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai, quarrels, the Deccan states, joined hands to
Chidambaram, etc. He added towering gopuras wage the last great battle against their common
to many of those temples, which survive to this enemy. The battle was fought at Talikota or
day. Contemporary foreign visitors like Paes Rakshasi-Tangadi in January 1565 in which
and Nuniz, who visited Vijayanagar left glowing Ramaraya, in spite of his old age, personally
tributes to his personality, and the grandeur and commanded the forces along with his cousins
opulence of the city. His court was also adorned and brothers. In the final stages, the battle was
by some great poets like Allasani Peddana, lost. Ramaraya was imprisoned and executed
Nandi Thimmana. He himself is considered a immediately. The victorious Bahmani armies
great scholar and is author of the famous poem entered the Vijayanagar city for the first time
Amuktamalyada (the story of Andal). But his in their history, and ransacked it for several
crowning achievement, as a clever administrator, months laying it waste.
was the reorganization of the Nayak or nayankara This battle is generally considered the
system and giving legal recognition to the system. signal for the end of Vijayanagar. The king
This is explained below under administration. Sadasivaraya and some of his retinue escaped

www.tntextbooks.in
By 1400, there were five rajyas in the Tamil

area: Chandragiri, Padaividu, Valudalampattu,
Tiruchirappalli and Tiruvarur. The pradhani
was either a royal member or a military officer
not related to the royal family. The pradhani had
his own revenue accountants and military to
assist in his administration. Within each rajya,
there were smaller administrative divisions like
nadu, sima, sthala, kampana, etc. The lowest
Battle of Talikota
unit was of course the village. The rajyas lost
to Penugonda. Tirumala, brother of Ramaraya, their administrative and revenue status under
declared himself king in 1570, starting the the Tuluva dynasty due to the development of
Aravidu, that is the fourth dynasty. After this the Nayak system under Krishnadevaraya.
his sons and grandsons ruled the truncated
kingdom for two generations, probably up to Nayak System
1630. There were some more kings who ruled The term Nayak is used from thirteenth
as fugitives until 1670 without a permanent century onwards in Telugu and Kannada areas
capital. Real power was wielded by the many in the sense of a military leader or simply
Nayak chiefs in various parts of the country. soldier. Assigning the revenue of a particular
Some of them feigned loyalty to the king while locality to the Nayak for their military service
others opposed him. There were fights between is found in the Kakatiya kingdom during the
the loyalists and others. In 1601 there was bitter thirteenth century. This is similar to the iqta
fighting near Uttaramerur between the loyalist system practiced by the Delhi Sultanate at
Yachama Nayak of Perumbedu and the Nayak that time. But in the Vijayanagar kingdom
of Vellur (Vellore). In this quarrel Vellur Nayak the regular assignment of revenue yielding
was supported by Tanjavur, Madurai and Senji territory in return for military service is
Nayak, who had become independent rulers. clearly found only from about 1500 or a little
earlier. Inscriptions refer to this revenue
12.3 Administration assignment as nayakkattanam in Tamil,
The king was the ultimate authority in the Nayaktanam in Kannada, and nayankaramu
kingdom. He was also the supreme commander in Telugu.The practice became established
of the army. He was assisted by several high- during the reign of Krishnadevaraya and
ranking officers. The chief minister was known Achyuta Devaraya. This is supported by the
as the mahapradhani. He led a number of lower- evidence of inscriptions and by the accounts
ranking officers, like Dalavay (commander), of Nuniz and Paes.
Vassal (guard of the palace), Rayasam Nuniz says that the Vijayanagar kingdom
(secretary/accountant), Adaippam (personal at that time was divided between more than
attendant), and Kariya-karta (executive agents). two hundred captains (his translation for
As Harihara I and his immediate successors Nayak) and they were compelled in turn
consolidated their territorial acquisitions, they to keep certain number of military forces
tried to organize the territory by creating (horses and foot soldiers) to serve the king
administrative divisions called rajyas or in times of need: they were also required
provinces each under a governor called to pay certain amount of the revenue to
pradhani. Some of the prominent rajyas were the king in particular times of a year, like
the Hoysala rajya, Araga, Barakur (Mangalur), during the nine-day Mahanavami festival.
and Muluvay. As and when new conquests Nuniz’ statement is also supported by Telugu
were made they were put under new rajyas. work Rayavachakamu, which refers to the

www.tntextbooks.in
Little Kingdoms in Ramanathapuram and Pudukottai

The kingdom of Ramnad was inaugurated by the Madurai Nayak Muthu Krishnappa in the early
years of the seventeenth century. The inhabitants with martial tradition had served as soldiers under
Pandyan, Chola and Vijayanagar kings, and were spread into Tirunelveli and other southern parts
of Tamil country. They also served in the armies of Nayak rulers and were traditional Kavalkarars,
whose responsibility was to give protection to village, temple and other administrative bodies. The
temple at Rameswaram was under the protection of a kaval chief who also assumed the title of
Udaiyan Sethupati (meaning the Chief who was lord of bridge or causeway, as he controlled the
passage between Rameswaram and Ceylon).
Pudukottai was a small principality situated between the Nayak kingdoms of Thanjavur and
Madurai. It constituted a buffer between the Chola kingdom and the Pandyas. Like the inhabitants
of Ramanathapuram, Pudukottai also had inhabitants belonging to martial tradition. Hence their
region could attain the status of “little kingdom” under Tondaimans. The Tondaimans served great
royal households of Raja Sethupathi and Nayak kings of Madurai and Thanjavur.
practice during the time of Krishnadevaraya. smaller chiefs under them. The seventeenth
Later-day vamsavalis (family history) of the century was the century of these bigger Nayak
Palayagars, who were mostly successors of the kingdoms.
old Nayak families, support the fact that the
Nayak system was perfected during the time 12.4 Society and Economy
of Krishnadevaraya. Most of these Nayak
Continuous warfare and the resultant
were the Kannadiga and Telugu warriors
besides some local chiefs. They belonged to widespread sufferings were common features
different castes, Brahmana as well as non- of all early and medieval societies. Bahmani
Brahmana. The non-Brahmana Nayak again and Vijayanagar period is no exception to
had different social backgrounds: traditional this. Perhaps the scale looks larger due to the
warrior groups, pastoral and forest clans availability of many eye-witness accounts.
(Yadava, Billama), peasant families (Reddi), The other consequences which were enduring
merchants (Balija) and so on. Some of the over the centuries were the displacement and
prominent Nayak, like Chellappa under migration of people. During the three centuries
Krishnadevaraya, were brahmanas. of this chapter, we find such migrations
everywhere. The conflicts in the Bahmani
This system worked smoothly as long as
courts were much due to the migration of Turks,
there were strong kings like Krishnadevaraya.
These chiefs controlled production within Afghans and Persians into the Deccan. As far the
their Nayaktanam territories by creating Vijayanagar area is concerned there took place
commercial centres (pettai) and markets, by migrations of Kannada and Telugu warriors and
encouraging settlement of cultivators and their followers into Tamil areas and elsewhere.
artisans with tax concessions, by creating and Many of the Nayaka chiefs belong to these
maintaining irrigation facilities, etc. Many language groups. Peasants, artisans and other
of them started as high officials (commander, toiling groups were also part of this migration.
governor, accountant, etc.) and served as the The other consequence was the widening gap
king’s agents. After the Talikota battle, most between the ruling class and the ruled. All the
of the Nayak chiefs became independent foreign visitors refer to the enormous riches
of the Vijayanagar king. Some of them, like and affluence enjoyed by the rulers, the officials
those of Madurai, Tanjavur, Ikkeri, etc. and the upper echelons in the capital cities like
established powerful states controlling many Vijayanagar, Bijapur, and the like, in contrast

www.tntextbooks.in
to widespread poverty among the masses. They and languages. The literary development reached
also refer to the prevalence of slavery. its peak during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.
The state had to derive their revenue only He was also a great patron of art and literature,
by taxing the people. It is found that during and was known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’.
the Sangama dynasty when the Vijayanagar Sayana, the great Sanskrit scholar of this
rule was extended to new areas, their officers period, wrote commentaries on the Vedas.
were harsh in tax collection, which provoked These commentaries are considered as standard
the toiling people to rise in revolt. One such commentaries even today. He was a minister of
revolt took place in 1430 in central parts of Harihara II. Madhavacharya was a well-known
Tamil Nadu. This was the revolt in which all Sanskrit scholar who was intimately connected
the basic producers joined forgetting their with Vijayanagar royal family. Gangadevi, wife
caste differences. The revolt took place due to of Kampana, son of Bukka, deserves a pre-
the unjust and arbitrary tax demands of the eminent place among the writers of the age. In
government including the pradhani (governor), her famous work Maduravijayam, she describes
his military bodies, and the landlords. It is said in mahakavya style the conquest of Madura by
the Vijayanagar Prince intervened and pacified her husband. Hannamma and Thirumalamma
the revolting people by allowing tax reduction. were famous poets of this period. Hannamma
During the sixteenth century, under the Nayak was a reporter in the court of Deveraya II.
system, the local Nayakas tried to encourage Krishnadeva Raya patronized Tamil
craft production, like weaving, by giving tax scholars. Tamil Scholars of Saivism,
concessions now and then. Vaishnavism and Jainism were encouraged.
The Vijayanagar period witnessed striking Tirumalainatha and his son Paranjyothiyar were
development in the field of non-agrarian crafts. well known scholars of the period. Chidambara
Until the thirteenth century the economy was Puranam and Chokkanatharula were written by
mainly agrarian. From the fourteenth onwards Tirumalainatha. Sevvaichchbuduvar translated
the economy became more commercial. With the Bhagavata Puranam into Tamil. Vadamalavi
the beginning of the era of money economy, Annagalayyam was the author of Irusamaya
circulation and use of coined money increased Filakkain, a work on Vaishnavism.
manifold. Artisans like weavers, smiths, and Nachana Somanatha was a great scholar
masons became more prominent in the society. both in Sanskrit and Telugu. The greatest poet
These non-agrarian groups were generally called during the era was, however, Pillalamarri Pina
the pattadai (workshop people) or kasaya-vargam Virabhadra Kavi who composed the Telugu
-that is- the group that pays taxes in cash. Large version of Kalidasa’s Shakuntalam in verse.
number of commercial and weaving centres Devaraya I was a great patron of learning.
came up in northern Tamil Nadu, Rayalasima In his court lived the famous Telugu poet
and coastal Andhra. Naturally the textiles Srinatha who wrote Haravilasam.
formed an important commodity exported
Krishnadeva Raya was known as Abhinava
from south Indian ports. Textiles became main
Bhoja. Eight great Telugu poets adorned his
commercial attractions for the Portuguese and
court. They were known as Ashtadiggajas.
other European traders who started coming
Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Thimmanna, Tenali
from the early sixteenth century.
Rama and others were the Telugu poets in
his court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest
12.5 Literature
and he was often described as ‘Andhrakavita-
The Vijayanagara rulers were also great Pitamaha’. Allasani Peddanna was the author
patrons of literature. The rulers encouraged of Manucharita in Telugu. Tenali Rama was the
Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literatures most famous scholar and jester of Krishnadeva

www.tntextbooks.in
at Kanchipuram and in the Jambukesvara

The Ashtadiggajas
temple at Thiruchirapalli.
(Eight renowned poets)
During the period of the Vijayanagar
Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Thimmana, kings, temples were built in Hampi, Shringeri,
Tenali Rama, Dhurjathy, Bhattu Murthy, Tirupati, Kalahasti, Nandi, Kolar, Srishaila, etc.
Puna Vira Bhadra, Mallana and Panaji New elements were introduced in the temple
Surana. architecture. In addition to the main shrine, a
smaller temple was built in the north-west called
Raya’s court. He was the author of Panduranga Amma Shrine where the Lord or main diety’s
Mahatyam. Krishnadeva Raya himself wrote consort resided. This practice, which began in
Amuktamlayada in Telugu. It relates the story the late Chola period now became the rule.
of the daughter of Periazhvar, Goda Devi
The palace of the king was the most
(Andal). He was himself a scholar of Sanskrit as
conspicuous building in the city. Other
well as Telugu. Usha Parinayam and Jambavati
features included the towering gateways called
Kalyanam are his famous Sanskrit works. gopurams and are a unique feature of south
Krishnadeva Raya’s reign is regarded as the Indian temples, particularly those built by the
classical phase of Telugu literature and he has Vijayanagar rulers. The Raya Gopurams at
been therefore, rightly honoured as Andhra Thiruvannanmalai and Chidambaram speak
Pitamaha. the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were
A large number of works in Kannada continued by the Nayak rulers in the later
were produced during this period. Bhima period.
Kavi translated Basava Purana into Kannada. The finest temples of Vijayanagara are in
Harihara II had earned the title of Karnataka Hampi, which has been designated as a World
Vidyavilasa. A Kannada version of the Heritage City. Their capital city, Vijayanagar,
Ramayana was composed by Kumara Velmiki. stood on the south bank of river Tungabhadra.
After the battle of Talikota (1565 CE) this
12.6 Art and Architecture splendid city fell prey to the fury of the victors
who wrought untold havoc and destruction.
The Vijayanagar rulers were great builders. We can form a idea of the architectural
During this period, palaces, temples, huge achievements of the Vijayanagara rulers and
halls (mahamantapa), forts, towers, public the ruins of Hampi from the accounts of foreign
buildings, dams, tanks and canals were travelers, Nicolo Conti and Abdur Razak.
constructed. South Indian art and architecture The important features of Vijayanagara style
attained a new fullness. The Vijayanagar rulers of temple architecture are monolithic pillars,
produced a new style of architecture called as ornate bracelets and decoration on the exterior
Dravida style. The chief characteristics of the side of the walls.
Vijayanagara architecture were the construction
Krishnadeva Raya was a great builder. He
of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the founded a town Nagalapura (near Vijayanagar),
Kalyanamandapam. The sculptures on the pillars in memory of his mother, Nagamba and built
were carved with distinctive features. The horse tanks, gopurams and temples in various parts of
was the most common animal to be depicted empire. The most famous among these temples
on the pillars. Large mandapams contain one are the Vittalaswamy temple and Virupaksha
hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars temples. The famous Hazara temple, built
in some big temples. Fine examples of kalyana during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, is, as
mandapa can be seen at Vellore as also in the remarked by Longhurst, “one of the most perfect
Varadharajaswami and Ekamparanatha temples specimens of Hindu temple architecture in

www.tntextbooks.in
existence”. The Vittalaswamy temple is also a fine The expansionist policy of Vijayanagar,
example of Vijayanagar style. In the opinion of hindered by the presence of Bahmani
Fergusson, it “shows the extreme limit in florid Sultanate, leading to constant wars
magnificence to which the style advanced”. between the two kingdoms is detailed.
The Vittalswamy temple with its saptaswara Brief rule of Saluva dynasty and the
musical pillars and the Stone Chariot are a few glorious reign of Krishnadevaraya of
architectural wonders. Tuluva dynasty are explored
Paintings at the Virabhadra temple
The Battle of Talikota and the emergence
and Lepakshi temple show the excellence of of nayak kingdoms are explained.
Vijayanagar painters. The Vijayanagar rulers
inscribed the stories of the Ramayana and The Adminstration, Society and Economy
the Mahabharata on the walls of the various of the Vijayanagar Empire are analysed
temples. The Vijayanagar kings patronized fine
arts like music, dance, drama and yakshagana.
Artists enjoyed great respect in the palace and
temples. The life size portrait statues of the
EXERCISE
Narasimha and of Krishnadevaraya and his two
queens are fine examples of Vijayanagara art. Q.R.Code
I. C hoose the
Painting as an art found its expression on the
walls of the temples of the Vijayanagar Empire. correct answer
The wall paintings such as Dasavathara and 1. Harihara and Bukka were
Girijakalyanam in the Virupaksha temple are in the services of ______________ before
beautiful specimens of art. they founded Vijayanagar kingdom.
(a) Kakatiyas (b) Hoysalas
SUMMARY
(c) Bijapur Sultan (d) Yadavas
I 2. Arrange the following chronologically:
Role of Bahman Shah and Mohammad I, (a) The Sangama dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty,
former in founding and latter in The Saluva dynasty, the Tuluva dynasty.
consolidating the Bahmani kingdom is (b) The Sangama dynasty, the Saluva dynasty,
dealt with. the Tuluva dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty.
(c) The Saluva dynasty, the Sangama dynasty,
Endemic wars between Vijayanagar and
the Tuluva dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty.
Bahmani rulers over the Raichur-Doab
(d) The Sangama dynasty, the Tuluva dynasty,
region, exhausting both the kingdoms
the Saluva dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty.
financially, are described.
3. The emblem of the Vijayanagar Kingdom was
The split of Bahmani Sultanate into five _____
Deccan Sultanates is narrated. (a) Varaha (b) Tiger
The striking structure of Golkonda fort (c) Fish (d) Bow
and its significance are highlighted 4. _____ poem was composed by Gangadevi
(a) Manucharitram
II
(b) Amuktamalyada
Establishment of Vijayanagar kingdom (c) Panduranga Mahatmiyam
by Sangama brothers is traced. (d) Madura Vijayam

www.tntextbooks.in
5. _____ was the greatest ruler of the Sangama 12. Find out the correct answer from the
dynasty. following
(a) Devaraya I (b) Devaraya II (i) Mohammed I established a good system
(c) Krishnadevaraya (d) Veera Narsasimha of government that was followed by all
the successor sultanates and also later
6. Krishnadevaraya planted the pillar of victory
by the Marathas.
at _______.
(ii)
Gawan used Portuguese chemist to
(a) Belgaum
teach the preparation and use of gun
(b) Cuttack power.
(c) Simhachalam (a) (i) and (ii) are correct
(d) Rajamahendravaram (b) (i) and (ii) are wrong
7. Pudukkottai, a small principality, was a buffer (c) (i) is correct ; (ii) is wrong
between _______
(d) (i) is wrong; (ii) is correct
(a) Chola and Vijayanagar Kingdoms
13. Assertion (A): Bahman Shah attempted
(b) Chola and Pandya Kingdoms to exact an annual tribute from the
(c) Chera and Pandya Kingdodms state of Warrangal, the Reddi Kingdoms
(d) Chola and Chera Kingdoms Rajamundry and Kondavidu
8. Shah Nama was written by ______ Reason (R): This led to frequent wars.
(a) Firdausi (b) Ibn Battutah (a) A is correct, R is not the correct
(c) Nicolo de conti (d) Domingo peas explanation of A
9. Mohammed Gawan established a Madrasa (b) A is correct, R is wrong.
library at _________, containing a collection (c) A and R are wrong.
of 3000 manuscripts. (d) A is correct, R is the correct explanation of A
(a) Berar (b) Bijapur 14. Match the following
(c) Bidar (d) Anmadnagar (A) Abdul Razzak - 1. Russia
10. ____________ constructed the Golkonda (B) Nikitin - 2. Saluva
Fort. Nayak
(a) Raja Krishna Dev (C) Domingo Peas and
(b) Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk Nuniz - 3. Persia
(c) Mohammed Gawan (D) Chellappa - 4. Portugal
(d) Bahman Shah (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 4, 3, 2, 1
11. Find out the correct statement. (c) 2, 1, 4, 3 (d) 3, 1, 4 ,2
(a) Vijayanagar kingdom was ruled by the kings II. Write brief answers
of five dynasties for a period of more than
300 years 1. What are the archaeological sources to know
about the Vijayanagar Kingdom?
(b) As far as coastal Andhra is concerned, the
power struggle was between the Gajapathi 2. Name the founders of city of Vijayanagar.
kingdom of Orissa and Bahmani How did it get its name?
(c) Abdur Razzak , the Persian ambassador, 3. Mention the three areas where there was a
visited Zamorin of Kochi clash of interest between the Vijayanagar and
Bahmani Kingdoms.
(d) The Bahmani kings issued large number
of gold coins bearing the images of 4. Write a note on “tarafs”.
various deities. 5. What do you know about Mohammed I?

www.tntextbooks.in
III. Write short answers Activity

1. How did the Bahmani Kingdom emerge? 1. On the outline map of India, mark the extent
Name its founder. of Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms.
2. Collect information on the court jester Tenali
2. Nayak System.
Rama in the court of Krishnadevaraya
3. Battle of Rakshasi – Tangadi.
Assignments
4.
Explain the reason for the celebration of
1. Prepare an album with the pictures of temples
Krishnadevaraya as the greatest ruler of of Vijayanagar period and the ruins of Hampi.
Vijayanagar.
2. Attempt a brief biographical sketch of
5. Who assumed the title “Second Alexander”. important foreign travelers who visited
Why? Vijayanagar.
6. Explain the location of Golkonda fort and its

splendour. REFERENCE BOOKS
IV. Answer the following in detail B enjamin B. Cohen, Kingship and

1.
Colonialism in India’s Deccan (1850 to 1948),
1. Describe the Society and Economy of the
Macmillan, 2007.
Vijayanagar Empire
2. A.L. Basham, A Cultural History of India,
2.
Describe the administration under the Oxford University Press, 1984
Vijayanagar rulers.
3. Firroqui Salma Ahmad, A Comprehensive
3. Give an account of the reign of Mohammed I History of Medieval India from the Twelfth to
of Bahmani kingdom. the Mid-Eighteenth Century, Pearson, 2011
4.
Describe the military campaigns and the 4. Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of
administrative machinery under Mahmud India: Vijayanagara, Cambridge University Press.
Gawan. 5. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, Penguin, 2014.
GLOSSARY
Accumulated gathered சேர்த்த

Patronise sponsor ஆதரி
Accountable responsible ப�ொறுப்புள்ள
Conspiracy plot கூட்டுச் சதி
Vanquished conquered வெல்லப்பட்ட
Feudatories chieftains holding land under feudal நிலப்பிரபுத்துவ முறைப்படி
system உருவாக்கப்பட்ட சிற்றரசர்கள்
Truncated reduced in size எண்ணிக்கை குறைந்த

www.tntextbooks.in
UNIT Cultural Development

in South India
9
Learning Objectives
To understand state and society in early medieval south India
To know the nature of political conflict between Chalukyas and Pallavas
To understand the cultural exchanges occurring in south India under the two antagonistic
kingdoms
To study the artistic greatness of monuments at Ajantha, Ellora and Mamallapuram
To study the devotional movements and impressive growth of vernacular literature in early
medieval south India.
Introduction in Kannada, Vikramarjuna-vijayam, also

called Pampa-bharata, by Pampa in Kannada,
The political history of south India during which were all of a later period, and Nannaya’s
the sixth century to ninth century CE was marked Mahabharatam in Telugu also provide useful
by conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami historical data.
(Vatapi) (also known as Western Chalukyas),
and the Pallavas of Kanchi. At the same time, However, pride of place must go to
the period also saw great advancements in the Tamil literature. The Bhakti movement which
field of culture and literature. It also broke new originated in South India found its greatest
grounds in areas like devotional literature, art expression in the songs composed by the
and architecture. The Bhakti movement, which Azhwars and Nayanmars. The poems of the
impacted the entire sub-continent, originated Vaishnavite Azhwars were later compiled as
in the Tamil country during this period. the Nalayira Divya Prabhandam. The Saiva
literature was canonized as the Panniru
Sources Tirumurai. The Thevaram, composed by
Inscriptions on copperplates, on temple Appar (Thirunavukkarasar), Sambandar
walls and pillars form a major source of historical (Thirugnanasambandar) and Sundarar; and
information for this period. Inscriptions issued Thiruvavasagam by Manickavasagar are
by Chalukyas in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and prominent texts which are read as sacred
Sanskrit languages, and Pallavas in Tamil and literature to this day. Periyapuranam written
Sanskrit, recording land grants to Brahmins, as by Sekizhar, in a later period, also provides
well as the royal and the non-royal gifts made much historical information. The Mathavilasa
to religious establishment are equally important Prahasanam written by Mahendravarman
sources. The Aihole inscription of Pulikesin II I in Sanskrit, is an important source for the
composed by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit Pallava period.
is among the most important of Chalukyan Many inscriptional sources including the
inscriptions. Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta
117

www.tntextbooks.in
From Kuram Copper Plate : (Line 12). The grandson of Narasimhavarman, (who
arose) from the kings of this race, just as the moon and the sun from the eastern mountain; who
was the crest-jewel on the head of those princes, who had never bowed their heads (before); who
proved a lion to the elephant-herd of hostile kings; who appeared to be blessed Narasimha himself,
who had come down (to earth) in the shape of a prince; who repeatedly defeated the Cholas,
Keralas, Kalabhras, and Pandyas; who, like Sahasrabahu (i.e., the thousand-armed Kartavirya),
enjoyed the action for a thousand arms in hundreds of fights; who wrote the (three) syllables of
(the word) vijaya (i.e., victory), as on a plate, on Pulikesin’s back, which was caused to be visible
(i.e., whom he caused to turn his back) in the battles of Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc., and
who destroyed (the city of) Vatapi, just as the pitcher-born (Agastya) (the demon) Vatapi.
and the Aihole inscription of the Chalukya on the banks of the Narmada. The kings of
king Pulakisin II provide details of Pallava - Malwa, Kalinga, and eastern Deccan accepted
Chalukya conflict. The Kuram copper plates of his suzerainty. His victories over Kadambas of
Parameshwaravarman and the Velurpalayam Banvasi, and Gangas of Talakad (Mysore) are also
copper plates of Nandivarman III record their worthy of note. However, his attempt to attack
military achievements. Coins help us to under- Kanchipuram was thwarted by Mahendravarma
stand the economic condition of the period. Pallava. This led to a prolonged war between the
Buddhist sources such as Deepavamsa and Chalukyas and the Pallavas. Narasimha Varman I
Mahavamsa, written in Pali, the accounts of (630-668), the Pallava King, attacked and
Chinese travellers Hiuen Tsang and Itsing give occupied Badami. Pulikesin II died in the battle.
us details about the socio-religious and cultural Pallava control over Badami and the southern
conditions of the Pallava times. The ninth and parts of the Chalukya empire continued for
tenth century writings of Arab travellers and several years. In the mid-eighth century, the
geographers such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, and Badami Chalukyas were overpowered and
Ibn Hauka also tell us about the socio-political replaced by the Rashtrakutas.
and economic conditions of India of this period.
Chalukya Administration
The sculptures in the temples in Aihole, Badami,
Pattadakal reflect the culture of the times. State
I Chalukyas and Pallavas The king was the head of the administration.
In dynastic succession primogeniture was not
9.1 Chalukyas strictly followed. Generally, the elder was to be
There are two Chalukya families: Chalukyas appointed as yuvaraja while the king was in the
of Badami (Vatapi) and Chalukyas of Kalyani. office. The heir apparent got trained in literature,
This lesson concerns only the Chalukyas of law, philosophy, martial arts and others.
Badami. Chalukya dynasty emerged as a strong Chalukyan kings claimed to rule according
power with its founder Pulikesin I (c. 543-566 to dharma-sastra and niti-sastra. Pulikesin I
CE) fortifying a hill near Badami. He declared was well-versed in manu-sastra, puranas, and
independence from the Kadmabas. It is said itihasas. In the beginning, the Chalukya kings
that he conducted yagnas and performed the assumed titles such as Maharajan, Sathyasrayan
asvameda sacrifice. The capital Badami was and Sri-Pritivi-Vallaban. After defeating
founded by Kirtivarman (566-597). Pulikesin I’s Harshavardhana, Pulikesin II assumed the
grandson Pulikesin II (609-642), after defeating title of Parameswaran. Bhattarakan and
Mangalesha, proclaimed himself as king, an event Maharajathirajan, soon became very popular
that is described in the Aihole inscription. One titles. In the Pallava kingdom, kings took high-
of the most outstanding victories of Pulikesin II sounding titles such as Dharma maharajaadhi
was the defeat of Harshavardhana’s army raja, Maharajadhiraja, Dharma maharaja,
118 Cultural Development in South India

www.tntextbooks.in
CHALUKYA DYNASTY N
W E
Chalukya dynasty
MAGADHA
Narmada Tamralipti
Tapti nadi
BHOJAKAS ha
Ma
PITINKAS Toshali BAY
Godavari
OF
BENGAL
Vatapi KALINGA
ARABIAN Kris ANDHRA
hna
SEA
Suvarnagiri
PULINDAS
An
SATHYA PUTRA
da m
Lakshad weep isla
Kaveri
an and n ic ob ar i
CHOLA
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
PANDYA
KERALAPUTRA
nd
sl
Anuradhapura
an
s
ds
I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale
Maharaja. In the Hirahadagalli plates the king part in the administration of the kingdom, but
is introduced as the performer of agnistoma, they built shrines, and installed images of various
vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices. deities, and endowed temples. The image of
Queen Rangapataka, the queen of Rajasimha, is
The wild boar was the royal insignia of the
found in the inscription in Kailasanatha temple
Chalukyas. It was claimed that it represented the
in Kanchipuram.
varaha avatar of Vishnu. The bull, Siva’s mount,
was the symbol of the Pallavas. The King and His Ministers
All powers were vested in the king.
Royal Women
Inscriptions do not specifically speak of a council
Chalukya dynasty of Jayasimhan I line of ministers, but they do refer to an official called
appointed royal ladies as provincial governors. maha-sandhi-vigrahika. Four other categories
They also issued coins in some instances. of ministers are also referred to in the epigraphs:
Vijya Bhattariga, a Chalukya princess, issued Pradhana (head minister), Mahasandhi-
inscriptions. Pallava queens did not take active vigrahika (minister of foreign affairs),
Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II : The Megudi temple at Aihole (in Karnataka) stands
on top of a hill. On the eastern wall of this Jaina temple is a 19-line Sanskrit inscription (dated to
Saka era: 634-635 AD (CE)). The composer is a poet named Ravikriti. The inscription is a prashasti
of the Chalukyas especially the reigning king Pulikesin II, referred to as Sathyasraya (the abode of
truth). It highlights the history of the dynasty, defeat of all his enemies, especially Harshavardhana.
Cultural Development in South India 119

www.tntextbooks.in
Amatya (revenue minister), and Samaharta became centres for popularising Saivism.
(minister of exchequer). Chalukyas divided Chalukyas patronised heterodox sects also
the state into political divisions for the sake and lavishly donated lands to the Jain centres.
of administration: Vishayam, Rastram, Nadu Ravikirti, the poet-laureate of Pulikesin II,
and Grama. Epigraphs speak of the officials was a Jain scholar. In the reign of Kirtivarman II
like vishayapatis, samantas, gramapohis and a Jain village official built a Jain temple in a
mahatras. Vishayapatis exercised the power at place called Annigere. The prince Krishna
the behest of the kings. Samantas were feudal appointed Gunapatra, a Jain monk, as his
lords functioning under the control of the state. master. According to Hiuen Tsang, there
Grampohis and gramkudas were village officials. were many Buddhist centres in the Chalukya
Mahatras were the prominent village men. territory wherein more than 5000 followers of
Provincial and District the Hinayana and Mahayana sects lived.
Administration Literature and Education
Generally, the king appointed his sons as Chalukyas used Sanskrit in pillar
the provincial governors. The governors called inscriptions such as in Aihole and Maha-
themselves raja, marakka-rajan and rajaditya- kudam. A seventh-century inscription of a
raja-parameswaran. Some governors held the Chalukya king at Badami mentions Kannada as
title maha-samanta and maintained troops. The the local prakrit, meaning the people’s language,
chief of vishaya was vishayapati. In turn, vishaya and Sanskrit as the language of culture. A
was divided into pukti. Its head was pogapati. chieftain of Pulikesin II authored a grammar
work Saptavataram in Sanskrit.
Village Administration
The traditional revenue officials of the Chalukya Architecture
villages were called the nala-kavundas. The Historically, in Deccan, Chalukyas
central figure in village administration was introduced the technique of building temples
kamunda or pokigan who were appointed by the using soft sandstones as medium. In Badami,
kings. The village accountant was karana and he two temples are dedicated to Vishnu and one
was otherwise called gramani. Law and order of each to Siva and to the Jaina tirthankaras.
the village was in the hands of a group of people Their temples are grouped into two: excavated
called mahajanam. There was a special officer cave temples and structural temples. Badami is
called mahapurush, in charge of maintaining known for both structural and excavated cave
order and peace of the village. Nagarapatis or temples. Pattadakal and Aihole are popular for
Purapatis were the officials of the towns. structural temples.
Religion Aihole (Ayyavole)
The Chalukyas patronised both Saivism
Built in 634, Aihole, the headquarters
and Vaishnavism. They built temples for Siva and
of the famous medieval Ayyavole merchants’
Vishnu. Brahmin groups were invited from the
guild was an important commercial centre.
Gangetic regions and settled to perform regular
About seventy temples are located in Aihole.
pujas and conduct festivals and ceremonies
The earliest stone-built temple is Lad Khan
in the temples. Notable Chalukya rulers like
temple. Its unique trait is a stucco pillar with
Kirtivarman I, Mangalesa (597-609), and
a big capital distinct from northern style.
Pulikesin II (609-642) performed yagnas. They
A temple dedicated to the goddess Durga
bore titles such as parama-vaishana and parama-
was built on the model of Buddha Chaitya.
maheswara. Chalukyas gave prominent place
It stands on a raised platform in the form of
to Kartikeyan, the war god. Saiva monasteries
semi-circle. Another temple, dedicated to the

www.tntextbooks.in
same goddess is called Huccimalligudi, which

is rectangular in shape. Chalukyas also built
Jain temples. Megudi Jain temple is illustrative
of the evolution of temple architecture under
the Chalukyas. The mandapa-type caves are
preserved at Aihole.
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal
the title Tribhuvacharya (maker of the three

worlds). Several reliefs on the temple walls bear
signatures of the sculptors who carved them.
At the south-eastern corner of the village is

the Papanatha temple. Similar to the Virupaksha
temple in its basic plan, it has a shikara in
Aihole Durga Temple the northern style. The outer walls are richly
decorated with many panels depicting scenes
Vatapi (Badami)
and characters from the Ramayana. The eastern
There are four caves in Badami. The largest wall has a short Kannada inscription, giving
cave temple built by Mangalesa is dedicated to the name of the architect Revadi Ovajja, who
Vishnu. The reclining posture of Vishnu on the designed the shrine. In Pattadakal, Chalukyas
snake bed and Narasimha are exquisite examples built more than ten temples which demonstrate
of Chalukya art. Irrespective of religion, the evolution in Chalukya architecture. On the
architectural features share a common style. It basis of style these temples are classified into
establishes the technical importance and the two groups: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.
secular attitude of both patron and architect.
Painting
Pattadakal Paintings are found in a cave temple
Pattadakal, a quiet village in Bagalkot dedicated to Vishnu in Badami. Chalukyas
district of Karnataka, is famous for its exquisite adopted the Vakataka style in painting. Many
temples. Pattadakal was a centre for performing of the paintings are of incarnations of Vishnu.
royal rituals. The Virupaksha temple was The most popular Chalukya painting is in the
built at the order of queen Lohamahadevi to palace built by the King Mangalesan (597-609).
commemorate the conquest of Kanchipuram It is a scene of ball being watched by members
by her husband Vikramaditya II. The unique of royal family and others.
feature of the structural temple built by
Rajasimha at Mamallapuram was adopted here 9.2 Pallavas
by the Chalukyas. Monuments are generally There is no scholarly consensus about the
associated with the rulers who built them. origin of the Pallavas. Some early scholars held
However, here we also have signatures of the the view that the word Pallava was a variant
architects who conceived the edifices and the of Pahlava, known as Parthians, who moved
skilled craftspeople who created them. The east from western India to the eastern coast of the
porch of the Virupaksha temple has a Kannada peninsula, during the wars between the Sakas
inscription eulogizing the architect who and the Satavahanas in the second century CE.
designed the temple. The architect was given But many scholars today regard them native

www.tntextbooks.in
PALLAVA TERRITORIES N
W E
Pallava Territories
S
Narmada Mahanadi
God
ava
ri
Bijapur
hna
Arabian Kris Bay of
Masulipatnam
Sea Bengal
Sira PALLAVA
CauvVellore KANCHI
ery
Anda
L a k s h a d weep
Calicut
(I n d ia)
m n an d N ico b a r
a
(I n d ia)
PANDIYA
Madurai
Quilon
Indian Ocean
to south India or “with some mixture of north Pallava capital of Kanchipuram. Subsequently,
Indian blood”. during the reign of Narasimhavarman I (630-
668), the Pallavas managed to settle scores by
The Pallavas were associated with
winning several victories over the Chalukyas
Tondaimandalam, the land between the north
with the aid of their ally Manavarman, a Sri
Pennar and north Vellar rivers. Simhavishnu is
Lankan prince, who later
believed to have conquered the Chola country
became ruler of the island
up to the Kaveri and consolidated his dynastic
kingdom. The climax
rule, started by his father Simhavarman.
was Narasimhavarman’s
Simhavishnu, vanquishing the Kalabhras,
invasion of the Chalukyan
conquered the land up to the Kaveri, thereby
kingdom and his
coming into conflict with the Pandyas.
capturing of the Badami.
Simhavishnu’s successor Mahendravarman I
Narasimhavarman
(590-630), whom Appar, converted from
claims to have defeated
Jainism to Saivism, was a patron of arts, and a
the Cholas, Cheras and
poet and musician in his own right.
Kalabhras. Two naval
During Mahendravarman’s reign, the expeditions despatched
army of Pulikesin II annexed the northern part to help Manavarman
of Pallava kingdom and almost reached the were successful, but Narasimhavarman

www.tntextbooks.in
this Sri Lankan ruler subsequently lost his of ministers. Rahasyadhikrita was a private
kingdom. secretary of the king. Manikkappandaram-
The Pallava-Chalukya conflict continued Kappan was an officer in charge of the treasury
(Manikka - valuables; Pandaram - treasury;
during the subsequent decades, with some
Kappan – keeper). Kodukkappillai was the
intermittent peace. During the reign of his
officer of gifts. They were central officers
grandson, Paramesvaravarman I (670-700),
under the Pallava king. Kosa-adhyaksa was
Vikramaditya of the Chalukya kingdom invaded
the supervisor of the Manikkappandaram-
the Pallava country. Paramesvaravarman fought
kappan. Judicial courts were called Adhikarna
against him with the support of the Gangas
Mandapa and judges called Dharmadhikarins.
and Pandyas. As a result, the Pallavas came
Fines are mentioned in the Kasakudi plates of
into conflict with the Pandyas in the south. In
Nandivarma Pallava as Karanadandam (fine in
the early ninth century, the Rashtrakuta king,
superior/higher court) and Adhikaranadandam
Govind III, invaded Kanchi during the reign
(fine in district level).
of the Pallava Dantivarman. Dantivarman’s
son Nandivarman III aided by western Gangas The governor of a province was advised
and Cholas, defeated the Pandyas at the battle and assisted by officers in charge of districts
of Sripurambiyam or Thirupurambiyam. who worked in close collaboration with local
Aparajita, grandson of Nandivarman III, lost autonomous institutions, largely in an advisory
his life in a battle fought against Aditya I of the capacity. They were built on local relationship
Chola kingdom who invaded Tondaimandalam. of caste, guilds, craftsmen and artisans (such
This sealed the fate of the Pallavas. Thereafter, as weavers and oil-mongers), students, ascetics
control over Tondaimandalam passed into the and priests. There were assemblies of villagers
hands of the Cholas. and also representatives of districts. General
body meetings of the assembly were held
About the Cheras: Though the annually, and meetings of smaller groups were
Kerala region seems to have been under responsible for implementing policy.
the rule of the Chera Perumals during the
Land Grants
period from sixth to ninth century little is
known about its history until the beginning Land ownership was with the king, who
of the ninth century. could make revenue grants to his officers and
land-grants to Brahmans, or else continue to
Pallava Administration have land cultivated by small-scale cultivators
and landlords. The latter was the most
Under the Pallavas, kinship was held to be
common practice. Crown lands were leased
of divine origin and was hereditary. The king
out to tenants-at-will. The status of the village
took high-sounding titles, some of which, such
varied according to the tenures prevailing. The
as maharajadhiraja, were borrowed from north
village with an inter-caste population paid land
Indian traditions. The king was assisted by a
revenue. The brahmadeya villages were donated
group of ministers, and in the later Pallava period
to a single Brahman or a group of Brahmans.
this ministerial council played a prominent part
These villages tended to be more prosperous
in state policy. Some of the ministers bore semi-
than the others because no tax was paid. There
royal titles and may well have been appointed
were devadana villages, donated to a temple,
from among the feudatories. and the revenue was consequently received
Distinctions are made between amatyas by the temple authorities and not by the state.
and mantrins. While a mantri is generally The temple authorities assisted the village by
understood to be a diplomat, amatya is a providing employment in the service of the
counsellor. Mantri Mandala was a council temple. This last category of villages gained

www.tntextbooks.in
greater significance when in later centuries the cultivators. The maintenance of these tanks
temples became the centres of rural life. During was essential to the village. Practically every
the Pallava period the first two types of villages inscription from the Pallava period pertaining
were predominant. to the rural affairs refers to the upkeep of the
tank. Next in importance came wells. Water was
In 1879, eleven plates held together by a distributed by canals, which were fitted with
ring of copper, its two ends soldered and sluices to regulate the water level and prevent
stamped with a royal seal depicting a bull overflowing at the source. The distribution of
and a lingam (the Pallava symbol) were
water for irrigation was supervised by a special
discovered in Urrukkattukottam, near
tank committee appointed by the village.
Puducherry. It records a grant of a village
made in the twenty-second year of the king Water taken in excess of allotted to a particular
Nandivarman (753 CE). The inscriptional cultivator was taxed.
text commences with a eulogy of the king in
Revenue and Taxation
Sanskrit, followed by the details of the grant
in Tamil, and a concluding verse in Sanskrit. Land grants recorded mainly on
copperplates provide detailed information on
Village Life land revenues and taxation. Revenue came
almost exclusively from rural sources, mercantile
In the village, the basic assembly was the
and urban institutions being largely unplanned.
sabha, which was concerned with all matters
Two categories of taxes were levied on the village.
relating to the village, including endowments,
The land revenue paid by the cultivator to the
land, irrigation, cultivated, punishment of crime,
state varied from 1/6th to 1/10th of the produce,
the keeping of a census and other necessary
and was collected by the village and paid to the
records. Village courts dealt with petty criminal
state collector. In the second category were local
cases. At a higher level, in towns and districts,
taxes, also collected in the village but utilized for
courts were presided over by government
services in the village itself. The tax money was
officers, with the king as the supreme arbiter
spent for repairing irrigation works, illuminating
of justice. The sabha was a formal institution
the temple, etc. When the state land tax was
but it worked closely with the urar, an informal
inadequate, the revenue was supplemented
gathering of the entire village. Above this was
by additional taxes on draught cattle, toddy-
a district council which worked with nadu or
drawers, marriage-parties, potters, goldsmiths,
district administration. Villages populated
washermen, textile-manufacturers, weavers,
entirely or largely by Brahmans preserved
brokers, letter-carriers, and the makers of ghee.
records of the functioning of assemblies and
councils. The link between the village assembly The loot and booty obtained in war added to
and the official administration was the headman the revenue of the state. Pallava considered war
of the village.
Tank Irrigation
A special category of land, eripatti or tank
land, was known only in south India. This land
was donated by individuals, the revenue from
which was set apart for the maintenance of the
village tank. Rainwater was stored in the tank so
that land could be irrigated during the annual
long, dry spell. The tank, lined with brick or
stone, was built through the cooperative effort
of the village, and its water was shared by all Vaikunta Perumal temple - Kanchipuram

www.tntextbooks.in
to be very important and a series of sculptures Maritime Trade

depicting the important events connected with
Unlike in the Ganges plain, where large
the reign of Nandivarama Pallava, notably
areas were available for cultivation, the regions
Pallava troops attacking a fort are seen in the
controlled by the Pallavas and the Chalukyas
Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram.
commanded a limited income from land.
This fort is depicted in the sculptures as having
Mercantile activity had not developed sufficiently
high ramparts with soldiers attacking it and
to make a substantial contribution to the
elephants standing near it.
economy. The Pallavas had maritime trade with
Pallava Army south-east Asia, where by now there were three
major kingdoms: Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa
Much of the state revenue went to maintain
(Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya
the army. The king maintained a standing army
peninsula and Sumatra). On the west coast, the
under his direct control. The army consisted
of foot-soldiers, cavalry and a small force of initiative in the trade with the West was gradually
elephants. Chariots were by now almost out of passing into the hands of the foreign traders
use and in any case were ineffective in the hilly settled along the coast, mainly Arabs. Indian
terrains, as much of the fighting took place there. traders were becoming suppliers of goods rather
Cavalry, though effective, was expensive, as horses than carriers of goods to foreign countries, and
had to be imported. The Pallavas developed a communication with the west became indirect,
navy and built dockyards at Mamallapuram and via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.
Nagapattinam. However, the Pallava navy was Society
inconsiderable compared to the naval strength of
the Cholas who succeeded them. Brahmins as learned scholars in literature,
astronomy, law and others functioned as the
Trade royal counsellors. Not only were they in the
Kanchipuram was an important trading teaching profession, they were also involved in
centre in the Pallava period. The merchants had agriculture, trade and war. They were exempted
to obtain license to market their goods. Barter from paying taxes and capital punishment. The
system generally prevailed but later the Pallavas next important social group which ruled the state
issued gold and silver coins. Merchants had was called sat-kshatryas (quality kshatriyas).
their own organizations such as Manigramam. Not all the kshatryas were of warring groups;
In foreign trade, spices, cotton textiles, precious some of them were involved in trading as well.
stones and medicinal plants were exported to They also enjoyed the right to read the Vedas,
Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China a privilege denied to lower varnas. The trading
and Burma (Myanmar). Mamallapuram was an group maintained warriors for protection and
important seaport. founded trade guilds. The people who were at
the bottom of the society worked in agriculture,
Traders founded guilds and called
animal husbandry, and handicraft works. People
themselves as sudesi, nanadesi, ainurruvar and
engaged in scavenging, fishing, dry-cleaning
others. Their main guild functioned at Aihole.
and leather works were positioned outside the
Foreign merchants were known as Nanadesi. It
varna system.
had a separate flag with the figure of bull at the
centre, and they enjoyed the right of issuing vira- Most scholars agree that Aryanisation or
sasanas. The jurisdiction of this guild stretched the northern influence on the south picked up
over entire south-east Asia. The chief of this guild pace during the Pallava period. This is evident
is registered in the inscriptions as pattanswamy, from the royal grants issued by the kings. The
pattnakilar, and dandanayaka. Its members caste structure had firmly established. Sanskrit
were known as ayyavole-parameswariyar. came to be held in high esteem.

www.tntextbooks.in
Kanchipuram continued to be a great seat was fighting a losing battle. Royal patronage,
of learning. The followers of Vedic religion were which the Buddhists lacked, gave an edge to the
devoted to the worship of Siva. Mahendravarman protagonists of Vedic religions.
was the first, during the middle of his reign, to Apart from the university at Kanchi, which
adopt the worship of Siva. But he was intolerant acquired a fame equal to that the Nalanda,
of Jainism and destroyed some Jain monasteries. there were a number of other Sanskrit colleges.
Buddhism and Jainism lost their appeal. However, Sanskrit was the recognized medium, and was
Hiuen-Tsang is reported to have seen at Kanchi also the official language at the court, which led
one hundred Buddhist monasteries and 10,000 to its adoption in literary circles. In the eighth
priests belonging to the Mahayana school. Many century the mathas (mutts) became popular.
of the great Nayanmars and Alwars, Saiva and This was a combination of a rest house, a
Vaishanava poet-saints lived during his time. feeding-centre, and an education centre, which
indirectly brought publicity to the particular
Growing influence of Brahmanism
sect with which it was associated.
Perhaps the most obvious sign of the
influence of Aryan culture in the south was the Growing Popularity of Sanskrit
pre-eminent position given to Brahmins. They Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa
gained materially through large gifts of land. Prahasanam in Sanskrit. Two extraordinary
Aryanisation is also evident in the evolution of works in Sanskrit set the standard for Sanskrit
educational institutions in the Pallava kingdom. literature in the south: Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya
In the early part of this period education was and Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita. Dandin of
controlled by Jains and Buddhists, but gradually Kanchipuram, author of the great treatise on
the Brahmins superseded them. The Jains rhetoric Kavyadarsa, seems to have stayed in
who had brought with them their religious Pallava court for some time.
literature in Sanskrit and Prakrit, began to use
Rock-cut Temples
Tamil. Jainism was extremely popular, but the
competition of Hinduism in the succeeding Mahendravarman I is credited with the
centuries greatly reduced the number of its introduction of rock-cut temples in the Pallava
adherents. In addition, Mahendravarman I territory. Mahendravarman claims in his
lost interest in Jainism and took up the cause Mandagappattu inscription that his shrine to
of Saivism, thus depriving the Jains of valuable Brahma, Isvara and Vishnu was made without
royal patronage. The Jains had developed a using traditional materials such as brick,
few educational centres near Madurai and timber, metal and mortar. Mahendravarman’s
Kanchi, and religious centres such as the one rock-cut temples are usually the mandapa type
at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. But a vast with a pillared hall or the mandapa in front and
majority of the Jaina monks tended to isolate a small shrine at the rear or sides.
themselves in small caves, in hills and forests.
Monasteries and Mutts
Monasteries continued to be the nucleus
of the Buddhist educational system and
were located in the region of Kanchi, and
the valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari
rivers. Buddhist centres were concerned
with the study of Buddhism, particularly as
this was a period of intense conflict between
Rock-cut temple of Mahendravarma Pallava
orthodox and heterodox sects. But Buddhism

www.tntextbooks.in
II. Ellora – Ajanta and Mamallapuram trained in religious treatises and scriptures. The
Aurangabad district in Maharashtra is the main hall in the centre and the cubical rooms on
centre of the groups of caves in Ellora and Ajanta. either side were used as monasteries for teaching
The Ellora group of caves are famous for sculptures and preaching. This is attested by a figure, in cave
while the Ajanta group of caves are famous for number six, of man reading a manuscript on a
paintings. The dates of these temples range from folding table. The panels in these caves portray
c. 500 to c. 950 CE. But the activity of creating scenes from the life of the Buddha. Three different
cave temples may have started two hundred years characters are indentified by the sculptures in
earlier. The first cave temple was created for the the caves. The central figure is Buddha found in
Ajivikas. Some of the temples are incomplete. three sagacious postures: meditating (dhyana
mudra), preaching (vyakhyana mudra) and
9.3 Ellora touching the earth by index finger of right hand
(bhumi-sparsha mudra).
The rock-cut cave temples in Ellora
are in 34 caves, carved in Charanadri hills.
Without knowledge of trigonometry, structural
engineering, and metallurgy, the Indian
architects could not have created such exquisite
edifices. The patrons of these caves range from
the dynasties of Chalukyas to Rashtrakutas. The
heterodox sects first set the trend of creating this
model of temples. Later, orthodox sects adopted
it as a medium of disseminating religious
ideologies. These temples were linked to
Buddha in Meditation-Ellora
Ajivikas, Jainism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism.
The earliest temples are modest and simple with Goddesses
no artistic claims. But, the later temples are
Buddhist caves represented goddesses by
elegant edifices.
way of the carved images of Tara, Khadiravani-
Mural paintings in Ellora are found in five tara, Chunda, Vajradhat-vishvari, Maha-
caves, but only in the Kailash temple are they mayuri, Sujata, Pandara and Bhrikuti. In
preserved. Some murals in Jain temples are well cave twelve, a stout female figure is depicted
preserved. Not only animals, birds, trees, flowers wearing a waistband and headgear of a cobra.
are pictured elegantly, but human emotions and Khadrivani-tara also holds a cobra in one of her
character - greed, love, compassion-are depicted hands in the same cave.
with professional skill.
Heterodox II / Jain caves
The Ellora caves were designated A few Jain caves are also seen in Ellora
as a UNESCO World Heritage Site group and are distinct from others. But they
in 1983. are incomplete. The figures of Yaksha-matanga,
Mahavira, Parsvanatha, and Gomatesvara are
Heterodox I / Buddhist caves surrounded by attendants.
There are 12 Buddhist caves. Every Buddhist
Caves of Vedic Religions
cave temple is of a unique model in architecture.
Some are modest; while others are double- The earliest caves in these groups are modest
storeyed or triple-storeyed. The plans of the caves and simple. Mostly, they are square-shaped
demonstrate that these were designed as religious except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is a
centres where monks stayed and the disciples were massive monolithic structure, carved out of a

www.tntextbooks.in
single solid rock. This temple is said to represent they plastered the ridged surface of the volcanic
Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The temple is rock. This plaster was made of vegetable fibres,
two storeyed and the Kailasa temple is on the paddy husk, rock-grit, and sand. This surface was
first one. The lower storey has carved life-size overlaid with a thin layer of lime, ready to receive
elephants, which looks like they are holding up the pigment. Recently it was noticed that a stretch
the temple on their backs. The temple exterior has of cloth was reinforced on the surface for the
richly carved windows, images of deities from the application of pigment.
Hindu scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male The colours were extracted out of natural
and female figures). Most of the deities to the left objects and minerals. The prominent colours
of the temple entrance are Saivite and the deities used are black, red, white, yellow, blue and
to the right of the entrance are Vaishnavite. The green. The aesthetic features of the paintings
courtyard has two huge pillars with the flagstaff are garland, necklaces, headgear, ear-rings and
and a Nandi mandapa. The wedding ceremony of the perfection of the movements of the human
Siva-Parvati, the attempted lifting of the Kailasa hands. The story panels are attractive and
mountain by Ravana, and the destruction of informative. Scenes from the Jataka stories and
Mahisasura by the goddess Durga are beautiful select episodes from the life history of Buddha
specimens. Weapons and musical instruments are the central theme of the paintings.
of the gods are also depicted through the panel
sculptures. An interesting sculpture is that of the The celestial figures of Kinnaras,
river goddess Ganga mounted on a crocodile and Vidyadharas and Gandharvas are depicted in
the river goddess Yamuna mounted on a tortoise. paintings and sculptures. In the paintings of
the later period Bodhisattva is shown in larger
9.4 Ajanta relief. Though a variety of human moods are
presented, the dominant ones are of compassion
The Ajanta caves are situated at a distance
and peace. Light and shadow are intelligently
of about 100 km north of Aurangabad in
used. Human figures depicted in different
Maharashtra. Totally 30 caves have been scooped
colours have been interpreted to mean that they
out of volcanic rocks. Though chiefly famous
are from different ethnicities.
for mural paintings, there are some sculptures
too. The Hinayana sect of Buddhism started the Architecture and Sculpture
excavation of caves in Ajanta. The patrons were Architecturally, Ajanta caves are grouped
the kings who ruled the Deccan plateau during into two: chaityas and viharas. The chaityas
the period c. 200 BCE to 200 CE. Inscriptions have vaulted ceilings with long halls. In the rear
speak of the patrons who range from kings to end of the halls the statue of Buddha is seen. The
merchants. First phase of the caves belong to the sculpture of Buddha in the garba-griha is in the
period from c. 200 BCE to 200 CE. The second classical model. His image is the embodiment of
phase started from c. 200 CE to 400 CE. benevolence. Heaviness is the general character
Paintings of the sculptures. Sculptures of Yakshis and
Ajanta caves are the
repository of rich mural
paintings. Paintings of the
early phase are mostly in
caves nine and ten, which
belong to the period of the
Satavahanas. The authors of
Ajanta paintings followed
ingenious techniques. First, Ajantha: Bodhisatva Ajantha Cave 12: Vihara Cells

www.tntextbooks.in
Hariti with children are significant. Bodhisattva

carved out independently is another important
feature. The popular Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara
is depicted in painting and sculpture.
9.5 Mamallapuram
The iconic Shore Temple of Pallavas
at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) was Panchapandava Rathas
constructed during the reign of Rajasimha The sculptural panel in the Krishna mandapa,
(CE 700-728). The temple comprises three where village life with cows and cowherds is
shrines, where the prominent ones are depicted with beauty and skill, is yet another
dedicated to Siva and Vishnu. The exterior artistic wonder to behold.
wall of the shrine, dedicated to Vishnu, and the
interior of the boundary wall are elaborately Conclusion
carved and sculpted. In southern India, this is Rock-cut temples were common in the
one amongst the earliest and most important Pallava period. The structural temples and the
structural temples. Unlike other structures of free-standing temples at Aihole and Badami in the
the region, the Shore Temple is a five-storeyed Deccan and at Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram
rock-cut monolith. The monolithic vimanas provide testimony to the architectural excellence
are peculiar to Mamallapuram. achieved during the period.
The monolithic rathas are known as the The Deccan style of sculpture shows a close
Panchapandava Rathas. The Arjuna Ratha affinity to Gupta art. Pallava sculpture owed a
contains artistically carved sculptures of Siva, lot to the Buddhist tradition. Yet the sculpture
Vishnu, mithuna and dwarapala. The most and the architecture of the Deccan and Tamil
exquisite of the five is the Dharmaraja Ratha, Nadu were not mere offshoots of the northern
with a three-storied vimana and a square base. tradition. They are distinctly recognizable
The Bhima Ratha is rectangular in plan and as different and have an originality of their
has beautiful sculptures of Harihara, Brahma, own. The basic form was taken from the older
Vishnu, Skanda, Ardhanarisvara and Siva as tradition, but the end result unmistakably
Gangadhara. The most important piece of reflected its own native brilliance.
carving in Mamallapuram is the Descent of III. Devotional Movement and
the Ganga (variously described as ‘Bhagirata’s
Literature
Penance’ or ‘Arjuna’s Penance’). The portrayal
of puranic figures with popular local stories 9.6 Tamil Devotionalism
reveals the skill of the artists in blending The emergence of regional polities in south
various aspects of human and animal life. India necessitated the establishment of states
based on a certain ideology. In the context of
the times religion alone could be the rallying
point. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram in north
and the Pandyas of Madurai in south of Tamil
country patronised the religious movement of
Bhakti, spearheaded by the elite and the wealthy
merchant class. The local temple became the
nucleus of this movement. Bhakti became
the instrument to touch the hearts of people
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram emotionally, and mobilize them.

www.tntextbooks.in
Bhakti cult as a religious movement opened of religious themes as apparent in the final
a new chapter in the history of Tamilnadu in the form. From the Pallava period onwards trained
early medieval period. A strong wave of Tamil groups of dancers were maintained by the more
devotionalism swept the country from the sixth prosperous temples. Classic scenes from puranas,
through the ninth centuries. The form was in and itihasas were sculpted on the walls of the
hymns of the Nayanmars and the Azhwars. The temples, in bronze and stone. Subsequently,
saints of Saivism and Vaishnavism simplified artists were attached to the temples with state
the use of Tamil language with the application patronage in order to promote the fine arts like
of music. They brought the local and regional music, dance and others. Religious hymns set
ethos into the mainstream. Azhwars (totally 12) to music were popularized by the Tamil saints,
and Nayanmars (totally 63), came from different and the singing of these hymns became a regular
strata of Tamil society, such as artisans and feature of the temple ritual. The veena was
cultivators. There were women saints as well probably the most frequently used instrument.
like Andal, an Azhwar saint. The poet Karaikkal Sometime around the fifth century CE, it was
Ammaiyar (Tilakawathi), and the Pandya queen replaced in India by a lute with a pear-shaped
Mangayarkkarasiyar were prominent female body. Some two centuries later it took the form
Nayanmar saints.The refashioning of Saivism in which it is found today-a small gourd body
and Vaishnavism by the Bhakti saints effectively with a long finger-board.
challenged Buddhism and Jainism. The influence
of the Bhakti movement is still discernable in 9.7 Azhwars and
Tamilnadu. Nayanmars
Sources Azhwars
Hymns of Thevaram corpus; Nalayira- Azhwars composed moving hymns
div yaprapandam; Per iyapuranam; addressed to Vishnu. They were compiled in the
Tiru-thondarthogai; Manickavasakar’s Nalayira Divviyaprabandham by Nadamuni, at
Tiruvasagam; Hymns engraved on the walls the end of the ninth century. Nadamuni who
of temples. Miniature sculptures in the served as a priest at the Ranganatha temple in
circumambulation of temples; paintings in the Srirangam is credited with compiling this work
temples. comprising four thousand poems. Periyalvar
lived in Srivilliputtur during the reign of
Bhakti as Ideology Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha in the ninth
The term Bhakti has different connotations. century. The themes are mostly Krishna’s
It includes service, piety, faith and worship. childhood. Krishna is the hero in Andal’s hymns.
But it also has an extended meaning. It is an Her songs convey her abiding love for Krishna.
enactment of emotion, aesthetics and sensitivity. Nammalvar, from Kurugur (Alvar Tirunagari),
Bhakti hymns have three major themes: First now in Thoothukudi district, is considered the
and foremost is the idea of devotion to a personal greatest amongst Alvars. Nammalvar authored
god. The second is a protest against orthodox
Vedic Brahmanism and the exclusiveness of the
Brahmans in their access to divine grace and
salvation. The third is the outright condemnation
of Jains and Buddhists as heretics.
Bhakti and the Arts
Originating with folk dancing, the
choreography of temple dancing became
highly sophisticated and complex renderings Azhwars

www.tntextbooks.in
four works that include the Tiruvaymoli. up the emergence of state in Tamil country
Vaishnava devotees believe that his hymns distil and indirectly integrated the different social
the essence of the four Vedas. From the twelfth groups into the religious fold through the
century, the Vaishnava hymns were the subject instrumentality of temple institutions. Over
of elaborate and erudite commentaries. the centuries the Bhakti movement spread all
Nayanmars over India, and resulted in a transformation of
Hinduism.
The prominent Saiva poets include
Tirunavukarasar (Appar), Tirugnanasambandar
9.8 Adi Sankara (788-820)
and Sundarar, and Manikkavasagar. Nambi
Andar Nambi compiled their hymns into an Bhakti or devotional movement
anthology of eleven books, towards the end of incorporated different sections of the society
tenth century. The first seven books, commonly into mainstream politics through the motto of
known as Thevaram, contain the hymns of service, surrender and sacrifice. Every layman
Sambandar (I to III), Appar (books IV to VI) could understand this motto because Bhakti
and Sundarar (book VII) and Manikkavasagar literary canons were composed in Tamil in
(book VIII). Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam is the simple syntactic and semantic style. But, with
twelfth thirumurai of the Saiva canon. It is a the arrival of Adi Sankara Bhakti discourse
hagiography of the sixty-three Nayanmars began in Sanskrit in a philosophical mode.
but contains an undercurrent of historical
information as well. This collection of 12 books is Advent of Adi Sankara
named Panniru Tirumurai. The Periyapuranam Against the background of the emerging
relates many stories about Nayanmars and the pan-Indian need for an ideology to evolve
miraculous episodes in their lives. statehood, a new doctrine was expounded by
Sankara from Kaladi, Kerala. With his new
doctrine of Maya (illusion) he held debates
with his counterparts from different sects of
religions and won over them. Fundamentally,
Sankara’s Advaita or non-dualism had its roots
in Vedanta or Upanishadic philosophy. His
attempts to root out Buddhism and to establish
smarta (traditionalist) mathas resulted in
Nayanmars
the establishment of monasteries in different
Impact places viz., Sringeri, Dvaraka, Badrinath, and
The devotional movement manifested itself Puri, which were headed by Brahmin pontiffs.
as a great social transformation. The apogee of Sankara looked upon Saiva and Vaishnava
its movement was the coming up of temples worship as two equally important aspects of
that became prominent in the Tamil landscape. the Vedic religion. Monastic organization and
Temples, in later Chola times, became great preservation of Sanskrit scriptures were the two
social institutions. Politically, the Bhakti major thrusts of Sankara school.
movement prompted the rulers to establish
the settlements for the invited Brahmin groups 9.9 Sri Ramanujar
from the north of the Indian sub-continent.
(1017-1138)
Royal members, local administrative bodies and
individuals initiated the calendrical celebrations Sri Ramanujar, a native of Sriperumpudur,
and festivals to be conducted in the temples underwent philosophical training under
for which they started making endowments Yatavaprakasar in Kanchipuram in Sankara
to meet their expenditure. It directly speeded school of thought. The young Ramanujar did

www.tntextbooks.in
not agree with the Kesavan Veluthat, we can sum up the significance
teachings of his guru of bhakti ideology as ‘the cementing force
and was fascinated bringing together kings, Brahmin priests and
by the teachings the common people in a harmonious manner
of the Srirangam to strengthen the rule of the newly established
school of thought. Hindu kingdoms based on the caste system.’
Yamunacharya who
once found him in SUMMARY
Kanchi invited him
I Chalukyas and Pallavas
to Srirangam. But as
soon as he reached Sri Ramanujar Chalukyas
Sri Rangam, Yamunacharya passed away. Chalukyas of Vatabi, Pulikesin II in
Ramanujar was then declared the head of particular prevented Harsha in the north
monastery in Srirangam. He took control of and Pallavas in the south from extending
monastery, temple and united the sect with their territorial power into their occupied
efforts at modifying the rituals in temples. territory of Deccan.
Ramanuja was a teacher-reformer and a great Chalukyas established a comprehensive
organiser. He challenged the monist ideology administrative structure at the provincial,
(Advaita) of Adi Sankara and in his effort to district and village level and supported
widen the social base to include social groups both Vedic and heterodox religions.
other than Brahmans. Described as qualified Their contribution to art and architecture
monism, his philosophy of Visishtadvaita are evident from the temples and the
influenced many thinkers and developed into monuments at Aihole, Badami and
a separate tradition. A century after his death, Pattadakkal.
there was a schism which developed into two
Pallavas
separate schools under Vedanta Desikar and
Manavala Mamuni. Ramanuja took interest in Pallavas established their kingdom in
propagating the doctrine of Bhakti to social Tondaimandalam with Kanchipuram as
groups outside the varnashrama system. He their capital.
influenced some temple authorities to permit Efforts of Pallava kings, Mahendravarman
the social groups outside the varnashrama I and Narasimhavarman I, to extend their
system to enter into temple at least once a year. territory further north led to constant wars
It is believed that due to the perceived threat to with Chalukyas.
their religious faith and existence, Ramanujar Pallava rule is known for its architecture
had to leave his place of residence. and Mamallapuram is a classic example.
Conclusion II Ellora, Ajanta and
Mamallapuram
The developments in south India that took Ellora
place during this time facilitated the fusion of
Ellora caves are famous for sculptures
north Indian and south Indian traditions and
representing all religious sects: Ajivika,
paved the way for the evolution of a composite
Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Indian culture. The popularity of the bhakti
cult in various parts of India was inaugurated Kailasanatha cave temple features panels
by the Tamil devotional cult, indicating that with scenes of puranas and legends.
‘maximum of common characteristics was Ajanta
beginning to merge in the various regions of the There are thirty caves in Ajanta. In five
sub-continent’. Quoting M.G.S. Narayanan and caves there are mural paintings. Scenes

www.tntextbooks.in
from Jataka stories and select scenes from 3. Kambuja is modern__________.

the life history of Buddha are depicted.
(a) Assam (b) Sumatra
Apart from the statue of Buddha,
Bodhisattva is also a striking feature of (c) Annam (d) Cambodia
chaityas and viharas. 4. __________ is a religious centre established
Mamallapuram by Jains
Shore temples at Mamallapuram is a classic (a) Saravanabelgola (b) Madurai
example of Pallava architecture
(c) Kanchi (d) Kalugumalai
Descent of Ganges, Arjuna’s penance are
illustrious examples of the sculptural 5. Where was temple built for performing royal
excellence. rituals by Chalukyas
III T
he Bhakti Movement (a) Aihole (b) Badami
Azhwars and Nayanmars
(c) Megudi (d) Pattadakkal
The hymns of Azhwars and Nayanmars
inaugurated the bhakti cult in Tamil 6.
Foreign merchants were known as
country. __________.
Pallavas and Pandyas patronized the bhakti (a) Pattanswamy (b) Nanadesi
movement. Bhakti as ideology helped (c) Videshi (d) Desi
integrate all sections of society under the
banner of religion. 7. _________ is the doctrine propounded by
A synthesis of north Indian and south Adi Sankara
Indian traditions occurred during this (a) Monism (b) Visistatvaita
period.
(c) Saiva Siddhantha (d) Vedanata
EXERCISE II. Write Brief Answers
Q.R.Code 1.
What do you know of the battle of
Sripurambiyam?
I. Choose the
correct answer 2. Attempt a brief account of Aihole Inscription.
1. Which one of the following is not properly 3.

Identify two important literary works in
paired? Kannada of Chalukyas’ time .
(a) Govinda III – Vatabi 4. Point out the contribution of Ramanujar in

making Vaishnavism more inclusive.
(b) Ravikriti – Pulikesin II
(c) Vishayam- Rashtrakutas III. Write Short Answers
(d) Nammalvar-Kurugur 1. Administrative divisions of Pallavas
2. Choose and match
2. Kailasanatha cave in Ellora.
(A) Simhavishnu - 1. Chalukya king
(B) Jayasimhan I - 2. Pallava king 3. Famous trio of Saiva saints.
(C) Aditya I - 3. Dockyard 4. Role of Alwars in popularising Vaishnavism
(D) Mamallapuram - 4. Chola king in Tamil country
(a) 4, 3, 1, 2 (b) 4, 1, 2, 3 5. Importance of royal women during Chalukya
(c) 2, 1, 4, 3 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1 rule.

www.tntextbooks.in
IV. Answer the following in detail

REFERENCE BOOKS
1.
Highlight the importance of land grants
issued by the Pallava kings. 1. Champakalakshmi, R., Religion, Tradition,
2.
Discuss the maritime activity in Pallava and Ideology: Pre-Colonial South India,
kingdom. Oxford University Press, 2011.
3. Describe the architectural excellence of shore 2. Noburu Karasimha, A Concise History of

temples at Mamallapuram. South India, Oxford University Press, 2014
3. Burton Stein, History of India, Oxford
Activity University Press, 2002
1.
A comparative analysis of Bhakti 4. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India:
movement in the south and in the north From Pre-historic Times to Fall of Vijayanagar,
of India. Oxford India Paperbacks, 1997.
2. Exploring the life history of Alvars and 5. R. Sathianathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1972
Nayanmars. (Reprint)
GLOSSARY
insignia a badge showing official position சிறப்புரிமைச் சின்னம்

mercantile commercial வணிகம் சார்ந்த
protagonist one who champions முன்ெனடுப்பர்
edifice building கட்டடம்/மாளிகை
connotation meaning அர்த்தம்/ப�ொருள்
erudite learned/scholarly ஆழ்ந்து கற்ற
esoteric meant for the enlightened மெய்யறிவு உள்ளவர்களுக்காக

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit 1
Vedic Culture in North
India and Megalithic
Culture in South India
Learning Objectives
• To know the origin and migration of Aryans into India.

• To identify the sources of study relating to the Vedic Age.
• To understand the evolution of political, economic and the religious structures in
Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Societies.
• To locate the regions inhabited by both early and later Vedic people.
• To make the differences between early and later Vedic periods.
• To understand the Megalithic/Iron Age culture in Tamil Nadu.
Vedic Age They came from Central Asia in several

waves of migration through Khyber Pass
The first phase of urbanisation in India
of Hindu Kush Mountains.
came to an end with the decline of Indus
Civilisation. A new era, called Vedic Age Though cattle rearing was their
began with the arrival of Aryans. main occupation, they also practised
slash and burn agriculture.
Vedic Age – It is a period in the History

of India between 1500 BC (BCE) – 600 BC Slash and burn agriculture - It is a
(BCE). It gets its name from four ‘Vedas’ farming method that involves clearing
the land by cutting and burning all the
trees and plants on it. Cultivation is
Who were the Aryans? done there for a short time and then
abandoned. People then move to a
The Aryans were Indo–Aryan language
new piece of land for cultivation.
speaking, semi nomadic pastoralists.
97
VI History - Lesson 1.indd 97 11-07-2019 2.14.32 PM

www.tntextbooks.in
Time, Spread and Sources Use of iron axes and ploughs became
Geographical range North India widespread.
Period Iron Age
Time 1500 BC (BCE) – Four Vedas
600 BC (BCE) 1. Rig 3. Sama
Sources Vedic Literature
2. Yajur 4. Atharva
Nature of Civilisation Rural
Aryans and their Home in India

Sources
Aryans of the Rig Vedic
Vedic literature
Period were semi-
nomadic. They were Vedic literature can be classified into two
basically pastoral broad categories.
people with cattle as 1. Shrutis - The Shrutis comprise
their main source of the four Vedas, the Brahmanas,

wealth. the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
In the Rig Vedic times, the Aryan They are considered sacred, eternal,
homeland was the Punjab, which was at and an unquestionable truth.
that time called Sapta Sindhu, the land 'Shruti' means listening (or
of seven rivers. unwritten) ones that were transmitted
Around 1000 BC (BCE), Aryans in orally through generations.
India moved eastward and settled in 2. Smritis - A body of texts containing
Indo-Gangetic Plain. teachings on religion such as
98

www.tntextbooks.in
Ithihasas, Puranas, Tantras and Agamas. Smritis are not eternal. They are constantly
revised.
'Smriti' means definite and written literature.
Shruti Vedic Smirti

Texts
Four Vedas Ithihasas puranas
Aryankas
Aranyakas
Brahmanas Ramayana
Ramayana Shiva
Shiva purana
purana
Mahabharatha vishnu purana
Upanishads Mahabharatha Vishnu purana
Sutras
Dharmasutra
Manusmriti
Naradasmriti
National Motto Classification of Vedic Age

“Satyameva Jayate” “(Truth
alone triumphs)” is taken from Two phases of Vedic Age
Mundaka Upanishad.
Archaeological Sources Early (Rig) Vedic Later Vedic

Period Period
Material remains such as iron implements 1500 – 1000 BC 1000 – c.600 BC
and pottery from the archaeological sites (BCE) (BCE)
in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan

along the Indus and the Ganges.
99

www.tntextbooks.in
Vedic Culture Many Janas or Tribes were

amalgamated to form Janapadas or Rashtras
Polity and Society
in later Vedic period. The importance of
The Rig Vedic polity was kinship - based. Samithi and Sabha diminished and the
Kula (clan) was the basic unit of the polity. Vidhata completely disappeared. New states
It was under a head called Kulapati. Several emerged. Bali was a voluntary contribution
families joined together to form a Grama of the people to the King. In the later Vedic
(village). Grama was headed by Gramani. period bali was treated as tax and collected
A group of villages was called Vis (clan) regularly. The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms
and was headed by Vishayapati. Rajan flourished and large cities like Ayodhya,
was the head of the Jana (tribe) and he Indraprastha and Mathura also emerged
was addressed as Janasyagopa (guardian during this period.
of the people). There were several tribal
kingdoms (Rashtras) during Rig Vedic
Bali - a tax consisting of 1/6 of the
period (Bharatas, Matsyas, Puras). agricultural produce or cattle for a person.
King
The main responsibility of the Rajan was to Social Organization

protect his tribe. His powers were limited by
The Vedic family was patriarchal. The
tribal assemblies namely Vidhata, Sabha,
fair complexioned Aryans distinguished
Samiti and Gana. Of these Vidhata, (the
themselves from dark complexioned
tribal assembly) was the oldest.
non-Aryans whom they called Dasyus
and Dasas. Within the early Vedic
Sabha - a council of elders. Society there were three divisions
Samiti - assembly of people. (Treyi) ; the general public were
called Vis, the warrior class was called
The king appointed a purohit (chief priest) Kshatriyas and the Priestly class was
to assist him. In economic, political and named Brahmanas. At a later stage,
military matters, the king was assisted by when the Aryans had to accommodate
the Senani (army chief). Gramani was non-Aryan skilled workers in their social
the leader of the village. arrangement, a rigid four-fold Varna
system was developed, i.e., the priestly
When the Aryans moved east
Brahmanas, the warrior Kshatriyas,
ward- into Ganges-Yamuna-Doab regions,
the land owning Vysyas and the skilled
the early settlements were replaced by
workers sudras. Thus a graded social
territorial kingdoms. Hereditary kingship
order emerged.
began to emerge. In the monarchical form
of government, the power of the king Although the Vedic Age is evidenced
increased and he performed various rituals by good number of texts, it does not have
and sacrifices to make his position strong. adequate amount of material evidences.
100

www.tntextbooks.in
Status of women
In Rig Vedic society, women relatively

enjoyed some freedom. The wife was
respected as the mistress of the household.
She could perform rituals along with her
husband in their house. Child marriage and
sati were unknown. There was no bar on
the remarriage of widows. Nevertheless,
the women were denied right to inherit In the later Vedic period the Aryans tamed
property from their parents. They played elephants, apart from cow, goat, sheep
no role in public affairs. and horse. In addition to craftsmen of early
In the later Vedic period the role Vedic period there were also jewellers,
of women in society, as well as their dyers and smelters. Pottery of this period
status, even within the family, declined. was Painted Grey Ware Culture.
Women could no longer perform rituals in Use of iron plough and axe helped
the family. The rules of marriage became to put more areas of land under cultivation.
much more complex and rigid. Polygamy Crops of wheat, rice and barley were
became common. Widow remarriage was cultivated. With the growth of agriculture,
not encouraged. Education was denied to the idea of private possession of land came
women. Intercaste marriages were spurned. into existence. New crafts and arts developed
leading to surplus production of commodities
Economic Life for sale.
Economy in the Vedic period was sustained Trade became extensive. Barter
by a combination of pastoralism and system was prevalent (exchange of
agriculture. Though occupation of Rig goods). They used Nishka, Satmana
Vedic Aryans was cattle rearing, there were (gold coins) and Krishnala (silver coins)
carpenters, chariot makers, potters, smiths, for business transactions.
weavers, and leather workers. Ochre
Metals Known to Rig Vedic
Coloured Pottery (OCP) was attributed to People
this period. Horses, cows, goats, sheep, • Gold (Hiranya)
oxen and dogs were domesticated. • Iron (Shyama)
• Copper/ Bronze (Ayas)
When Aryans permanently settled in
Sindh and the Punjab regions they began
to practise agriculture. The staple crop Religion
was yava (barley). There is no mention of Rig Vedic Aryans worshipped mostly the
wheat or cotton in the Rig-Veda, though earthly and celestial gods like Prithvi
both were cultivated by the Indus people. (Earth), Agni (fire), Vayu (wind), Varuna
Two crops a year were raised. (rain), Indra (Thunder). There were also
101

www.tntextbooks.in
lesser female deities like Aditi (goddess of rote learning, and were required to
eternity) and Usha (appearance of dawn). memorise everything.
Their religion was Yajna centered. The mode
of prayer was recitation of Vedic hymns.
People prayed for the welfare of Praja
(children) Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth).
Cow was considered a sacred animal.
There were no temples. Idol worship had not
yet come into existence.
Lateron priesthood became a
profession and a hereditary one. New gods
were perhaps adopted from non-Aryans. Indra
The subjects of the study included
and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi (the
the four Vedas, Ithihasas, Puranas,
creator) Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra
grammar, logic, ethics, astrology,
(the destroyer) became prominent. Sacrifices
maths and military science.
and rituals became more elaborate.
The students were also trained to
lead a disciplined life.
Education
Only Dvijas could be Shishyas. No
Gurukula System of Education
women could have formal education.
The gurukula system is an ancient
learning method. Age – based Ashramas
The word Gurukula is a combination Towards the end of the later Vedic period,
of the Sanskrit Word Guru (teacher or the concept of four stages in life (the four
master) and Kula (family or home). ashramas) developed.
The shishyas resided with their guru Brahmacharya (Student Life)
and served them and simultaneously Grihastha (Married Life)
learnt and gained knowledge. Vanaprastha (Going to the forest to
The students received education meditate)
through oral tradition meaning Sanyasa (Leading a life of an ascetic
so as to attain Swarga)
State the Differences between Indus and Vedic Civilisation
102

www.tntextbooks.in
CONTEMPORARY CULTURE IN SOUTH INDIA AND TAMIL NADU

The early Vedic culture in northern India coincided with Chalcolithic cultures that prevailed in
other parts of the sub-continent. Since, people used copper (chalco) and stone (lithic), it was
called Chalcolithic period.
Though Chalcolithic culture of India was contemporary to the mature phase of
Harappan culture, they continued to exist even after the decline of the latter.
The later Vedic culture in north India and the Iron Age in south India belong to
the same period.
Towards the end of Iron Age, people stepped into what is known as Megalithic Culture
(600 BC (BCE) and AD (CE) 100).
Megalithic Period in ancient Tamilakam synchronised with the pre Sangam period.
The Black and Red Ware Pottery became the characteristic of the Megalithic period.
MEGALITHIC / IRON AGE IN (Red Ware, Black

TAMILNADU Ware), iron implements,
daggers, swords, spears
The term ‘Megalith’ is derived from and arrows, some stone
Greek. ‘Megas’, means great and
beads and a few gold
‘lithos’ means stone. Using big stone
ornaments.
slabs built upon the places of burial is known
as Megalith. Bronze objects representing
domestic animals and wild animals like
Some of the Megalithic / Iron tiger, antelope and elephant have been
Age Archaeological Sites in unearthed.
Tamil Nadu
The people were skilful in making
Adichanallur - Thoothukudi
pottery and in working stone and wood.
District
Among the artefacts unearthed
were Urns, pottery of various kinds
103

www.tntextbooks.in
Keezhadi – Sivagangai District

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) excavated an ancient town dating to Sangam Age
in Keezhadi village at Thiruppuvanam taluk. Excavations have produced evidence for brick
buildings, and well laid – out drainage system. Tamil – Brahmi inscription on pottery, beads of
glass, carnelian and quartz, pearl, gold ornaments and iron objects, shell bangles, ivory dice
have been unearthed. In 2017, ASI sent two samples of these for Radio carbon dating to Beta
Analytic, Florida, USA. They dated samples as 200 BC (BCE). The Roman artefacts found at the
site add to the evidence of ancient Indo -Roman trade relations.
Periplus mentions the steel imported to Rome from Peninsular India was subjected to
duty in the port of Alexandria.
Porunthal – Dindigul District

Finds – Grave goods, glass beads (in red, white, yellow, blue and green), iron swords,
pottery with Tamil Brahmi scripts, pots filled with rice, semi-precious metals such as
quartz, carnelian, bangles made of glass and shell.
The discovery of
iron sickle, pike, and
tip of ploughs provide
evidences that they
had the practice of
rice cultivation in Tamil
Nadu. A pot of rice from
Porunthal site proves
that rice was people’s
staple food.
Finds at Porunthal
104

www.tntextbooks.in
Paiyampalli – Vellore District

Archaeological Finds –Iron artefacts, along with Megalithic Black and Red Ware
Pottery have been found.
Evidence for iron smelting has come to light at Paiyampalli. The date of this
culture, based on radio carbon dating, is 1000 BC (BCE).
Kodumanal – Erode
District
It is identified with the Kodumanam
of Pathitrupathu. More than 300
pottery inscriptions in Tamil –
Brahmi have been discovered
there. Archaeologists have also
discovered spindles, whorls (used
for making thread from cotton)
and pieces of cloth, along with
tools, weapons, ornaments, beads,
particularly carnelian.
A Menhir found at burial site is assigned to the Megalithic period.
Megalithic Monuments in Tamil Nadu

The people who lived during the last stages of the New Stone
Age began to follow the Megalithic system of burial. According
to this system, the dead body was placed in a big pot along
with burial goods. The Megalithic monuments bear witness to a
highly advanced state of civilisation with the knowledge of iron
and community living. Urns - large pottery
jars were used for
Dolmens are Megalithic burying the dead.
tombs made of two or
more upright stones with a single stone lying
across the burial site. Megalithic Dolmens have
been found in Veeraraghavapuram village,
Kanchipuram district, Kummalamaruthupatti,
Dindigul district, and in Narasingampatti,
Pandavan Thittu, Dharmapuri Madurai district.
105

www.tntextbooks.in
Menhir–In Breton Language 'Men' means “stone” and 'hir',

“long.” They are monolithic pillars planted vertically into the
ground in memory of the dead.
Menhir at Singaripalayam in Tirupur District and at
Vembur in Theni District points to the existence of an ancient
settlement along the banks of River Uppar. Menhirs are found
at Narasingampatti, Madurai district, Kumarikalpalayam and
Kodumanal in Erode district.
Hero Stones – A Hero Stone is a memorial stone

raised in remembrance of the honourable death
of a hero in a battle or those who lost their lives
while defending their village from animals or
enemies. Hero stones are found at Maanur village
near Palani, Dindigul district, Vellalankottai,
Pulimankombai 3rd Century BC (BCE) Tuticorin district, and Pulimankombai, Dindigul
district.
Summary Use of iron plough and axe helped

more areas of land under cultivation.
The Aryans migrated to India around
New crafts and arts developed. It
1500 BC (BCE). The Vedic texts form
paved the way for urbanisation in the
an important source of this period.
Gangetic plain.
Rig Vedic polity was kinship-based.
The later Vedic society in North India
When the Aryans moved east ward,
and the Iron Age society in South
the early settlements were replaced
India belong to the same period.
by their territorial kingdoms.
GLOSSARY
Eternal - existing for ever (நிலையான)

Kinship - blood relationship (இரத்த உறவு)
Patriarchal - a system of society controlled by men (தந்தை வழிச் சமூகம்)
Deity - a god or goddess (தெய்வம்)
Contemporary - living or occurring at the same time (சமகாலத்தில்)
Metallurgy - the branch of science and technology concerned
with the properties of metals and their production (உல�ோகவியல்)
106

www.tntextbooks.in
EXERCISES
I. Choose the Correct answer
1. Aryans first settled in ________________ region.

a. Punjab b. Middle Gangetic
c. Kashmir d. North east
2. Aryans came from____________.

a. China b. North Asia
c. Central Asia d. Europe
3. Our National Motto “Sathyameva Jayate” is taken from __________.

a) Brahmana b) Veda
c) Aranyaka d) Upanishad
4. What was the ratio of land revenue collected during Vedic Age
a. 1/3 b. 1/6
c. 1/8 d. 1/9
II. Match the Statement with the Reason/Tick the appropriate answer:
1. Assertion : The vedic age is evidenced by good number of texts and adequate
amount of material evidences.
Reason: Shrutis comprise the Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the
Upanishads.
a. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c. A is true but R is false.
d. A is false but R is true.
2. Statement I: Periplus mentions the steel imported into Rome from peninsular
India was subjected to duty in the port of Alexandria.
Statement II: Evidences for iron smelting has come to light at Paiyampalli.
a. Statement I is wrong. b. Statement II is wrong.
c. Both the statements are correct. d. Both the statements are wrong.
3. Which of the statement is not correct in the Vedic society

a. A widow could re-marry.
b. Child marriage was in practice.
c. Father’s property was inherited by his son.
d. Sati was unknown.
107

www.tntextbooks.in
4. Which is the correct ascending order of the Rig Vedic society?

a. Grama ˂ Kula ˂ Vis ˂ Rashtra ˂ Jana
b. Kula ˂ Grama ˂ Vis ˂ Jana ˂ Rashtra
c. Rashtra ˂ Jana ˂ Grama ˂ Kula ˂ Vis
d. Jana ˂ Grama ˂ Kula ˂ Vis ˂ Rashtra
III. Fill in the blanks
1. Vedic culture was ____________ in nature.
2. ____________ was a tax collected from the people in Vedic period.
3. ____________ system is an ancient learning method.
4. Adhichanallur is in ___________________district.
IV. True or False
1. The Roman artefacts found at various sites provide the evidence of Indo – Roman
trade relations.
2. A Hero Stone is a memorial stone raised in remembrance of the honourable death
of a hero.
3. The army chief was called Gramani.
4. The Black and Red ware pottery became the characteristic of the Megalithic
period.
5. Evidence for iron smelting has come to light at paiyampalli
V. Match the following

Site Finds
a) Keezhadi 1) Ivory dice

b) Porunthal 2) tip of ploughs
c) Kodumanal 3) Spindles
d) Adichanallur 4) gold ornaments
a. 4 3 2 1
b. 3 4 1 2
c. 1 3 4 2
d. 1 2 3 4
108

www.tntextbooks.in
VI Answer in one or two sentence:

1. Name the four Vedas.
2. What were the animals domesticated by Vedic people?
3. What do you know about Megalith?
4. What are Dolmens?
5. What are Urns?
6. Name the coins used for business transactions in Vedic period?
7. Name some Megalithic monuments found in Tamil Nadu.
VII Answer the following
1. Write briefly about the archaeological site at Kodumanal
2. Write about the Vedic women in a pragraph.
VIII HOTS
Difference between Gurukula system of education and Modern system of education.
IX Pride and Joy – Let us find out the fact
Archaeological Sites Archaeological Finds Fact
Adichanallur The Tamil Brahmi script Existence of Pre-historic culture
Keeladi Roman artefacts
Paiyampalli Iron implements
Porunthal Pot filled with rice
Kodumanal Spindle whorl
X Student Activity
1. Sentence making by using these new words.
Shruti, Gramani, Rashtras, Iron Age, Semi nomadic, Barter
109

www.tntextbooks.in
2. Word Search
1. A pass
I T I M A S A Z W
2. Text containing teachings on
U D Y T R R D I X religion
3. A group of villages
O O K H Y B E R S
4. A tribal assembly
S L P F A A V O A
5. Assembly of people
P M S I V D N N T
6. Fire
A E R C A A R A M
7. Gold coin
D N S I R U R G A
8. Period of Vedic Age
D S X M T N B E N 9. Megalithic tomb
Y G A N A I N G A
XI Life Skills
Collect information from Newspapers about archaeological finds with the help of your
teacher.
Site Visit
Visit to any one of the archaeological sites near your locality.
XII Answer Grid:
Mention two Ithikasas. Vertical monolithic pillar Name the ancient town in
planted in memory of dead is Sivagangai district dating to
called _________________ Sangam age.
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Name any two Iron Age What method of agriculture Name two large cities
sites in Tamilnadu. was practised by early Aryans? emerged during Vedic
period.
Ans:
Ans: Ans:
110

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit 2
Great Thinkers and
New Faiths
Learning Objectives
• To learn the causes for the rise of new faiths in the sixth century
BC (BCE).
• To have knowledge in the teachings of Mahavira and Buddha.
• To know the similarities and dissimilarities between Jainism and Buddhism.
• To understand the differences between Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.
• To know the influence of Jainism and Buddhism in Tamil Nadu.
Intellectual Awakening The complex rituals and sacrifices

The Sixth Century BC (BCE) is regarded advocated in the later Vedic period
as an important period in the history of Expensive sacrificial ceremonies
ancient India. As a land mark period in
Superstitious beliefs and practices
the intellectual and spiritual development
that confused the common man.
in India, historian Will Durant has rightly
Upanishads taught as alternative to
called it the “shower of stars”.
sacrificial rites were too philosophical,
Sources which a layperson could not understand.
Literary sources Slavery, caste system, gender
Angas – Jain texts discrimination also contributed to the
new awakening.
Tripitakas and Jatakas - Buddhist
texts
Origin of Jainism
Causes for the Rise of Intellectual
Awakening and the Birth of Jainism is one of the world’s oldest living
Buddhism and Jainism religions. Jainism grounds itself in 24
There were several reasons for the rise of Tirthankaras. A ‘Tirthankara’, is the one who
new intellectual awakening. Some of the revealed religious truth at different times.
exploitative practices that paved way for The first Tirthankara was Rishabha and
new faiths include: the last one was Mahavira. Jainism gained
111

www.tntextbooks.in
Thereafter, he became Jina

meaning ‘one who conquered worldly
pleasure and attachment’. His followers
are called Jains. Mahavira reviewed the
ancient Sramanic traditions and came
up with new doctrines. Therefore he is
believed to be the real founder of Jainism.
Unique Teachings of Jainism

Jainism denies God as the creator of
Universe.
Original name - Vardhamana Basic philosophy of Jainism is Ahimsa

or ‘non –Violence’.
Place of Birth - Kundhagrama near
Vaishali, Bihar Ultimate aim of Jainism is attaining
Parents - Siddharth, Trishala moksha or ending the cycle of birth –
death – rebirth.
Place of Death - Pavapuri, Bihar
Jains reject the belief in Last judgement,
where God, a supreme being, decides
who goes to heaven or hell.
prominence under the aegis of Mahavira,
Jainism advocates that the goodness
during the sixth century BC (BCE).
or quality of one’s life is determined
The word Jain derives from the by one’s karma.
Sanskrit word Jina, which means
conquering self and the external What is Karma?
world. The belief that a person’s actions in
this life determine the quality of his or
her later part of the current life and
Mahavira (The Great Hero)
the next incarnation.
Vardhamana, meaning ‘prosperous’, was
a kshatriya prince. However, at the age
Tri–rathnas or Three Jewels
of 30, he renounced his princely status
to adopt an ascetic life. He undertook Mahavira exhorted the three – fold path
intense meditation. for the attainment of moksha and for the
liberation from Karma.
After twelve and a half years of
rigorous penance, Vardhamana attained They are:
omniscience or supreme knowledge, Right Faith
known as Kevala. Right Knowledge
Right action
Omniscience – It is the ability to know
Moksha - Liberation from the cycle of
everything or be infinitely wise.
birth and death
112

www.tntextbooks.in
Jain Code of Conduct Svetambaras

The Svetambaras are considered
Mahavira asked his followers to live a
progressive.
virtuous life. In order to live a life filled
with sound morals, he preached five Monks of Svetambaras sect, wear
major principles to follow. white robes. They are permitted to
have Rajoharana (broom with wollen
They are:
threads), begging bowl and book.
Ahimsa - not to injure any living Svetambaras believe that women are
beings equally capable of achieving liberation
Satya - to speak truth as men.
Asteya - not to steal
Reasons for the Spread of
Aparigraha - not to own property
Jainism
Brahmacharya - Celibacy
The following are the main reasons for
Gautama Swami, a chief disciple of the wide acceptance of Jainism in India
Mahavira, compiled the teachings of Use of people’s language.
Mahavira, called Agama sidhantha.
Intelligible teachings.
Support from rulers and traders.
Digambaras and Svetambaras Perseverance of Jain monks.
Jainism split into two sects.

Influence of Jainism (Samanam)
Digambaras in Tamil Nadu
Digambaras are orthodox and In ancient Tamil literature, Jainism is
conservative followers. referred to as Samanam.
Monks of the digambara sect, do not
There is a Samanar Hill or Samanar Malai
wear any clothing and live naked.
in Keelakuyilkudi village, 15 km away from
They are forbidden to have any kind
Madurai. The images of Tirthankaras
of possessions.
created by Jain monks are found in
Digambaras believe that women cannot the hill. It is a protected monument of
achieve nirvana or liberation directly. Archaeological Survey of India.
In Arittapatti, a small village 25
km from Madurai, on one side of
Kalinjamalai hill there are Jain caves
called Pandavar Padukkai. Pandavar
Padukkai is the bed of Jain saints.
There is a reference to Aravor Palli,
place of living for Jain monks, in
Manimegalai.
113

www.tntextbooks.in
Thiruparthikundram Sittannavasal Chitharalmalai temple
According to Silapathikaram, when

Kovalan and Kannagi were on their
way to Madurai, Gownthiyadigal a
female jain monk blessed the couple
and accompanied them.
Puhar, Uraiyur, Madurai, Vanchi
(Karuvur), Kanchi all had Jain
monasteries.
Jina Kanchi – Thiruparthikundram,
a village in Kanchipuram, has two
ancient Jain temples. This village was
once called Jina Kanchi.
Buddhism
Gautama Buddha
Original name - Siddhartha
Gautama B uddha
Place of Birth - Lumbini Garden,
was the founder of Nepal
Buddhism. His real name
Parents - Suddhodana,
was Siddhartha. Like Maya devi
Mahavira, he was also a Kshatriya prince Place of Death - Kushi Nagar, UP
belonging to the ruling Sakya clan. When
Siddhartha was only seven days old his
mother died. So he was raised by his step An uncared old man in rags with his
mother Gautami. bent back.
An sick man suffering from an
incurable disease.
Four Great Sights
A man’s corpse being carried to the
At the age of 29, Siddhartha saw four burial ground by weeping relatives.
sorrowful sights. They were: An ascetic
114

www.tntextbooks.in
Buddha’s Four Noble Truths
Life is full of sorrow and misery.

Desire is the cause of misery.
Sorrows and sufferings can be
removed by giving up one’s desire.
The desire can be overcome by
following the right path (Noble eight-
fold path)
Enlightenment
Buddha, the Awakened or Enlightened Eight Fold Path

One, realised that the human life was full of Right view
misery and unhappiness. So at the age of Right Thought
29 he left his palace and became a hermit. Right Speech
He sacrificed six years of his life towards
Right Action
penance. Nonetheless deciding that self-
Right Livelihood
mortification was not a path to salvation,
Buddha sat under a Pipal tree and undertook Right Effort
a deep meditation near Gaya. Right Knowledge
Right Meditation
The teachings of Lord Buddha were simple

and taught in a language which people used
for communication. Since the teachings
addressed the everyday concern of the
people, they could relate to them. He was
opposed to rituals and sacrifices.
Teachings of Buddha
Buddha's teachings are referred to as
dhamma.
On the 49th day he finally attained Buddhism accepted the Theory of
enlightenment. From that moment Karma – meaning that the quality of
onwards, he was called Buddha or the man’s life depends on his deed.
Enlightened One. He was also known as
Buddha neither accepted nor denied
Sakya Muni or Sage of Sakya clan.
the existence of God, but believed in
Buddha delivered his first sermon at the laws of universe.
Deer Park in Sarnath, near Benaras. This Buddha asserted that attaining
was called “Dharma Chakra Pravartana” nirvana is the ultimate aim of life.
or the Turning of the Wheel of Law.
115

www.tntextbooks.in
Buddha advocated ahimsa or non- Causes for the Spread of

violence. Buddhism
Buddha had rejected the caste Simplicity of the teachings of Buddha
system. in local language appealed to people.
The Wheel of life – represents Buddhism rejected elaborate religious
the Buddhist view of the world. customs whereas the practice of
orthodox Vedic religion insisted on
Buddhist Sangha
expensive rituals and sacrifices.
Buddha laid foundation for a missionary Buddha’s emphasis was on observance
organization called Sangha, meaning of Dhamma.
‘association’ for the propagation of his Buddhist Sanghas played an important
faith. The members were called bhikshus role in spreading the messages of
(monks). They led a life of austerity. Buddha.
Royal patronage under Ashoka,
Chaitya – A Buddhist shrine or a Kanishka and Harsha also helped the
meditation hall.
causes of Buddhism.
Viharas – Monastries / living
Viharas or the Buddhist monasteries
quarters for monks.
became great centres of education.
Stupas –
Built over the remains
of Buddha’s body, they One such centre was Nalanda, where
are monuments of great Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim,
artistic value. studied for many years.
Buddhist Sects
Hinayana Mahayana Frescoes (paintings)
Did not worship Worshiped images Frescoes on the ceilings and walls
idols or images of of Buddha. of the Ajanta caves in Aurangabad,
Buddha. Maharashtra – depict the Jataka
Tales.
Practiced Observed
austerity. elaborate rituals
Believed that Believed that

Salvation of the salvation of all
individual as its beings as its
goal. objective
Used Prakrit Used Sanskrit

language. language
Hinayana is Spread to Central

also known Asia, Tibet, China
as Theravada. and Japan where
Spread to middle path was
Sri Lanka, accepted.
Middle path – It refers to neither indulging
Myanmar (Burma)
in extreme attachment to worldly pleasure
and South East
nor committing severe penance.
Asian Countries.
116

www.tntextbooks.in
Jainism and Buddhism- Similarities and Dissimilarities

Dissimilarities
Similarities
JAINISM BUDDHISM
Both Mahavira and Buddha hailed from royal

It followed
It followed

families. Yet they renounced royal privileges extreme path. middle path.
and chose to adopt an ascetic life.
Denied the authority of Vedas.
It remained in
It spread across

India only. many parts of
Taught in the language of the common

the world.
people.
Admitted disciples from all the castes and
It does not
It emphasises

from both the genders believe in the on ANATMA (no
existence of god, eternal soul)
Opposed blood sacrifices.

but believes life and ANITYA
Believed in the doctrine of Karma.
in every living (impernance).
Emphasized on right conduct and right
being.
knowledge instead of performing religious
ceremonials and rituals as the means to
achieve salvation.
There is an elaborate description

Buddhist Councils
about Kanchipuram in classical epic
First – Rajagriha
Manimegalai.
Second – Vaishali
Third – Pataliputra Kanchipuram was a famous Buddhist
Fourth – Kashmir Centre, from where Dinnaga, the
famous Buddhist logician, and
Dharmapala, a great scholar of
Influence of Buddhism in Tamilnadu
Nalanda University hailed.
Buddhism spread to Tamil Nadu much
Hieun Tsang who visited Kanchipuram
later than Jainism.
in the seventh century A.D(CE).
Manimekalai, one of the epics of
noticed the presence of 100 feet
the post-Sangam age is a Buddhist
stupa built by Ashoka there.
literature.
Buddha statue at Nagapattinam Buddha statue found at pallur near Kanchipuram
117

www.tntextbooks.in
Jataka Story
The Jatakas are popular stories about the previous birth and life of Buddha, as human
and as an animal. They teach morals.
The Woodpecker and the Lion (A Jataka Story)

Once upon a time, there lived a woodpecker and a
lion. One day, the lion hunted a big bison and sat down
to eat it. It so happened that while having his meal, a big
bone got stuck in the lion’s throat. He was not able to
remove it and was in great pain.
A kind hearted woodpecker offered to help the lion. The

woodpecker, however, told the lion that he would only
take out the bone if the lion promised not to eat him while
removing the bone. The lion gladly agreed and opened his
mouth in front of the woodpecker. The woodpecker hopped
inside the lion’s mouth, and
easily pulled out the bone. The lion kept his promise and
let the woodpecker fly away.
Soon the lion recovered completely and killed another

bison. The woodpecker also thought of joining the
lion and asked for a small share of meat. To her utter
disappointment the lion blatantly refused to share his
meal with her. The Lion said, “How dare you ask me for
more favours? I have already done so much for you!”
The woodpecker did not understand what the lion was

talking about. The lion
then clarified, “You should
be thankful to me that I did not devour you when you were
taking out the bone from my throat. Now do not expect
anything else from me and go away.” The woodpecker
said to himself, “It was indeed a mistake to help such an
ungrateful creature!” Nevertheless, it is not worth being angry or holding grudge against
someone as unworthy as him.
118

www.tntextbooks.in
Elsewhere in the world 6th Century BC (BCE)

Confucius (Kung Fu Tse) Zoroaster
Confucianism in China Zoroastrianism in Persia
Summary Gautama Buddha was the founder of

Buddhism.
The Sixth century BC (BCE) was an
Buddha’s teachings are referred to as
important period of the intellectual
dhamma.
and spiritual development in India.
Buddhism crossed the frontiers of
Jainism was a doctrine developed by
Indian sub-continent but Jainism was
24 Tirthankaras.
confined to India.
Mahavira exhorted the three-fold
Basic philosophy of Jainism and
path – Right faith, Right knowledge,
Buddhism is ahimsa or non-violence
Right action.
GLOSSARY
Superstitious beliefs - belief in things that are not real or possible (மூடநம்பிக்கைகள்)
Preceptor - a teacher or instructor (ஆசான்)
Doctrine - set of principles or beliefs (க�ோட்பாடு)
Virtuous - having high moral standards (நல்லொழுக்கம்)
Sacred book - holy book (புனித நூல்)
Frescoes - a painting done in water colour on wet plaster (ஈரமான சுவற்றில்

வண்ணக் கலவை க�ொண்டு வரையப்பட்ட ஓவியங்கள்)
Corpse - a dead body (சடலம்)
Nirvana - A state of freedom from suffering and rebirth (துன்பம் மற்றும்

பிறப்பிலிருந்து விடுதலை / நிர்வாண நிலை)
119

www.tntextbooks.in
EXERCISES
I Choose the correct answer:
1. What is the name of the Buddhist scripture?
a) Angas b) Tripitakas c) Tirukkural d) Naladiyar
2. Who was the first Tirthankara of Jainism?

a) Rishabha b) Parsava c) Vardhamana d) Buddha
3. How many Tirthankaras were there in Jainism?

a) 23 b) 24 c) 25 d) 26
4. Where was the third Buddhist Council convened?

a. Rajagriha b. Vaishali c. Pataliputra d. Kashmir
5. Where did Buddha deliver his first sermon?

a) Lumbini b) Saranath c) Taxila d) Bodh Gaya
II Match the Statement with the Reason. Tick the appropriate answer:
1. Statement: A common man could not understand upanishads.
Reason: Upanishads were highly philosophical.

a. Statement and its Reason are correct.
b. Statement is wrong.
c. Statement is true, but the Reason for that is wrong.
d. Both Statement and Reason are wrong.
2. Statement: The Jatakas are popular tales.

Reason: Frescoes on the ceilings and walls of Ajanta caves depict the Jataka Tales.
a. Statement and its Reason are correct.
b. Statement is wrong.
c. Statement is true, but the Reason for that is wrong.
d. Both statement and Reason are wrong.
3. Find out the correct answer:

Buddha Viharas are used for
1. Education
2. stay of Buddhist monks
3. Pilgrims’ stay
4. Prayer hall
a. 2 is correct
b. 1 and 3 are correct
c. 1, 2, 4 are correct
d. 1 and 4 are correct
4. Consider the following statements regarding the causes of the origin of Jainism
and Buddhism.
120

www.tntextbooks.in
I. Sacrificial ceremonies were expensive.

II. Supertitious beliefs and practices confused the common man.
Which of the above statement (s) is/are correct?

a. Only I
b. Only II
c. Both I & II
d. Neither I nor II
5. Which of the following about Jainism is correct?

a. Jainism denies God as the creator of universe.
b. Jainism accepts God as the creator of universe.
c. The basic philosophy of Jainism is idol worship.
d. Jains accept the belief in Last Judgement.
6. Circle the odd one:

Parsava, Mahavira, Buddha, Rishaba
7. Find out the wrong pair:

a. Ahimsa - not to injure
b. Satya - to speak truth
c. Asteya - not to steal
d. Brahmacharya - married status
8. All the following statements are true of Siddhartha Gautama except:

a. He is the founder of Hinduism.
b. He was born in Nepal.
c. He attained Nirvana.
d. He was known as Sakyamuni.
III Fill in the blanks:

1. The doctrine of Mahavira is called _____________.
2. _____________ is a state of freedom from suffering and rebirth.
3. _____________ was the founder of Buddhism.
4. Thiruparthikundram, a village in Kanchipuram was once called_________..
5. _____________ were built over the remains of Buddha’s body.
IV True or False:
1. Buddha believed in Karma.
2. Buddha had faith in caste system.
3. Gautama Swami compiled the teachings of Mahavira.
4. Viharas are temples.
5. Emperor Ashoka followed Buddhism.
121

www.tntextbooks.in
V Match the following:

1. Angas - Vardhamana
2. Mahavira - monks
3. Buddha - Buddhist shrine
4. Chaitya - Sakya muni
5. Bhikshus - Jain text
VI Answer in one or two sentences:

1. What are the Tri-ratnas (three jewels) of Jainism?
2. What are the two sects of Buddhism?
3. What does Jina mean?
4. Write any two common features of Buddhism and Jainism.
5. Write a note on Buddhist Sangha.
6. Name the Chinese traveler who visited Kancheepuram in seventh century AD(CE).
7. Name the female jain monk mentioned in Silapathikaram.
VII Answer the following:
1. Name the eight-fold path of Buddhism?

2. What are the five important rules of conduct in Jainism?
3. Narrate four noble truths of Buddha?
4. Write any three differences between Hinayana and Mahayana sects of Buddhism?
5. Jainism and Buddhism flourished in Sangam period. Give any two evidences for
each.
VIII HOTS:
1. Karma – a person’s action. Name any 10 good actions (deeds).
IX Student Activity
1. Read any one story from Jatakas and write a similar story on your own.
2. Make a tabular column in the following headings.
Name of the Name

founder with of their Key Principle
Religion picture parents (any one) Sects Symbol
122

www.tntextbooks.in
3. Place the following words in the appropriate column.

Words: Jina, Mahayana, Tirthankaras, Stupas Nirvana, Digambara, Tripitakas, Agama
Jainism Buddhism
4. Task cards activity:

Make informative cards for the following religions. Hinduism, Christianity, Islam,
Buddhism, Jainism
5.
M ake a Venn diagram to indicate similarities and
dis-similarities of Jainism and Buddhism.
6. Solve the puzzle
1 9 10
3 11
8
4
Left to right Right to left
1. One of the Tri Rathna: Right 6. Mother of Siddhartha
2. Buddha’s teachings are referred as 7. T

he Quality of man’s life depends on his
deed
3. A great centre of education
Top to bottom
4. T
he place where Buddha attained
enlightment 8. Lumbini is in
5. Not to injure any living being 9. Buddhist prayer hall

10. A state of freedom from birth
11. J ain scripture compiled by Gautama
Swami.
123

www.tntextbooks.in
X. Life Skills
Create a story board for Jainism/Buddhism in a chart
Model.
Early life Four Noble Truths Eight - Fold Path
Teachings of Buddha Buddhist Sangha Buddhist Sects
XII Answer Grid
The Jain monks who wear What is the meaning of Who is the 24th Tirthankara
white clothes are called Buddha? of Jainism?
Ans: _________________ Ans: Ans:
Who delivered Dharmachakra How many noble truths are Which religion’s teachings
Pravartana? there in Buddhism? include four noble truth and
eight-fold path?
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Name the earliest Buddhist Name any four places where Name one of the twin
literature which deals with Jain monasteries were located Indian's Epics
the stories of various births of in Tamil Nadu.
Buddha?
Ans:
Ans: Ans:
124

www.tntextbooks.in
ICT CORNER
Virtual Tour of Sittanavasal
Through this activity you will be

able to see Virtual Tour about Cave
Paintings in Tamil Nadu
Step-1: Open the Browser and type the URL or scan QR code which is given below.
Step-2: You can see Virtual Tour website. Click to allow “Adobe Flash Player”
on the screen.
Step-3: Open “slide view” in menu bar and acces s control button
Step-4: Click “Red Arrow Button” you can see cave paintings
Step-1 Step-2
Step-3 Step-4
URL:
http://view360.in/virtualtour/sithannavasal/
*Picturesare
*Pictures areindicatives
indicativesonly.
only.
125

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit 3
From Chiefdoms to
Empires
Learning Objectives
• To know the factors responsible for the rise of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas.
• To understand the evolution of Indian polity from Chiefdoms to Kingdoms.
• To recall the greatness of Mauryan Empire.
• To learn the main features of the administration and the nature of the society
& economy during that time.
• To gain the knowledge on Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma.
• To examine the causes for the decline of Mauryan Empire.
Importance of Sixth Century productivity. In addition, iron facilitated craft

BC (BCE) production. Agrarian surplus and increase
in craft products resulted in the emergence
During the sixth Century BC (BCE) many
of trading and exchange centres. This in
territorial states emerged. This Led to the
turn paved the way for the rise of towns
transformation of socio – economic and
and cities. Thus, knowledge in the use
political life of the people in the Gangetic
of iron gave Magadha an advantage over
plains. A new intellectual awakening began
other Mahajanapadas. Thus the Magadha
to develop in northern India. Mahavira and
could establish an empire of its own.
Gautama Buddha represented this new
awakening.
Gana - sanghas and Kingdoms
Role of iron in a changing society There were two kinds of government in north
India during the sixth century BC (BCE)
Iron played a significant role in this
transformation of society. The fertile soil Gana - sanghas – non monarchical
of the Gangetic Valley and the use of states.
iron ploughshares improved agricultural Kingdoms - monarchies
126

www.tntextbooks.in
The term ‘gana’ means ‘people of equal A ‘kingdom’ means a territory ruled by a
status’. ‘Sangha’ means ‘assembly’. The king or queen. In a kingdom (monarchy),
gana - sanghas covered a small geographical a family, which rules for a long period
area ruled by an elite group. The gana becomes a dynasty. Usually these kingdoms
sanghas practiced egalitarian traditions. adhered to orthodox Vedic traditions.
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas Among the four Mahajanapadas,

Magadha emerged as an empire.
Janapadas were the earliest gathering
places of men. Later, Janapadas became
The Causes for the Rise of Magadha
republics or smaller kingdoms. The wide-
Magadha was located on the lower
spread use of iron in Gangetic plain
part of the Gangetic plain. The plain
created conditions for the formation of
was fertile which ensured the rich
larger territorial units transforming the
agricultural yield. This provided regular
janapadas into Mahajanapadas.
and substantial income to the state.
The thick forests supplied timber
Sixteen Mahajanapadas
for construction of buildings and
(“Great Countries”)
elephants for army.
Sixteen Mahajanapadas dotted the Indo-
Abundance of natural resources
Gangetic plain in the sixth century BC
especially iron enabled them to equip
(BCE). It was a transition from a semi
themselves with weapons made of iron.
– nomadic kinship - based society to an
Growing trade and commerce
agrarian society with networks of trade
facilitated movement of people as well
and exchange. Hence an organized and a
as settlement of people in centres of
strong system of governance required a
arts and crafts.
centralised state apparatus.
The outcome was urbanization and
16 Mahajanapadas emergence of Magadha as an empire.
Kuru, Panchala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji,
Malla, Kasi, Kosala, Avanti, Chedi,
Vatsa, Machcha, Surasena, Assaka,
Gandhara and Kamboja.
There were four major Mahajanapadas

They were:
Magadha in Bihar
Avanti in Ujjain
Magadha Empire
Kosala in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Vatsa in Kausambi, Allahabad.
127

www.tntextbooks.in
Dynasties of Ancient Magadha

Nalanda - UNESCO World
Four dynasties ruled over Magadha Heritage Site.
Nalanda was a large Buddhist monastery
Empire.
in ancient kingdom of Magadha. It
The Haryanka dynasty became the most renowned seat of learning
during the reign of Guptas. The word Nalanda
The Shishunaga dynasty is a Sanskrit combination of three words Na +
The Nanda dynasty alam + daa meaning “no stopping of the gift
of knowledge”.
The Maurya dynasty
Haryanka Dynasty Mauryan Empire

Sources
Magadha’s gradual rise to political
supremacy began with Bimbisara of Archaeo Punch Marked Coins.
logical
Haryanka dynasty.
sources
Bimbisara extended the territory of Inscriptions Edicts of Ashoka, Junagath
Magadhan Empire by conquests and by Inscription
matrimonial alliances with Lichchhavis, Secular Kautilya’s Arthasastra
Madra and Kosala. His son Ajatasatru, Literature Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
a contemporary of Buddha, convened Mamulanar’s poem in
the first Buddhist Council at Rajagriha. Agananuru
Udayin, the successor of Ajatasatru, Religious Jain, Buddhist texts and

Literature Puranas
laid the foundation of the new capital at
Pataliputra. Foreign Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and
Notices Indica
Shishunaga Dynasty
Megasthenese
Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the He was the ambassador of the Greek
Shishunaga dynasty. Kalasoka, a king of ruler, Seleucus, in the court of Chandra
Gupta. He stayed in India for 14 years.
Shishunaga dynasty, shifted the capital
His book Indica is one of the main sources
from Rajagriha to Pataliputra. He convened for the study of Mauryan Empire.
the second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
Mauryan Empire – India’s First
Nanda Dynasty Empire
Capital Pataliputra (present day
Nandas were the first empire builders
Patna, Bihar)
of India. The first Nanda ruler was
Mahapadma. Mahapadma Nanda was Government Monarchy
succeeded by his eight sons. They were, Historical era c. 322 BC (BCE) –
known as Navanandas (nine Nandas). 187 BC (BCE)
Dhana Nanda, the last Nanda ruler, was Important Chandragupta,
overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya. Kings Bindusara, Ashoka
128

www.tntextbooks.in
Bindusara
Grandeur of Pataliputra
The great capital city in the Mauryan Real name of Bindusara was Simhasena.
Empire, which had 64 gates to the city He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya.
with 570 watch towers.
Greeks called Bindusara as Amitragatha,
meaning ‘slayer of enemies’. During
Chandragupta Maurya Bindusara’s reign Mauryan Empire spread
over large parts of India. He appointed
The Mauryan Empire was the first largest
his son Ashoka as a governor of Ujjain.
empire in India. Chandragupta Maurya
After his death, Ashoka ascended the
established the empire in Magadha.
throne of Magadha.
Bhadrabahu, a Jain monk, took
Chandragupta Maurya to the southern Ashoka
India.
Ashoka was the most famous of the
Chandragupta performed Mauryan kings. He was known as
Sallekhana (Jaina rituals in which a person ‘Devanam Piya’ meaning ‘beloved of the
fasts unto his death) in Sravanbelgola Gods’.
(Karnataka).
129

www.tntextbooks.in
Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 He laid stress on

BC (BCE). He won the war and captured Compassion
Kalinga.
Charity
The horror of war was described by the
Purity
king himself in the Rock Edict XIII.
Saintliness
“Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a Self-control

bright star, even unto this day” Truthfulness
- H. G. Wells , Historian
Obedience and respect for parents,
preceptors and elders.
Lion Capital of Ashoka Ashoka sent his son Mahinda and
Sanghamitta to Srilanka to propagate
The Emblem of the Indian Republic has
been adopted from the Lion Capital of Buddhism. He also sent missionaries to
one of Ashokas pillars located at Sarnath. West Asia, Egypt, and Eastern Europe
The wheel from the circular base, the Ashoka
to spread the message of Dhamma. The
Chakra is a part of the National Flag.
Dhamma-mahamattas were a new cadre
of officials created by Ashoka. Their
job was to spread dhamma all over the
empire. Ashoka held the third Buddhist
Council at his capital Pataliputra.
Edicts of Ashoka
The 33 Edicts on the
pillars as well as boulders
and cave walls made by
the Emperor Ashoka,
Chandasoka (Ashoka, the wicked) to describe in detail
Dhammasoka (Ashoka the righteous) Ashoka’s belief in peace, righteousness,
justice and his concern for the welfare of
After the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka
his people.
became a Buddhist. He undertook tours
(Dharmayatras) to different parts of the
country instructing people on policy of
Dhamma. The meaning of Dhamma is
explained in Ashoka’s – Pillar Edict II An Edict is an official order or
proclamation issued by a person in
It contained the noblest ideas of
authority or a king.
humanism, forming the essence of all
religions.
130

www.tntextbooks.in
Revenue system
The land was the most important source
of revenue for the state. Ashokan
inscription at Lumbini mentions bali and
bagha as taxes collected from people.
The land tax (bhaga) collected was 1/6
of the total produce.
Revenue from taxes on forests, mines,
salt and irrigation provided additional
revenue to the government.
Much of the State revenue was spent
The script of the inscriptions on paying the army, the officials of the
At Sanchi – Brahmi royal government, on charities and on
different public works such as irrigation
At Kandahar – Greek and Aramaic project, road construction etc.
At North Western part – Kharoshthi
Judicial System
The king was the head of the Judiciary.
The Rock Edicts II and XIII of Ashoka He was the highest court of appeal.
refer to the names of the three dynasties King appointed many judges
namely Pandyas, Cholas, the Keralaputras subordinate to him. The punishments
and the Sathyaputras. were harsh.
Mauryan Administration Military Administration
Centralized administration The king was the supreme commander of

the army.
King
A board of 30 members divided
The king was the supreme and into six committees with five members on
sovereign authority of the Mauryan each, monitored
Empire.
Navy
Council of ministers known as
Armoury ( transport and supply)
mantriparishad assisted the King.
Assembly of ministers included a Infantry
Purohit, a Senapathi, a Maha mantri Cavalry
and the Yuvaraja. The war chariots
King had an excellent spy system. The war elephants
131

www.tntextbooks.in
Municipal Administration
(Cities and Towns)
Board of 30 members divided into six
committees. Each had 5 members to
manage the administration of the city.
Town administration was under
Nagarika. He was assisted by Sthanika Mauryan coins
and Gopa.
Mauryan Art and
The Junagarh / Girnar Inscription Architecture
of Rudradaman records that the
Mauryan art can be
construction of a water reservoir known
divided into two
as Sudarshana Lake was begun during
the time of Chandragupta Maurya and
completed during Ashoka’s reign. Indigenous Art – Statues of Yakshas
and Yakshis
Currency Royal Art – alaces and Public
P
Money was not only used for trade; even buildings
the government paid its officers in cash. – Monolithic Pillars
The punch marked silver coins – Rock cut Architecture
(panas) which carry the symbols of the – Stupas
peacock, and the hill and crescent copper
coins called Mashakas formed the imperial Yakshas were deities connected
currency. with water, fertility, trees, the forest
and wilderness. Yakshis were their
Trade and Urbanization female counterpart.
Trade flourished particularly with Greece
(Hellenic) Malaya, Ceylon and Burma.
The Arthasastra refers to the regions
producing specialized textiles – Kasi
(Benares), Vanga(Bengal), Kamarupa
(Assam) and Madurai in Tamilnadu.
Main Exports Main Imports

Spices Horses
Pearls Gold
Diamonds Glassware
Cotton textiles Linen
Ivory Works
Conch Shells
Statues of Yaksha and Yakshi
132

www.tntextbooks.in
Stupas
Sanchi near Bhopal, MP Lomas Rishi cave, Barabar
A Stupa is a semi – spherical dome like There are several caves to the north of
structure constructed on brick or stone. Bodh Gaya. Three caves in Barabar hills
The Buddha’s relics were placed in the have dedicative inscription of Ashoka. And
centre of the dome. three in Nagarjuna hills have inscriptions
of Dasharatha Maurya (grand son of
Monolithic Pillar – Sarnath Ashoka).
The crowning element in this pillar is
Dharma chakra. Reasons for the Decline of the
Mauryan Empire
Ashoka’s successors were very weak.

Continuous revolts in different parts
of the empire.
Invasion by the Bactrian Greeks
weakened the empire.
Last Maurya ruler Brihadratha was
killed by his commander Pushyamitra
Sungha who established Sungha
dynasty.
Ancient name Its Modern name

Rajagriha Rajgir
Monolithic Pillar – Sarnath Pataliputra Patna
Beginning of Rock cut Architecture Kalinga Odisha

Rock – Cut Caves of Barabar and
Nagarjuna Hills
133

www.tntextbooks.in
Elsewhere in the world
The Great Wall of China Temple of Zeus at Olympia
It is an ancient series of fortification. An ancient temple in Olympia, Greece,

During third century BC (BCE) emperor dedicated to the god Zeus, constructed
Qin-Shi Huang linked these walls on during fifth century BC (BCE), It is one of
Northern border to protect his empire. the seven wonders of the ancient world.
Summary
Sixth century BC (BCE) forms an important landmark as it witnessed the emergence
of sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged as an empire.
Magadha was ruled by four dynasties- The Haryanka, the Shishunaga, the Nanda
and the Maurya dynasty.
Chandragupta Maurya established the Mauryan empire.
Ashoka was the most famous of the Mauryan kings.
Ashoka’s pillar and Rock Edicts enlighten us on his ideas of Dhamma.
GLOSSARY
Egalitarian – a person who advocates the principle of equality for all. (சமத்துவம்)
Monastery – a building in which monks live and worship. (மடாலயம்)
Treatise – a written work dealing systematically with a subject. (ஆய்வுக்கட்டுரை)
Horror – a feeling of fear and anxiety (பேரச்சமும் நடுக்கமும்)
134

www.tntextbooks.in
EXERCISES
I Choose the correct answer:
1. The Kingdom which was most powerful among the four
Mahajanapadas
a) Anga b) Magadha c) Kosala d) Vajji
2. Among the following who was the contemporary of Gautama Buddha?
a) Ajatasatru b) Bindusara c) Padmanabha Nanda d) Brihadratha
3. Which of the following are the sources of Mauryan period?
a) Artha Sastra b) Indica c) Mudrarakshasa d) All
4. Chandra Gupta Maurya abdicated the thrown and went to Sravanbelgola along
with Jaina Saint ______________.
a) Badrabahu b) Stulabahu c) Parswanatha d) Rushabhanatha
5. _______ was the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator.
a) Ptolemy b) Kautilya c) Xerxes d) Megasthenese
6. Who was the last emperor of Mauryan Dynasty?
a) Chandragupta Maurya b) Ashoka
c) Brihadratha d) Bindusara
II Match the statement with the reason/Tick the appropriate answer:

1. Statement (A) Ashoka is considered as one of India’s greatest rulers.
Reason (R) He ruled according to the principle of Dhamma.

a. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
c. A is true but R is false.
d. A is false but R is true.
2. Which of the statements given below is/are correct?

Statement 1
Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified entire India
under one political unit.
Statement 2
The Arthashastra provides information about the Mauryan
administration
a. only 1 b. only 2 c. both 1 and 2 d neither 1 nor 2
3. Consider the following statements and find out which of the following statement(s)
is/are correct.
1) Chandragupta Maurya was the first king of Magadha.
2) Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha.
a. only 1 b. only 2 c. both 1 and 2 d. neither 1 nor 2
135

www.tntextbooks.in
4. Arrange the following dynasties in chronological order.

a. Nanda – Sishunaga – Haryanka – Maurya
b. Nanda – Sishunaga –Maurya – Haryanka
c. Haryanka - Sishunaga – Nanda - Maurya
d. Sishunaga – Maurya – Nanda – Haryanka
5. Which of the following factors contributed to the rise of Magadhan Empire?

1) Strategic location
2) Thick forest supplied timber and elephant
3) Control over sea
4) Availability of rich deposits of iron ores
a. 1, 2 and 3 only
b. 3 and 4 only
c. 1, 2 and 4 only
d. All of these
III Fill in the blanks:
1. ____________________ was the earliest capital of Magadha.
2. Mudrarakshasa was written by ____________________.
3. ____________________ was the son of Bindusara.
4. The founder of the Maurya Empire was ____________________.
5. ____________________ were appointed to spread Dhamma all over the empire.
IV State True or False:

1. The title Devanam Piya was given to Chandragupta Maurya.
2. Ashoka gave up war after his defeat in Kalinga.
3. Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the principle of Buddhism.
4. The lions on the currency notes is taken from the Rampurwa bull capital.
5. Buddha's relics were placed in the centre of the Stupas.
136

www.tntextbooks.in
V Match the following:

a. Gana 1. Arthasastra
b. Megasthenese 2. religious tours
c. Chanakya 3. people
d. Dharmayatras 4. Indica
a. 3 4 1 2
b. 2 4 3 1
c. 3 1 2 4
d. 2 1 4 3
VI Answer in one or two sentences:

1. Mention any two literary sources of Mauryan period.
2. What is a stupa?
3. Name the dynasties of Magadha.
4. What were the sources of revenue during Mauryan period?
5. Who assisted Nagarika in the administration of towns?
6. What do you know from the Rock Edicts II and XIII of Ashoka?
7. Which classical Tamil poetic works have the reference of Mauryans?
VII Answer the following:

1. What did Ashoka do to spread Buddhism? (Write any three points)
2. Write any three causes for the rise of Magadha.
VIII HOTS
1. Kalinga war became a turning point in Ashoka’s life. How?
2. Write any five welfare measures you would do if you were a king like Ashoka?
IX Picture study
This is the picture of an Ashokan edicts.
a. What are edicts?
b. How are Ashokan edicts useful?
c. Where were these edicts inscribed?
d. Name the script used in Sanchi Inscription.
e. How many Rock Edicts are there?
137

www.tntextbooks.in
X Who am I
1. I belonged to Haryanka dynasty. I extended territory by matrimonial alliances.
My son is Ajatasatru – who am I?
2. I played a significant role in the transformation of society. I am used in making

ploughshare - Who am I?
3. I was known as Devanampiya. I embraced the path of peace - Who am I?
4. I established the first largest empire in India. I performed Sallekhana. Who am I?
5. I am found in the Lion capital of Ashoka. I am at the centre of our national flag.
Who am I?
XI Decipher the code – The Mauryan Empire.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1. The first dynasty that ruled over Magadha was ____________ (8, 1, 18, 25, 1,
14, 11, 1).
2. _______________ empire was the first largest empire (13, 1, 21,18, 25, 1).
3. _______________ laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra

(21, 4, 1, 25, 9, 14).
4. _______________ was one of the main exports (19, 16, 9, 3, 5, 19).
5. ____________ became later the most renowned seat of learning

(14, 1, 12, 1, 14, 4, 1).
6. Revenue from agricultural produce was called _______________ (2, 8, 1, 7, 1).
7. The horror of war was described in _______________ (18, 15, 3, 11, 5, 4, 9, 3,

20)
8. Greeks called Bindusara as _______________ (1, 13, 9, 20, 18, 1, 7, 1, 20, 8, 1)
9. The crowning element in Saranath Pillar is _____________

(4, 8,1, 18, 13, 1, 3, 8, 1, 11, 18, 1)
10. Council of ministers were known as _______________ (13, 1, 14, 4, 18, 9, 16,
1, 18, 9, 19, 8, 1, 4)
138

www.tntextbooks.in
XII Activity
1. Field trip to Museum
2. Movie show – about Ashoka and Chandragupta.
XIII Map Work
1. Mark the extent of Ashokan Empire.
2. Mark the following places on the river map of India
a. Taxila b. Pataliputra c. Ujjain d. Sanchi e. Indraprastha
XIV Life Skill
1. Make a model of Ashoka Chakra.
2. Make a model of Sanchi Stupa.
3. Draw and colour our National Flag.
XV Answer Grid
Name the two kinds of Who conducted second What is the modern name
government in North India Buddhist council at Vaishali? for Kalinga?
during 6th century B.C (BCE)
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Town was administrated Where was the third Buddhist Name any two major
by________________ council convened by Ashoka? Mahajanapadas.
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Which inscription records the Who was the last Nanda ruler? Name the silver coin
construction of Sudarshana which were in use during
lake? Maurian period?
Ans: Ans: Ans:
Refrences
1. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to 1300 AD. Penguin, 2015.
2. R.S. Sharma, India's Ancient past. Oxford University Press, 2005.
3. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. Pearson, 2008
139

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -1
New Religious Ideas and
Movements
Learning Objectives
To acquire the knowledge of
Devotional movement of Azhwars and Nayanmars

Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara and vishistadvaita of Ramanuja
Bhakti cult in Northern India and its prominent exponents
Interaction between Hinduism and Islam, leading to the birth of new
cults notably Sufism
Teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak
Impact of Bhakti Movement
Introduction the path of knowledge (jnana) and the path

Medieval India saw an extraordinary of rituals and good works (karma), providing
production of devotional poetry, which were inspiration to the exponents of Bhakti cult.
not restricted to one particular religion but Bhakti Movement: The Beginnings
inspired by different religious movements.
The Bhakti movement, or the resurgence
The exponents of these movements held the
of devotional practices, started in Tamil Nadu
view that total devotion (bhakti) to God could
around seventh century A.D. It included reciting
save man from the pitfalls of life and earn him
the name of the God or Goddess, singing
salvation. It was also believed that one does not
hymns in their praise, wearing religious marks
have to go to temples or perform rituals, for God
or carrying identity emblems, and undertaking
is omnipresent and resides inside every human.
pilgrimages to sacred places associated with
The Bhagavad Gita proposed that the path of
the deity. It emphasised the mutual emotional
bhaktimarga (the path of bhakti) is superior
attachment and love of a devotee towards a
to the two other religious approaches, namely,
personal God and of the God for the devotee.
105
7th Std - Social Science Term III History Uni 1 EM.indd 105 05-11-2019 1.13.48 PM
www.tntextbooks.in
This view was also preached by Sufism, which social status and advocated gender equality in
appeared as a reaction against worldliness of order to make it good to stand the onslaught of
the early Islam. Sufis believed that realisation of Buddhism or Jainism.
God can be achieved only through passionate
Vishnu-bhakti or Vaishnavism is based
devotion to God and intense meditation. Sufis
on Vishnu’s avatars (incarnations), particularly
were of the view that this type of meditation
Krishna and Rama. The 12 Tamil Azhwars
would enable the devotee to understand the
are chiefly known for their immortal hymns.
true nature of God. They argued that doing
Two Azhwars stand out distinctly for their
so would liberate the devotee from all worldly
contribution to the promotion of the Bhakti
bonds and help them become one with God.
movement. Nammazhwar’s fame lies in
Several mystical religious movements, in both
his 1,102-stanza Tiruvaimozhi. Nathamuni
Hinduism and Islam, had no hesitation to
collected the 4,000 poems of Nammazhwar,
freely include elements of different faiths in
in the form of Divya Prabandham. Andal, the
their teachings. ‘There is only one god, though
only female Azhwar, is another. Periyazhwar,
Hindus and Muslims call him by different
who was earlier known as Vishnu Chittar, made
names’, stated Haridasa.
lots of songs on Krishna putting himself in the
1. D
evotional Movement in Tamizhakam place of mother Yashoda. Periyazhvar is said to
(Azhwars and Nayanmars) have found Andal as a baby in the tulsi garden
The Azhwars, the Vaishnavite Bhakti sages at Srivilliputhur temple and adopted her. She
and the originators of Bhakti cult, and the grew up in the temple town of Srivilliputhur
Nayanmars, the worshipers of Siva or the Saivites, and became known as Andal-she who ruled.
composed devotional hymns in Tamil language, The Thiruppavai (The Path to Krishna) and
dedicated to their respective gods. Siva-bhakti the Nachiyar Thirumozhi (The Sacred Songs
is associated with Siva’s manifestations on of the Lady) are her celebrated works. Her
earth. Poems to Siva and Vishnu, particularly poems expressing her love for Ranganatha, the
to Krishna, were composed in Tamil and other incarnation of Vishnu worshiped at a temple
South Indian languages such as Kannada and at Srirangam, are used in Vaishnava wedding
Telugu. These poet-saints criticised caste-based ceremonies in Tamil Nadu.
Vaishnavite Saints (12 Azhwars)
Three Muthal Azhwars: Poigai Azhwar, Bhoothathu Azhwar and Pei Azhwar.
Other Azhwars: Thirumalisai Azhwar, Periyazhwar, Thondaradippodi Azhwar, Thirumangai
Azhwar, Thiruppanazhwar, Kulasekara Azhwar, Nammazhwar, Mathurakavi Azhwar and Andal.
106
www.tntextbooks.in
Saivite Saints (63 Nayanmars)
There are 63 legendary Nayanmars. Among them, Gnanasampandar, Appar, and Sundarar
(often called “the trio”) are worshipped as saints through their images in South Indian temples.
Nambi Andar Nambi (1000 A.D.) is said to have compiled the songs of all of the Nayanmars
that form the basis of Tirumurai, the basic Tamil Saivite sacred canon. It consists of 12 books,
and 11 of them were assembled by Nambi. The 12th book is Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam.
(a) Adi Shankara (b) Ramanuja

Adi Shankara Ramanuja, a 11th
or Shankarachariar century Vaishnava
(c. 700–750 A.D.) saint, was the most
preached the Advaita influential thinker
philosophy. The of Vaishnavism. His
essence of this philosophy, known
philosophy is that the as vishistadvaita,
soul (atma) unites proclaims that the
with the universal soul Adi Shankara soul retains its identity Ramanuja
(brahma) through the even after uniting with brahma. After a long
attainment of knowledge. He set up mathas pilgrimage, Ramanuja settled in Srirangam.
(mutts), centres of learning and worship, at Ramanuja articulated ideas of social equality
Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka and Sringeri. These and condemned caste-based restrictions on
places have become prominent pilgrim centres entering the temples. He established centres to
today. Shankara enthusiastically endeavoured spread his doctrine of devotion, Srivaishnavism,
to restore the orthodox Vedic tradition without to God Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.
paying attention to the Bhakti movement of his
In the 16th and 17th
time. His masterpiece is the commentary on
centuries, Vaishnavism
the Brahma-sutra, which is a fundamental text
spread across India. The
of the Vedanta school. His commentaries on
Vadakalai Vaishnavism
the principal Upanishads are also considered
originally flourished
equally important.
around Kanchipuram, which was a popular
107
www.tntextbooks.in
centre for Sanskrit learning. Thenkalai (a) Exponents of Bhakti Movement

Vaishnavism centred on Srirangam. Vadakalai It was Ramananda who spread the Bhakti
sect focused on Vedic literature, which is ideology in northern India where it became
written in Sanskrit. The Thenkalai sect stressed a mass movement. Vallabhacharya, a Telugu
the importance of Divya Prabandhams, written philosopher, built a temple for Lord Krishna
by the 12 Azhwars in Tamil. on the Govardhan Hills near Mathura. Surdas,
2. Bhakti Movement in North India a blind poet and musician, was associated
with this temple as well as that of Agra. His
While dealing with the religious
famous collection of poetry is called Sursagar.
movements of the fourteenth and fifteenth
Meera Bai, wife of the crown prince of Mewar,
centuries in northern India, one has to keep
was an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna. She
in mind the two very different attitudes which
was a disciple of Ravidas. Meera Bai gained
Hindu religious leaders had towards Islam.
popularity through her bhajans. Chaitanyadeva
One group accepted what was best in Islam;
popularised Krishna worship through ecstatic
the other adopted a few elements in order to
songs and dancing that had a profound effect
prevent conversion to Islam. Both reacted
on Vaishnavism in Bengal. In the 16th century,
to Islam, but one was sympathetic while the
in Tulsidas’s Hindi retelling of the story of
other was hostile. Kabir and Guru Nanak, and
Rama in the Ramcharitmanas, the sentiment of
other founders of new sects are included in
friendship and loyalty is stressed. Many of those
the first group, while the movement in Bengal,
poems continue to be recited and sung often at
associated with Chaitanya deva, or Chaitanya
all-night celebrations.
Mahaprabu, belongs to the latter tendency.
Ramananda Vallabhacharya Surdas Meera Bai Chaitanya Tulsidas
Tukaram, a 17th century saint poet of Maharashtra,

is known for his spiritual songs (abangas or
kirtanas), devoted to Vitthoba, an avatar of
Krishna. There is a Vitthoba/Panduranga temple
at Pantharpur or Pandaripuram in Sholapur
district, Maharashtra. What is Chaitanyadeva to
Tukaram Panduranga Temple, Bengal is Tukaram to Maharashtra.
Pandaripuram
108
www.tntextbooks.in
3. Sufism in India an Iranian Sufi Abdul-Wahid Abu Najib. The

The advent of Sufis to India dates back to the Firdausi order was a branch of Suhrawardi order
Arab conquest of Sind. It gained prominence in and its activities were confined to Bihar.
the 10th and 11th centuries during the reign of 4. (a) Kabir
the Delhi Sultans. Sufism adopted many native As a Muslim,
Indian concepts such as yogic postures, music Kabir came under
and dance. Sufism found adherents among both the influence of
Muslims and Hindus. Varanasi-based Saint
Ramananda. He
Sufism: The word Sufi takes its origin
accepted some Hindu
from suf, meaning wool. The Sufis wore
ideas and tried to
course garments made of wool and hence
reconcile Hinduism
they were called Sufis. Sufism was basically
and Islam. However,
Islamic but was influenced by Hindu and Kabir
it was the Hindus,
Buddhist (Mahayana) ideas. It rejected the
and particularly those of the lower classes, to
stringent conduct code of the ulemas. Sufis
whom his message appealed. Kabir believed
lived in hermitages akin to monasteries
that God is one and formless, even though
and functioned outside society.
different religious sects give him different
names and forms. He opposed discrimination
on the basis of religion, caste and wealth. He
also condemned meaningless rituals. Kabir’s
verses were composed in Bhojpuri language
mixed with Urdu. The Kabir’s Granthavali and
the Bijak contain collections of Kabir’s verses.
(b) Guru Nanak

Early Life: Guru Nanak, born in a village near
Lahore in 1469, showed interest in religious
Sufis in medieval India were divided into three discussions with other saints right from his
major orders. They were Chisti, Suhrawardi and early childhood. His parents were keen to
Firdausi. Moinuddin Chishti made Chisti order involve him in worldly life. But he was inclined
popular in India. He died in Ajmer (1236) and towards spiritualism. He visited many holy
his resting place is in the Ajmer Sharif Dargah in places and finally settled in Kartarpur near
Ajmer, Rajasthan. The best known Sufi sage of the Lahore. He died there in 1539. To mark the
early medieval period was Nizamuddin Auliya 550th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak, a
of the Chishti order, who had a large number corridor is being constructed by the Indian
of followers among the ruling class in Delhi. government that will link the Nanak shrine in
Poet Amir Khusru was one of its distinguished Gurdaspur with Gurudwara Darbar Sahib at
followers. Suhrawardi order was founded by Kartarpur in Pakistan.
109
www.tntextbooks.in
Guru Nanak Gurudwara Granth Sahib, Kartarpur
Guru Nanak’s Teachings:

Guru Nanak preached
that God is without form
and wanted his followers
to practice meditation
upon the name of God
for peace and ultimate salvation. He is
considered the first guru by the Sikhs. Guru Five distinctive things of the
Nanak had great contempt for Vedic rituals Khalsa members
and caste discriminations. The teachings of
Guru Nanak formed the basis of Sikhism, a Guru Gobind Singh, the custom of pahul
new religious order, founded in the late 15th (baptism by sweetened water stirred with
century. His and his successors’ teachings are a dagger) was introduced. Those who got
collected in the Guru Granth Sahib, which baptised became members of a disciplined
is the holy book of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak’s brotherhood known as the Khalsa (meaning
teachings were spread through the group the pure). The men were given the title Singh
singing of hymns, called kirtan. The devotees (lion). Every member of the Khalsa had to
gathered in (rest houses), which have five distinctive things on his person.
became gurudwaras in course of time. These were kesh (uncut hair), kangha (comb),
kirpan (dagger), kada (steel bangle) and
Guru Nanak nominated his disciple kachera (underpants). After Guru Gobind
Lehna to succeed him as the guru. Following Singh, the holy book Guru Granth Sahib is
this precedent, the successors are named by considered the guru and its message is spread
the incumbent Sikh Guru. At the time of by the Khalsa.
110
www.tntextbooks.in
5. I mpact of the Religious/ Adi Shankarar’s advaita philosophy and

Bhakti Movement Ramanujar’s vishistadvaita philosophy are
• V
edic Hinduism was regenerated and thus explained.
saved from the onslaught of Islam. Th
e devotional paths of saints, notably
• Th
e Islamic tenets – unity of God and Tulsidas and Meera Bai, in northern
universal brotherhood – emphasised by the India and Chaitanyadeva in Bengal are
saints promoted harmony and peace. examined.
• B
hakti was a movement of the common M
utual influence of Islam and Hinduism
people; it used the language of the common and birth of Sufism, Sikhism and mystical
people for its devotional literature. Hinduism are discussed in brief.
• B
hakti movement opened up space for R
adical versions of Bhakti Movement:
Indian languages to grow. It stimulated Contribution of Kabir and Guru Nanak
literary activity in regional languages. are detailed.
• W
hat sustained Sanskrit, despite its decline
Th
e essential features of Bhakti Movement
during this period, was the support extended
are highlighted.
by the rulers of Hindu kingdoms.
Th
e impact of the Bhakti Movement on the
• T
amil was the only ancient Indian language
medieval Indian society is analysed.
remained vibrant during this period. But the
ethos of Tamil literature in medieval time
had changed. In the classical period, it had References
secular literature depicting the everyday life, 1. R. Champakalakshmi, Religion, Tradition
its joys and sorrows, but under the influence and Ideology in Pre-Colonial South India,
of devotional cults, its emphasis shifted to Oxford University Press, 2011.
religion and religious literature.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, Oxford
• C
aste system and social disparities came to
University Press, 2004.
be criticised.
3. Abraham Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock
Summary Throne, Penguin, 1997.
Th
e Bhakti movement is explained. 4. https://www.britannica.com.
Azhwars’ initiatives followed by Nayanmars
in Tamil country are described.
111
www.tntextbooks.in
Glossary
1. salvation a way of being saved from danger, loss or harm நிவர்த்தி, விம�ோசனம்
2. omnipresent present everywhere at the same time எங்கும் நிறைந்திருக்கின்ற
3. incarnation a living being embodying a deity or spirit அவதாரம்
4. hostile showing enmity or dislike, unfriendly விர�ோதமாக, பகைமையுள்ள
5. prominence importance முக்கியத்துவம்
6. adherent supporter (of a person, cause or belief) ஆதரவாளர், பின்பற்றுபவர்
7. stringent severe, harsh கடுமையான, கெடுபிடியான
8. Ulema Islamic scholar trained in Islamic law இஸ்லாமியப் பேரறிஞர்
9. hermitage the dwelling of persons living in seclusion ஆசிரமம், துறவி வாழிடம்
10. akin similar ஒத்த இயல்புடைய
11. dagger short, pointed knife that is sharp on both sides குத்துவாள், குறுவாள்
12. depicting showing, portraying சித்தரிக்கும், விவரமாக விளக்கும்
13. disparity a great difference, the state of being unequal வேறுபாடு, சமமற்ற
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer: c) Amir Khusru

1. Who of the following composed songs on d) Nizamuddin Auliya
Krishna putting himself in the place of
5. Who is considered their first guru by the
mother Yashoda?
Sikhs?
a) Poigaiazhwar b) Periyazhwar
a) Lehna
c) Nammazhwar d) Andal
b) Guru Amir Singh
2. Who preached the Advaita philosophy? c) Guru Nanak
a) Ramanujar b) Ramananda d) Guru Gobind Singh
c) Nammazhwar d) Adi Shankara
II. Fill in the Blanks:
3.
Who spread the Bhakthi ideology in 1. Periyazhwar was earlier known as
northern India and made it a mass ______________.
movement? 2. ________________ is the holy book of the
a) Vallabhacharya b) Ramanujar Sikhs.
c) Ramananda d) Surdas 3. Meerabai was the disciple of ___________.
4. Who made Chishti order popular in India? 4. _____________ philosophy is known as
a) Moinuddin Chishti vishistadvaita.
b) Suhrawardi 5. Gurudwara Darbar Sahib is situated at
_______________ in Pakistan.
112
www.tntextbooks.in
III. Match the following: 4. Sufis believed that realization of God can be
1. Pahul – Kabir achieved only through passionate devotion
2. Ramcharitmanas – Sikhs to God and intense meditation.
3. Srivaishnavism – Abdul-Wahid Abu Najib 5. The basic Tamil Saivite sacred canon consists
4. Granthavali – Guru Gobind Singh of 12 books.
5. Suhrawardi – Tulsidas
VI. Give short answers:
IV. Find out the right pair/pairs: 1. What do you know about Tirumurai?
1. Andal - Srivilliputhur 2. How many Nayanmars were there and who
2. Tukaram - Bengal were prominent among them?
3. Chaitanyadeva - Maharashtra 3. How did Gurunanak help to found Sikhism?.
4. Brahma-sutra - Vallabacharya
4. What had Tukkaram to do with the Vitthoba
5. Gurudwaras - Sikhs
temple of Pantharpur?
2. Assertion (A): After Guru Gobind Singh, 5. Highlight the spiritual ideas of Kabir that
the holy book Guru Granth Sahib came to appealed to lower classes.
be considered the guru.
Reason (R): Guru Gobind Singh was the VII. Answer the following in detail:
compiler of Guru Granth Sahib. 1.
Give an account of the contributions of
a) R is not the correct explanation of A exponents of Bhakti Movement in the
b) R is the correct explanation of A southern as well as northern parts of India.
c) A is correct but R is wrong 2. What is Sufism? How did it find its footing
d) Both A and R are wrong in India?
3. Find the odd person out 3. What impact did Bhakti movement make
Poigai Azhwar, Bhoothathu Azhwar, on Indian society?
Periazhwar, Andal, Nammazhwar.
VIII. HOTS:
V. State true or false: 1.
Examine the statement that the Bhakti
1. Sufism was responsible for the spread of movement saved Vedic Hinduism from the
Islamic culture. onslaught of Islam.
2. The best known Sufi sage of the early
medieval period was Nizamuddin Auliya of IX. Activity:
the Chishti order. Visiting the living places as well as the places
3. Guru Nanak is considered the first guru of associated with the Bhakthi saints in Tamil
Sikhs. Nadu.
113
www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -2
Art and Architecture of
Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To understand the evolution of temple architecture in South India

To gain knowledge about the cultural heritage of Tamils
To know the contribution of Pallavas, Cholas, Vijayanagara and Nayak
rulers to the development of temple art in Tamil Nadu
Introduction
Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin.
It advanced over time by a process of evolution.
The earliest examples of the Tamil Dravidian
architectural tradition were the 7th century
rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram. The absence
of monuments in South India prior to the 7th
century is attributed by scholars to temples ought
to have been built in wood, which were eventually Rock-cut Cave Temple,
destroyed by forces of nature. In Tamil Nadu, the Mandagapattu
evolution of temple architecture took place in five
temples were initially built by carving a rock to the
stages: (1) The Pallava Epoch (A.D. 600 to 850); (2)
required design and then rocks were cut to build
Early Chola Epoch (A.D. 850 to 1100); (3) Later
temples. The Pallava king Mahendravarman was
Chola Epoch (A.D. 1100 to 1350); (4) Vijayanagara/
a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu
Nayak Epoch (A.D. 1350 to 1600); and (5) Modern
temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him.
Epoch (After A.D. 1600).
The rock-cut cave structure has two pillars in
Pallava Epoch the front that hold it. All the cave temples have
The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition simple sanctum cut on the rear side of the wall
from rock-cut to free-standing temples. Rock-cut with a frontage-projecting mandapa (pavilion).
114
www.tntextbooks.in
Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple Kanchi Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
On either side are two dwarapalas (gatekeepers). especially of Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja,
This cave architecture reached its decadent phase are decorated with niches and motifs. The
after A.D.700 and gave way to the large structural niches have the sculptures of gods, goddesses,
temples probably because the structural temples monarchs and scenes from mythology. The
provided a wider scope to the sculptor to use his Arjuna’s Penance, carved on the face of a granite
skill. boulder, is a magnificent relief, measuring
approximately 100 ft long by 45 ft high.
The Shore Temple at
Mahabalipuram, also called
the Seven Pagodas, was
built by the Pallava king
Narasimhavarman II. It is
the oldest structural temple
in South India. The structural temples were built
using blocks of rock instead of a whole block
as earlier. Narasimhavarman II, also known
as Rajasimha, built the Kanchi Kailasanatha
Arjuna’s Penance
temple. The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at
Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman II.
Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is built of cut The Mamallapuram monuments and
stones rather than carved out of caves. It has temples, including the Shore Temple
two shrines, one dedicated to Siva and the other complex, were notified as a UNESCO
to Vishnu. World Heritage Site in 1984.
The Tamil Dravida tradition is exemplified Pandya Temples in the Pallava Epoch
by rock-cut monuments such as Pancha Pandava Early Pandyas were the contemporaries
Rathas, namely Draupadi ratha, Dharmaraja of the Pallavas. Unlike the Pallavas, Pandyas
ratha, Bheema ratha, Arjuna ratha and Nagula- installed deities in the sanctums in their
Sahadeva ratha. The outer walls of the rathas, cave temples. More than fifty cave temples
115
www.tntextbooks.in
have been found in different parts of the

Pandyan Empire. The most important of them
are found in Malaiyadikurichi, Anaimalai,
Tiruparankundram and Trichirappali. These
caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and
Brahma. In the Siva temple of Pandyas, the linga
is carved out of the mother rock. The figure of
Nandhi is also carved out of the rock. The Siva
lingam in the sanctum is installed in the centre Nellaiappar Temple Corridor, Tirunelveli
with enough space all around it. The sanctum
Sculptures
also has a drainage canal. The pillars are divided
The walls of the caves are decorated
into three parts and are of different sizes. The
with the bas relief of the gods and goddesses.
pillars have no uniform ornamentation. The
In the case of structural temples, the
back side walls are divided into four niches on
walls of the sanctums are free from image
which the bas- relief images of Siva, Vishnu,
decorations. Instead the superstructures and
Durga, Ganapathy, Subramanya, Surya, Brahma
the pillars have the sculptures. The sculptures
and Saraswathi are carved out. The dwarapalas
look majestic, having elaborate shoulders,
figure on either side of sanctum.
slim bodies, beautiful ornaments and
Rock-cut and structural temples are high crowns.
significant part of the Pandya architecture.
The illustrious example for rock-cut style is
unfinished Kazhugumalai Vettuvankoil temple.
The Vettuvankoil, a monolithic temple at
Kazhugumalai, is hewn out of a huge boulder on
four sides. At the top of the temple, sculptures
of Uma Maheswarar, Dakshinamoorthy, Vishnu
and Brahma are found. Meenakshi Amman
Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple Vettuvankoil Temple Sculptures
in Tirunelveli represent examples of Pandyas’
architectural style. Tiruparankundram, Anaimalai
and Kazhugumalai have the bas relief
of many deities: Siva, Vishnu, Brahma,
Parvathi, Subramanya, Ganapathi and
Dakshinamoorthy. These are some
remarkable images of the cave temples.
Many early Pandya images unearthed
from Madurai and its surrounding areas
are now in Tirumalai Nayakkar museum at
Monolithic Temple, Kazhugumalai Madurai.
116
www.tntextbooks.in
Paintings The Sittanavasal paintings have

Caves at Sittanavasal, similarities with the Ajantha paintings.
15 kilometres away Tirumalaipuram, from where we get
from Pudukkottai, and early Pandya paintings, are in a damaged
at Tirumalapuram in condition.
Sankarankovil taluk, The Early Chola Epoch
Tirunelveli district,
The Cholas came to limelight in A.D.
have outstanding early Pandya paintings.
850 under Vijaylaya Chola and continued
Sittanavasal was a residential cave of the Jain
to govern the region for about four hundred
monks. They painted the walls with fresco
years. For the Early Chola epoch, the
painting. Unfortunately, we have lost many of
temple at Dadapuram, near Tindivanam in
those paintings. Among the surviving ones,
TamilNadu, is worth mentioning.
the lotus pond is notable for its excellent
execution of colours and exposition of the The early Chola architecture followed
scene. The image of lotus flowers, leaves the style of Sembian Mahadevi. Temples with
spread all over the pond, animals, elephants, the increased number of devakoshta (niche)
buffalos, swans and a man who plucks the figures can be classified as belonging to the
flowers look brilliant. Sembiyan style. Tiruppurambiyam is an
illustrious example of early temple that was
re-fashioned in the days of Sembiyan
Mahadevi.
Sittanavasal Paintings
Tirupurambiyam Temple
Later Chola Epoch

Thirumalaipuram Sculptures The maturity attained by Chola
architecture is reflected in the two magnificent
temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
117
www.tntextbooks.in
Brihadeeshwara Temple, Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple
Cholapuram. The magnificent Thanjavur Big This temple complex has the shrines of
Temple dedicated to Siva, completed around Chandeeswarar, Ganesa and Mahishasura
A.D.1009, is a fitting memorial to the material Mardhini.
achievements of the time of Rajaraja.
Dharasuram
Thanjavur Big Temple Dharasuram, near Kumbakonam,
At the time the Big Temple of Thanjavur is a Later Chola period temple, rich in
was constructed, it was a huge temple complex. architectural splendour, dedicated to
The 216 feet vimana (structure over the Iravatheswara (Siva as god of lord Indira’s
garbhagriha) is notable as it is one among the elephant). Rajaraja II constructed this
tallest man-made shikaras of the world. Due temple. This temple is another landmark of
to its massive height, the shikara is called the the Chola architecture. The Mahamandapam
Dakshina Meru. The huge bull statue (Nandi) is an elaborate structure. The entire structure
measures about 16 feet long and 13 feet height looks like a ratha because it has four wheels
and is carved out of a single rock at the Mahamandapam. The sanctum and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram pillars have many sculptures, which are
Gangaikonda Cholapuram served as miniatures of various mythological figures.
the Chola capital for about 250 years, until A compound wall runs round the temple
the decline of the Cholas and the rise of with a gopuram.
the Pandyas. The Brihadeeshwara temple of
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajendra
Chola, is undoubtedly as worthy a successor
to the Brihadeeshwara temple of Thanjavur.
The height of the temple is 55 metres.
The sanctum has two storeys as in the big
temple at Thanjavur. The outer wall has
many projections with niches and recesses
on three sides. In the niches there are the
Iravatheswara Temple
images of Siva, Vishnu and other gods.
118
www.tntextbooks.in
Later Pandyas
The contribution of Later Pandyas to South
Indian art was significant. A case in point is the
cave temple at Pillayarpatti (near Karaikudi,
TamilNadu) belonging to 13th century. This
temple is important both for its sculptures and
for an inscription. A beautiful Ganesha is carved
facing the entrance. The importance of the figure,
referred to Desivinayaga in the cave inscription,
is that there are two arms with the trunk turning Vellore Jalagandeshwar Temple
Kalyana Mandapam
to the right
The main features of the Vijayanagar and
Nayak architecture are decorated mandapas,
ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras,
prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone
windows during the 15th to 17th centuries.
Tanks are attached to the temples. Gateways
to temple are constructed from four directions
with massive gopurams.
The practice of fitting the niches with

Pillayarpatti Temple and
Karpaka Vinayagar sculptures continued during the Nayak period.
There was an increased use of major sculpted figures
(relief sculpture) as found at the Alakiya Nambi
Vijayanagara Epoch
temple at Tirukkurungudi (Tirunelveli district)
During the Vijayanagara epoch, a new and the Gopalakrishna temple in the Ranganatha
form of construction emerged. It is the temple complex at Srirangam. The southern
mandapam (pavilion) to where the gods festival mandapam of Adinatha temple at Azhwar
are carried every year. Pillared outdoor Tirunagari and the porch of the Nellaiyappar
mandapams are meant for public rituals with temple at Tirunelveli are other notable examples.
the ones in the east serving as the waiting
room for devotees, which adorn the large
temples. These mandapams attract attention
for its monolithic pillars. On these pillars
are sculptured horses, lions and the gods.
The kalyana mandapam at Kanchipuram
(Varadaraja Perumal temple) and at Vellore
(Jalagandeshwar temple) are notable examples.
Mandapam of Adinatha Temple,
The most celebrated of these mandapams in
Azhwar Tirunagari
temple of Madurai is the Pudumandapam.
119
www.tntextbooks.in
In TamilNadu, the image of deities are seen at Varadharaja Perumal temple

attached to composite columns gradually at Kanchipuram, Kudalazhagar Temple at
freed themselves from the core column. The Madurai and the temples of Srivilliputhur,
1000-pillar mandapam of the Meenakshi- Tiruvellarai, Azhaharkoil, Tiruvannamalai
Sundareswarar temple, Pudumandapam and Srirangam. The paintings mostly have
at Madurai, Rathi Mandapam at the stories from Ramayana, palace scenes and
Tirukkurungudi and Vanamamalai Temple mythological stories.
at Nanguneri are illustrious examples
for the mandapam architecture of
this period.
Sculptures in Varatharaja Temple,

Kanchipuram
1000-Pillar Mandapam, Madurai Modern Period (After A.D. 1600)

Meenakshiamman Temple
The Sethupathis, as the feudatories of
Madurai Nayaks, ruled Ramanathapuram and
The pillars of this period are more contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple
decorative than the previous period. architecture. In the temple of Rameswaram,
Monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars, horse the predominance of corridors is striking. It is
pillars with life-size portraits of mythological claimed that this temple has the longest set of
and royal family members, common folk, corridors in the world. The temple has three
animals and floral works were made. Musical sets of corridors. The outer set of the temple’s
pillars were the peculiar feature of this time. corridors has a height of almost 7 metres and
A sitting lion at the top of the pillars is a stretches for about 120 metres in both the eastern
common feature in the mandapams. The and western directions. The corridors to the
windows are carved out on the walls of the north and to the south, on the other hand, are
sanctum and mandapams. about 195 metres in length. The outer corridor
is also remarkable for the number of pillars
The Jalagandeshwara temple at Vellore,
that support it, which is over 1200 in number.
the temples at Thadikompu near Dindugal
Moreover, many of these pillars are decorated by
and Krishnapuram near Tirunelveli and
ornate carvings. The innermost set of corridors
the Subramanya shrine in the Big Temple
is the oldest of the three.
Thanjavur are most remarkable edifices of
this time. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings
120
www.tntextbooks.in
References
1. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South
India: From Pre-Historic Times to the Fall
of Vijayanagar Empire (Oxford University
Press, 1997) - with an introduction by
R. Champakalakshmi.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, Oxford
University Press, 2004.
Ramanathaswamy Temple Corridor, 3. Crispin Branfoot, “The Architectural Sculpture
Rameswaram of the South Indian Temples, 1500-1700,”
Artibus Asiae, vol. 62, No.2, 2002.
Summary Crispin Branfoot, “The Tamil Gopura:
4.
In sum, the Pallava period featured From Temple Gateway to Global Icon,” ARS
Orientalis, vol. 45, 2015.
sculptural rocks. The early Chola period was
marked by grand vimanas. The Later Chola 5. https://www.britannica.com.
period was known for beautiful gopurams.
Vijayanagar period’s unique feature was the
mandapam and the modern period was when
corridors were given prominence.
Glossary
1. indigenous native சுதேசம், உள் நாடு
2. epoch era, age சகாப்தம், வரலாற்றின் ஒரு
காலகட்டம்
3. sanctum a sacred place set apart in a temple கருவறை
4. decadent corrupt, a state of moral decline சீர்கேடான
5. exemplified illustrated, represented எடுத்துக்காட்டாய் திகழ்கிறது
6. niche a cavity, especially in a wall to display a statue சிலைவைக்கப்படும் இடம்
7. motif a decorative design forming a pattern in an கலைப்பண்புக் கூறு
artistic work
8. boulder a very large rock பெரிய கற்பாறை, பாறாங்கல்
9. contemporaries living or occurring at the same time சமகாலத்தைச் சேர்ந்தவர்கள்
10. hewn cut out and shaped செதுக்கப்பட்ட
11. bas-relief a sculpture carved into a wall சுவற்றில் செதுக்கப்படும் சிற்பம்

12. execution carrying out செயல் திறன், ஒன்றைச் செய்து
முடித்தல்
13. recesses hollow spaces inside the wall or a structure உட்பகுதிகள், இடைவெளிகள்
121
www.tntextbooks.in
4. Later Chola period was known for beautiful

Evaluation __________.
5. Vijayanagar period’s unique feature is the
I. Choose the correct answer: _________.
1. Which is the oldest structural temple in
III. Match the following:
south India?
1. Seven Pagodas – Madurai
a) Shore Temple
2. Rathi mandapam – Darasuram
b) Mandagapattu
3. Iravatheswara temple – Tirukkurungudi
c) Kailasanatha Temple
4. Adinatha Temple – Shore temple
d) Vaikuntha Perumal Temple
5. Pudumandapam – Azhwar Tirunagari
2.
In which year were the Mamallapuram
monuments and temples notified as a IV. Find out the wrong pair/pairs:
UNESCO world Heritage site? 1. Krishnapuram Temple – Tirunelveli
a) 1964 b) 1994
2. Kudalazhagar Temple – Azhwar Tirunagari
c) 1974 d) 1984
3. Sethupathis – Feudatories of
What was the special feature of the
3. Madurai Nayaks
architecture of early Chola period? 4. Jalagandeshwara temple – Vellore
a) bas-reliefs b) vimanas
2. Assertion (A): The predominance of
c) corridors d) gopurams
corridors of Rameswaram Temple is
4.
Where is the Azhakiya Nambi Temple striking.
situated? Reason (R): The Temple has the largest set
a) Tirukkurungudi b) Madurai of corridors in the world.
c) Tirunelveli d) Srivilliputhur a) R is not the correct explanation of A
5. Who built the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple? b) R is the correct explanation of A
a) Mahendravarman c) A is correct but R is wrong
b) Narasimhavarman d) Both A and R are wrong
c) Rajasimha
3. Find out the odd one out:
d) Rajaraja II

Srivilliputhur, Azhaharkoil, Srirangam,
II. Fill in the Blanks: Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai.
1. ___________ was the first rock-cut
4. Name the epoch of the following:
cave temple built by the Pallava king
a) A.D. 600 to 850 –
Mahendravarman.
b) A.D. 850 to 1100 –
2. The early Chola architecture followed the
c) A.D. 1100 to 1350 –
style of ___________.
d) A.D. 1350 to 1600 –
3. The most celebrated mandapam in
Madurai Meenakshiamman temple is
the____________.
122
www.tntextbooks.in
5. Find out the correct statement/s: 3. Point out the special features of Thanjavur
1) The Arjuna’s Penance is carved out of a Big temple.
granite boulder. 4. Highlight the striking features of
2) Meenakshi Amman temple in Madurai Rameswaram Temple.
represents Pallava’s architectural style.
VII. Answer the following in detail
3) The cave temple at Pillayarpatti is a
contribution of Later Pandyas. 1. The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition
4) The Sethupathis as feudatories of from rock-cut to free–standing temples –
Madurai Nayaks contributed to Madurai Explain.
Meenakshiamman Temple. 2. Discuss how the architecture of Vijayanagara
and Nayak period was different from the
V. State true or false: one of Pallavas and Later Cholas.
1. Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha
VIII. HOTS:
temple.
2. Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of 1. Dravidian architecture is of indigenous
Later Cholas. origin - Explain.
3. Rock-cut and structural temples are 2. Temple art was at its best during the Nayak
significant parts of the Pandya architecture Period - Elucidate.
4. Brihadeeshwara temple was built by
IX. Activity:
Rajendra Chola.
5. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings are seen at Visiting temples built during the times of
temple at Dadapuram. Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and Nayak rulers
and see the differences in the structural and
VI. Give short answers: sculptural designs of each epoch.
1. Write a note on Pancha Pandava Rathas.
2. Throw light on the paintings of Sittanavasal.
123
www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -3
Jainism, Buddhism and
Ajivika Philosophy in
Tamil Nadu
Learning Objectives
To know the sources and literature of heterodox religious sects: Jainism, Buddhism and
Ajivikam
To gain knowledge of the teachings of Mahavira, Buddha and Gosala,
the founder of Ajivika sect.
To acquaint ourselves with the monuments of the above-mentioned
religious sects in Tamil Nadu.
Introduction period of Jainism, monks strictly followed

During the 6th century B.C. (BCE), the five great vows of Jainism. Even religious
according to the Bigha Nitaya (an ancient scriptures were considered possessions and
Buddhist tract), as many as 62 different therefore knowledge of the religion was never
philosophical and religious schools flourished documented. Two hundred years after the
in India. However, among these numerous sects, attainment of nirvana (death) of Mahavira,
only the Ajivikas survived till the late medieval Jain scholars attempted to codify the canon by
times. But Jainism and Buddhism continued to convening an assembly at Pataliputra. It was
flourish until the modern times. Buddha and the first Jain council to debate the issue, but it
Mahavira, the founders of these two faiths, based ended as a failure because the council could not
their ethical teachings against the sacrificial arrive at a unanimous decision in defining the
cult of the Vedic religion. Their teachings were canon. A second council held at Vallabhi, in
preserved and passed on through monks, who the 5th century A.D., was, however, successful
were drawn from various social groups. in resolving the differences. This enabled the
scholars of the time to explain the principles of
Sources and Literature: Jainism
Jainism with certainty. Also, over time, many
Mahavira's preaching was orally
learned monks, older in age and rich in wisdom,
transmitted by his disciples over the course
had compiled commentaries on various topics
of about one thousand years. In the early
124
www.tntextbooks.in
pertaining to the Jain religion. Around 500 A.D. many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, old
(CE) the Jain acharyas (teachers) realised that Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada,
it was extremely difficult to keep memorising Tamil, German and English. Recognition
the entire Jain literature complied by the was given to 84 books, and among them,
many scholars of the past and present. In fact, there are 41 sutras, 12 commentaries and one
significant knowledge was already lost and the Maha Bhasya or great commentary. The 41
rest was tampered with modifications. Hence, sutras include 11 Angas (scriptures followed
they decided to document the Jain literature as by Swetambaras), 12 Upangas (instructions
known to them. manuals), five Chedas (rules of conduct for
the monks), five Mulas (basic doctrine of
Five Great Vows of Jainism: 1. Non-violence Jainism) and eight miscellaneous works, such
– Ahimsa; 2. Truth– Satya; 3. Non-stealing –
Achaurya; 4. Celibacy/Chastity – Brahmacharya; as Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu. It is believed that
5. Non-possession – Aparigraha. the Panchatantra has a great amount of Jain
influence.
A major split occurred in Jainism (1st
century B.C.), giving rise to two major sects, The Jainacharitha of Kalpa Sūtra is a Jain
namely Digambaras and Swetambaras. Both text containing the biographies of the Jain
Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha, founder
the Digambaras and the Swetambaras generally of Jainism as well as the first Tirthankara, and
acknowledge the Agama Sutras to be their early Mahavira, the last and the 24th Tirthankara.
literature, while they do differ with regard to This work is ascribed to Bhadrabahu, who
along with Chandragupta Maurya migrated to
their content and interpretation. Mysore (about 296 B.C.) and settled there.
Jain Literature
Jain literature is generally classified into Tirthankaras are those who have attained
two major categories. nirvana and made a passage from this world to
the next.
1. Agama Sutras
Agama Sutras consists of many sacred In addition to these, we have some
books of the Jain religion. They have been Jain texts composed in Indian vernacular
written in the Ardha-magadhi Prakrit languages such as Hindi, Tamil and Kannada.
language. Containing the direct preaching of Jivaka Chintamani, a Tamil epic poem, is a
Mahavira, consisting of 12 texts, they were good example, composed in the tradition
originally compiled by immediate disciples of Sangam literature by a Jain saint named
of Mahavira. The 12th Agama Sutra is said to Tiruthakkathevar. It narrates the life of a
have been lost. pious king who rose to prominence by his
2. Non‑Agama Literature own merit only to become an ascetic in
Non-Agama literature includes the end. Another scholarly work in Tamil,
commentary and explanation of Agama Naladiyar, is also attributed to a Jain monk.
Sutras, and independent works, compiled Thirukkural was composed by Tiruvalluvar,
by ascetics and scholars. They are written in believed to be a Jain scholar.
125
www.tntextbooks.in
Jains in Tamil Nadu The facade of the temple is simple, with four
There is a clear evidence of the rock-cut columns. Constructed in the early
movements of the Jains from Karnataka to the Pandya period, in the 7th century A.D. , it has a
Kongu region (Salem, Erode and Coimbatore hall in the front called the Ardha-mandapam
areas), to the Kaveri Delta (Tiruchirapalli) and a smaller cell at the rear, which is the
southwards into Pudukkottai region garbha graha (sanctum sanctorum).
(Sittannavasal) and finally into the Pandya
kingdom (Madurai, Ramanathapuram and
Tirunelveli districts). Tamils broadly come
under Digambara sect. It is believed that the
Kalabhras were the patrons of Jainism.
The Sittanavasal Cave Temple

Sittanavasal cave in Pudukkottai district
is located on a prominent rock that stands
70 m above the ground. It has a natural
cavern, known as Eladipattam, at one end,
and a rock-cut cave temple at the other.
Behind the fenced cavern, there are 17 rock
beds marked on the floor. The stone berths
aligned in rows are believed to have served
as a Jain shelter. The largest of these ascetic
beds contains a Tamil-Brahmi inscription
that dates to the 2nd century B.C. There
are more inscriptions in Tamil from the 8th
century A.D., bearing the names of monks. It
is believed that they should have spent their
lives in isolation here.
Fresco Paintings, Sittanavasal
The murals in the temple resemble the

frescoes of the famous Ajanta caves. The
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) took
over the caves only in 1958. Thereafter it took
two decades to cover the cave and regulate
the entry of visitors. There are the bas- relief
Sittanavasal Cave
figures of Tirthankaras on the left wall of the
hall and acharyas on the right before one enters
The Sittanavasal cave temple, named
the inner chamber, the sanctum sanctorum.
Arivar Koil, lies on the west off the hillock.
126
www.tntextbooks.in
Jains in Kanchipuram the Trikuda Basti, containing information

(Tiruparuttikunram) on the development of the temple, and the
Jainism flourished contributions of various donors over the
during the Pallava reign. In centuries.
his writings, Chinese traveller
Hiuen Tsang has mentioned
about the presence of a large
number of Buddhists and
Jains during his visit to the Pallava country in 7th
century A.D. Most of the Pallava rulers were Jains.
Mahendravarman was a Jain initially. The two
Jain temples in Kanchipuram are Trilokyanatha
Jinaswamy Temple at Tiruparuttikunram, on
the banks of the river Palar, and the Chandra
Prabha temple dedicated to the Tirtankara named
Chandraprabha. The architecture of these temples
is in Pallava style, but it has deteriorated in due
course of time. During the Vijayanagar rule (1387),
Irugappa, a disciple of Jaina-muni Pushpasena;
and a minister of Vijayanagar King Harihara II Paintings on the walls of the
(1377-1404), expanded the Trilokyanatha Temple Trilokyanatha Temple
by adding the Sangeetha mandapa. The grand
murals were added only at this time. In the Kanchipuram district, apart from
Tiruparuttikunram, Jain vestiges have been found
over the years in many villages across the state.
The total population of Jains in Tamil Nadu

is 83,359 or 0.12 per cent of the population as
per the 2011 census.
Kazhugumalai Jain Rock-Cut Temple

The 8th century
Jain Temple, Tiruparuttikunram Kazhugumalai temple
in Kovilpatti taluk in
Mural paintings in the temples show scenes Thoothukudi district
from the lives of Tirtankaras. Unfortunately marks the revival of
the paintings of the Trilokyanatha temple at Jainism in Tamil Nadu.
Tiruparuttikunram have been ruined by over- This cave temple was built by King Parantaka
painting done during renovation. There is rich Nedunjadaiyan of the Pandyan kingdom.
inscriptional evidence inside the second shrine,
127
www.tntextbooks.in
Polished rock-cut cave beds, popularly known Bhairavamalai in Latheri, Katpadi taluk,
as Panchavar Padukkai at Kazhugumalai Vellore district. Of the three caverns, two of
cavern host the figures of not only the them house beds. One houses four rock beds
Tirtankaras but also the figures of yakshas while the other houses one bed. Unlike many
and yakshis (Male and Female attendants rock beds found elsewhere, these ones have
respectively). no head-rests.
Tirumalai
Tirumalai is a Jain temple in a cave complex
located near Arni town in Tiruvannamalai
district in Tamil Nadu. The complex, dated to
the 12th century A.D., includes three Jain caves,
two Jain temples and a 16-metre-high sculpture
of Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara. This image
of Neminatha is considered to be the tallest Jain
image in Tamil Nadu.
Madurai
There are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60
inscriptions and over 100 sculptures in and
around Madurai. The Kizha Kuyil Kudi is a
striking example. This hillock is 12 kilometres
west of Madurai, on the Madurai–Theni
Highway. The sculptures are assigned to the
period of Parantaka Veera Narayana Pandyan
who ruled from A.D. 860 to 900. There are
eight sculptures. The images of Rishab Nath or
Adinath, Mahavira, Parshvanath and Bahubali
are found here.
Sculptures in Kazhugumalai
Cave Temple
Jain Temples in other parts of

Tamil Nadu
Vellore
Fourteen Jain monk beds, dating back
to the 5th century A.D., have been excavated Rock-cut Jain Temple, Kizha Kuyil Kudi
inside three caverns on top of a hill in
Vellore district. The beds are found at the Contribution to Education
128
www.tntextbooks.in
Jaina monasteries and temples also served middle path is based on ‘an eight-fold path’ of
as seats of learning. Education was imparted Right understanding , Right thought, Right speech,
in these institutions to the people irrespective Right action, Right livelihood, Right effort, Right
of caste and creed. The Jainas propagated their mindfulness, Right concentration.
doctrines and proved to be a potential media
Buddha taught not the glory of God but
of mass education. The Bhairavamalai we have
the power of love. He held the view that all men
mentioned earlier is situated near a small village
are born to an ‘equality of rights’. He undertook
called Kukkara Palli. ‘Palli’ is an educational
long journeys and carried his message far and
centre of Jains and villages bearing the suffix of
wide. Buddha preached his teachings in Prakrit.
Palli are common in many places in Tamil Nadu.
His four noble truths are as follows:
The educational institutions had libraries
1. Life includes pain, getting old, disease, and
attached to them. Several books were written by the
ultimately death.
preachers of Jainism, highlighting the important
2. Suffering is caused by craving and aversion.
aspects of Jainism. The permission for women to
3. Suffering can be overcome and happiness
enter into the order provided an impetus to the
attained.
spread of education among women.
True happiness and contentment are
4.
2. Buddhism possible, if one pursues the eight-fold path.
Buddha’s original name, Siddhartha Sakya-
Buddhist Literature
muni Gautama, if translated into English, would
Buddha’s teachings for a long time were
mean Gautama who belongs to the Sakya tribe and
transmitted through the memory of teachers and
who has reached the goal of perfection. Gautama
disciples. They were reduced to writing by 80 B.C.
Buddha was a contemporary of Mahavira. His
and were written in the Pali language. The Pali
father ruled the tribe of Sakya in a region near
canon Tripitaka has three divisions, also known
the present-day Nepal. Gautama found that he
as the Threefold Basket. They include Vinaya
had nothing to learn from the teachers of the old
Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
religions. The religions proclaimed that the only
way to salvation was through living the life of an Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of the order of
ascetic. But despite practicing asceticism, Gautama Buddhist monks, which must be observed for
could not arrive anywhere near the truth. And achieving purity of conduct.
one night, as he sat under a bodhi-tree struggling Sutta Pitaka lays down the principles of religion
with his doubt and his loneliness, a great peace by citing discourses as evidence.
descended on him. He was no longer Gautama, Abhidhamma Pitaka is the latest of the Tripitaka.
the sceptic, but became Buddha, the Enlightened. It deals with ethics, philosophy and meta-physics.
At last, he had succeeded in understanding the
Other prominent canonical literary works in
great mystery of human suffering, its causes and
Buddhism include:
its cure. Asserting that both the king (passion for
Jatakas – various stories of the lives of the
pleasures) and the hermit (self-mortifications)
Buddha found in Buddhist literature.
were wrong, he discovered the middle path. The
129
www.tntextbooks.in
Buddhavamsa – A legend in verse, containing sects of Hinduism. Since the time of Bhakti
a narration of the life and activities of the 24 Movement, Buddhism came to be challenged
Buddhas who are believed to have preceded by its exponents and began to lose royal
Gautama. Apart from the above canonical patronage. The Thevaram hymns of Saiva
literature, there is a long series of non- saints and the Nalayira Divyaprabandam of
canonical literature in Pali. They include: Vaishnava Azhwars provided evidence to the
Milindapanha – which means ‘questions
• challenges Buddhism faced in Tamil country.
of Milinda’. It contains a dialogue between When Hieun Tsang, the Chinese traveller,
Milinda, the Graeco-Bactrian king, and visited south India in the 7th century,
the monk Nagasena over some problems Buddhism was almost on the decline.
that faced Buddhism. It was originally But contrary to popular perception, the
written in Sanskrit. Buddhism did not disappear completely. The
• The two famous Ceylonese chronicles are presence of Virasozhiyam (a 11th century
Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa. The former Later Chola period grammar text, composed
deals with the royal dynasties of the Indian by a Buddhist) and the discovery of 13th
subcontinent including Sri Lanka, while century Buddhist bronzes in Nagapattinam
the latter deals with the arrival of the testify to the presence of Buddhism in
Buddha’s teachings and preachers in Sri later periods. The sculptures of Buddha
Lanka. in Thiyaganur village in Salem district
Buddhagosha’s Visuddhimagga is a later
• strengthen this conclusion.
work. He is the first Buddhist commentator.
Sanskrit literature became prominent
•
in Buddhism with the rise of Mahayana
Buddhism. However, some of the Sanskritic
works were produced by the Hinayana
school as well. Buddhacharita, written by
Asvaghosa, is an epic style Sanskrit work.
It tells the life history of Gautama Buddha.
Buddhism in Tamizhakam
Buddhism is believed to have spread
to the Tamil country by the Ceylonese
missionaries. The evidence in support of this
is some monuments of the Pandya country,
which are assigned to the 3rd century B.C.
(BCE). The monuments are in caverns known Buddha image, Thiyaganur
as Pancha Pandava Malai. Buddhism seems
Though Buddhism faced challenges from
to have flourished and co-existed peacefully
Saiva and Vaishnava sects from the Pallava
with Jainism, Ajivikam and also with various
period onwards. One of the exceptions was
130
www.tntextbooks.in
Nagapattinam, which was supported by Viharas

Chola kings, not for religious but for political
reasons. Chudamani Vihara of Nagapattinam
was constructed by the Srivijaya king with the
patronage of Rajaraja Chola. This vihara has been
since destroyed. The Tamil epic, Manimekalai,
written by Kulavanigan Sithalai Sattanar, is
considered a typical representation of Tamil
Buddhism. Sattanar indigenised Buddhism into
Tamil Buddhism by communicating a large set
Buddhist Vihara of Nalanda in ruins
of Buddhist terms in Tamil, as translations from
Sanskrit and Pali. Excavations of Buddhist Vihara and a
There is a record about a Buddhist monk temple at Kaveripoompattinam and hundreds
named Vajrabodhi, who was skilled in tantric of stone and bronze sculptures by ASI from over
rituals, but this monk left the Pallava court 125 sites have proved the spread of the religion
for China. Mahendravarman’s Mattavilāsa in the state. A 1.03 metre Buddha statue in
Prahasana describes Buddhism as a religion 'padmasana' pose in remote Tirunattiyattankudi
in decay. village in Tiruvarur district was unearthed
when digging a tank in a field.
In the field of education, Buddhist
Sanghas and Viharas served as centres of
education. Students from various parts of
the world came here to receive education.
Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramshila gained
reputation as great educational centres. They
were originally Buddhist Viharas. Students
from Tibet and China were influenced by
Buddhism and they took effective steps to
spread Buddhism.
A Vihara in Sanskrit means ‘dwelling’ or

‘house’. Originally, viharas were dwelling
places used by wandering monks during the
rainy season. Later they transformed into
centres of learning through the donations of
Buddha in 'padmasana' pose
wealthy lay Buddhists. Royal patronage allowed
pre-Muslim India to become a land of many
viharas that imparted university education and
were treasure troves of sacred texts. Many 3. Ajivika Philosophy
viharas, such as Nalanda were world famous. The Ajivikas believed in the doctrine
of karma, transmigration of the soul and
131
www.tntextbooks.in
determinism. The head of Ajivika sect communities under Pallavas, Cholas and
was Gosala Mankhaliputta. The Ajivikas Hoysalas imposed special taxes on them.
practiced asceticism of a severe type. Despite such obstacles, Ajivikas continued
The Ajivika religious order and school of to have influence along the Palar river in
philosophy is known from the Vedic hymns, the modern states of Karnataka and Tamil
the Brahmanas, the Aryankas and other Nadu (Vellore, Kanchipuram and Tiruvallur
ancient Sanskrit compilations and treatises of districts) till about the 14th century. In the
the pre-Jaina and pre-Buddhist age. Gosala’s end, they seemed to have been absorbed into
ideas live on in other religions, though no Vaishnavism.
Ajivika literature has survived.
Summary
Gosala was closely associated with
S ources and literature for study of Jainism
Mahavira for six years and then they parted are highlighted.
company. The Mauryan emperor Asoka
P
resence of Jains in the Tamil country is
and his grandson Dasaratha patronised the examined.
Ajivikas. After the collapse of the Mauryan
J ain monuments and art in Tamizhakam, in
Empire, the sect declined in northern India, particular Sittanavasal and Kazhugumalai
but had by then spread into southern India are illustrated.
where it continued to exist for many centuries. Th
e Jain contribution to education through
‘Palli’ is explained.
Buddhist teachings are analysed.
Buddhism in the Tamil country is explored.
B
uddhist legacy in Tamizhakam is
discussed.
Th
e essence of Ajivika philosophy and its
presence in Tamil Nadu is detailed.
References
1. G
limpses of World Religions: Buddhism, Jaico,
2004).
2. Henry Thomas, Dana Lee Thomas, Living
Biographies of Great Religious Leaders,
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996.
3. Abraham Early, Gem in the Lotus, Penguin,
2002.
Representational Image of
Ajivika ascetics 4. P.C. Alexander, Buddhism in Kerala,
Annamalai University, 1949.
Throughout history, Ajivikas had Times of India, 21 July 2014.
5.
to face persecution everywhere. Village 6. The Hindu, 7 September 2014.
132
www.tntextbooks.in
Glossary
not conforming to orthodox beliefs, especially பழமை சாராத, வழக்கத்திலுள்ள
1. heterodox
religious ones, unorthodox மதக்கொள்கைக்கு மாறான
2. canon a rule, an accepted principle ஒரு விதி, ப�ொது ஒழுங்கு
3. unanimous all sharing the same view ஒருமனதாக
4. ascetic monk, hermit துறவி, சந்நியாசி
5. deteriorate to grow worse சீர்கெடு, ம�ோசமடை
தடங்கள், அடையாளங்கள்,
6. vestiges things left behind, remains, traces
சுவடுகள்
7. cavern a large deep underground cave அடிநில குகை
8. hillock small hill, mound சிறு குன்று
9. facade the front of a building கட்டடத்தின் முகப்பு
paintings done in water colour on a wall or சுவரில் அல்லது மேற்கூரையில்
10. frescoes
ceiling வரையப்படும் ஓவியங்கள்
11. mural a large picture painted on a wall சுவர�ோவியம்
12. impetus motivation, stimulus உத்வேகம், உந்துசக்தி
13. salvation saving from harm, ruin or loss இரட்சிப்பு, முக்தி, விம�ோசனம்
14. sceptic (skeptic) someone who habitually doubts accepted beliefs ஐயுறவுவாத, சமய ஐயுறவாளர்
அடக்கமுடியாத ஆசை, மிகு
15. craving a strong desire விருப்பம்
unfair treatment of a person or a group, especially
16. persecution துன்புறுத்தல், அடக்குமுறை
because of their religious or political beliefs
4) Where are the Rock beds found with no

Evaluation head-rests?
a) Vellore b) Kanchipuram
I. Choose the correct answer: c) Sittanavasal d) Madurai
1. Where was the first Jain Council held to 5)
Who is believed to have built the
codify the Jaina canon? Kazhugumalai Rock-Cut Temple?
a) Pataliputra a) Mahendra Varman
b) Vallabhi
b) Parantaka Nedunchadayan
c) Mathura
c) Parantaka Veera Narayana Pandyan
d) Kanchipuram
d) Harihara II
2) In which language was
Agama sutras written? II. Fill in the blanks:
a) Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit 1) The image of __________ is considered to
b) Hindi be the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.
c) Sanskrit
Buddhacharita
2) was written by
d) Pali
________________.
3) Which of the following was patronised by 3)
Chinese traveller Huein Tsang visited
the Kalabhras? Pallava country in ____________ century.
a) Buddhism b) Jainism
4)
____________ describes Buddhism as a
c) Ajivikas d) Hinduism
religion in decay.
133
www.tntextbooks.in
5)
The Mauryan emperor Asoka and 4) Find out the wrong pair/s
his grandson Dasarata patronised 1. Parshvanatha – 22nd Tirthankara
________________. 2. Mahabashya – the Ceylonese Chroniclei
3. Visuddhimagga – Buddhagosha
III. Match the following:
4. Buddha – Eight-fold Path
1. Kalpa sutra – Tiruthakkathevar
2. Jivaka Chintamani – Madurai V. True or False:
3. Neminatha – Nagasena 1. The 12th Agama Sutra is said to have
4. Milinda Panha – Bhadrabahu been lost.
5. Kizha Kuyil Kudi – 22nd Tirthankara 2. Throughout history, Ajivikas had to face
persecution everywhere.
IV. Answer the following: 3. Education was imparted in institutions of
Jains irrespective of caste and creed.
1) Find out the odd one
4. Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramashila gained
Tiruparuttikunram, Kizha Kuyil Kudi,
reputation as pilgrim centres.
Kazhugumalai, Nagapattinam, Sittanavasal.
5. Buddhism faced challenges from Saiva and
Assertion (A): Gautama found that he had
2) Vaishnava sects from the Chola period
nothing to learn from the teachers of the old onwards.
religions.
VI. Answer the following:
Reason (R): The religions proclaimed that
1. Make a list of the Five Great Vows of Jainism.
the only way to salvation was through living 2. What are the four noble truths of Buddha?
the life of an ascetic. 3. Explain the three divisions of Tripitaka.
a) A is correct. R is the correct explanation 4. Highlight the importance of Sittanavasal.
of A.
b)
A is correct. R is not the correct VII. Answer in detail:
explanation of A. 1. Enumerate the sources of study for Jainism
and Buddhism.
c) Both A and R are wrong.
2. Give an account of relics of Jainism
d) A is wrong. But R is correct. and Buddhism that have come to light in
3) Find out the correct statement/s Tamil Nadu.
i) During the 6th century B.C. as many as 3. Discuss the essence of Ajivika philosophy
62 religious schools flourished in India. and its presence in Tamil Nadu.
ii)
‘Palli’ is an educational centre of VIII. Hots:
Buddhists. 1. Analyse the commonalities and differences
iii)
Royal patronage allowed pre-Muslim between heterodox religions and Vedic
India to become a land of vihars. religion.
iv) The Ajivikas continued to exist till 15th 2. Why did these heterodox religions fail to
century. become mainstream religion in India?
a) i) and iii) are correct.
IX. Activity:
b) i), ii) and iv) are correct.
c) i) and ii) are correct. Students to visit district museums and places,
where excavated Buddhists and Jain relics are
d) ii), iii) and iv) are correct.
on display.
134
www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -1
Sources of
Medieval India
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with

Sources of the study of medieval India
Temples, mosques, tombs, palaces and forts as important sources
Literary and inscriptional texts
Accounts of Arab and Turkish travellers
Introduction:
Do you know the famous words of Khafi
The periods from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 Khan, a courtier of Emperor Aurangzeb?
and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified He says, ‘It is the duty of an historian to
as Early Medieval and Later Medieval periods, be faithful, to have no hope of profit, no
respectively, in Indian history. Numerous and fear of injury, to show no partiality on one
varied sources are fortunately available to the side, or animosity on the other, to know no
historians engaging in the study of Medieval difference between friend and stranger, and
India. Added to the information that can be to write nothing but with sincerity.’
gleaned from inscriptions, monuments and
coins are the accounts left by Arab, Persian and Sources
Turkish chroniclers. These accounts are rich in Sources are the supporting materials,
detail and have given first-hand information on documents or records in the form of evidence
the life of kings, though they provide very little that help to reconstruct the past.
information on the life of the common people.
The opinions of the courtiers and chroniclers Classification of Sources
are often one-sided, written in a hyperbolic
language, exaggerating the king’s achievements.
Let us now explore the various sources available Primary Sources Secondary Sources
for the study of the history of Medieval India.
102
7th_SS_History_Unit_1.indd 102 06/01/2022 03:17:23

www.tntextbooks.in
We examine the details of political,

economic and socio-cultural developments
with the aid of sources.
Primary Sources: Inscriptions, monuments
and coins, and the information available in
them.
Copper plate Inscription
Secondary Sources: Literary works, chronicles,
In stone inscriptions, the beneficence of a
travelogues, biographies and autobiographies.
donor is recorded. The major focus is upon the
Inscriptions giver. Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola
Inscriptions are writings engraved on I and the Anbil plates of Sundara Chola are
solid surfaces such as rocks, stones, temple notable examples. Uttiramerur inscriptions
walls and metals. The king’s royal decrees, in Kanchipuram district provide details of the
dedications and donations, monuments raised way in which the village administration was
in commemoration of victories in wars, those conducted.
built in memory of deceased warriors, contain Various types of lands gifted by the Chola
rich information about the concerned era. kings are known from the inscriptions and
Copper-plate grants, which were treated as copper plates. They are:
legal documents, have significant source value. land of non-brahmin
Vellanvagai
The Islamic-Persian practices and the relatively proprietors
high cost of copper plates made palm leaf and Brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmins
paper cheaper alternatives from 13th century land for the maintenance of
Shalabhoga
onwards. a school
Devadana land gifted to temples
land donated to Jaina
Pallichchandam
institutions
Monuments
Temples, palaces,
mosques, tombs, forts, minars
and minarets are called by the
collective name monuments.
Rock Inscription
Several copper-plate grants issued during
the later Chola period (10th to 13th century)
record gifts to individual priests or teachers who
were Hindu, Buddhist, or Jaina, or to persons
of eminence. Both the giver and the receiver
are very elaborately described. By contrast,
most stone inscriptions differ in their content. Dilwara Temple Mt. Abu
103

www.tntextbooks.in
The Sultans of Delhi introduced a new type The forts of historical importance are Agra
of architecture. The monuments they built had Fort, Chittor Fort, Gwalior Fort and Delhi
arches, domes and minarets as the main features. Red Fort as well as the forts of Daulatabad
The inscriptions in these monuments contain (Aurangabad) and Firoz Shah Kotla (Delhi).
rich information, which can be used to construct Palaces in Jaipur, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur signify
history. The medieval Khajuraho monuments the greatness of the Rajput dynasty that wielded
(Madhya Pradesh) and temples in Konark enormous power from these places. Qutb Minar
(Odisha) and Dilwara (Mt.Abu, Rajastan) and Alai-Darwaza, the tombs of Iltutmish,
constitute valuable sources to understand the Balban and all the Mughal rulers are the other
religion-centered cultural evolution in northern prominent structures recognised as valuable
India. Temples in Thanjavur (Brihadeshwara), sources of information. Cities in ruin such as
Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram Firozabad and Tughlaqabad in north India and
symbolise the magnificent structures the Hampi in south India remain rich repositories
Later Cholas built in Tamil Nadu. Vitala and of the history of medieval India.
Virupaksha temples at Hampi similarly speak
Coins
of the contribution of Vijayanagara rulers (15th
century). The portrait and the legend on the coins
convey the names of kings with their titles,
events, places, dates, dynasties and Royal
emblems. The composition of metals in the coins
gives us information on the economic condition
of the empire. Mention of king’s achievements
like military conquests, territorial expansion,
trade links and religious faith can also be found
in the coins.
Hampi - Vijayanagar
Quwwat-ul Islam Masjid, Moth-ki-Masjid, Muhammad Ghori had stamped the figure
Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri Dargah (all in and of Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and had
around Delhi) and Charminar (Hyderabad) his name inscribed on it. This coin tells us that
are the important mosques belonging to the this early Turkish invader was in all likelihood
medieval times. liberal in religious outlook.
Copper Jitals are available for the
study of the period of the Delhi Sultans.
Charminar Lakshmi Coin of Ghori Coins of Khalji

104

www.tntextbooks.in
Silver Tanka introduced by Iltutmish, Ala- Rajput king’s valour. For pre-Islamic periods,
ud-din Khalji’s gold coins, Muhammad-bin- the only exception was Kalhana’s Rajtarangini
Tughluq’s copper token currency are indicative (11th century).
of coinage as well as the economic prosperity or Books, Biographies and Autobiographies
otherwise of the country of the time.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, patronised by Sultan
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty, wrote
A jital contained 3.6 grains of
Tabakat-i-Nasiri. The compendium deals with
silver. Forty-eight jitals were
the period from the conquest of Muhammad
equal to 1 silver tanka.
Ghori to A.D. (CE) 1260. The compendium
was named after his patron. In the 13th century,
Hasan Nizami, a migrant from Ghazni wrote.
Taj-ul-Ma’asir towards the end of Iltutmish’s
rule. It provides information about Qutb-ud-
din Aibak and is considered the first official
Religious Literature history of the Delhi Sultanate. Zia-ud-din
Barani, a courtier of Muhammad Tughluq,
Devotional movement in South India and
wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, in which he dealt
later in North resulted in the development
with the history of Delhi Sultanate from Ghiyas-
of bhakti or devotional literature. The
ud-din Balban to the early years of the reign of
Chola period was known as the period of
Firoz Shah Tughluq. Ferishta’s Tarikh-i-Frishta
devotional literature and works such as
(16th century) deals with the history of the rise
Kamba Ramayanam, Sekkizhar’s Periyapuranam,
of the Mughal power in India.
Nalayira Divyaprabhandham, composed by
12 Azhwars and compiled by Nathamuni, Tabakat is an Arabic word meaning
Devaram composed by Appar, Sambandar 'generations or centuries'.
and Sundarar and compiled by Nambiyandar Tuzk is a Persian word meaning
Nambi, Manikkavasakar’s Thiruvasagam, all 'autobiography'.
were scripted during the Chola times. Jayadeva’s Tarikh or Tahquiq are Arabic words
Gita Govindam (12th century) was a follow-up meaning 'history'.
of the Bhakti Movement in South India. Kabir
Das, a 15th century mystic poet, also had an In the 16th century, emperor Babur’s
influence on the Bhakti Movement in India. Babur Nama and Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari and
Secular Literature Akbar Nama provided detailed information
about these two emperors. In the 17th century,
Madura Vijayam and Amuktamalyatha
Jahangir wrote his memoir, Tuzk-i-Jahangiri,
were poems composed by Gangadevi and
throwing a lot of light on the period. Apart from
Krishnadevaraya respectively that help us
autobiographies of emperors, Tabakat-i-Akbari,
gain insight into the events and individuals
authored by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, is
associated with the Vijayanagara Empire.
considered reliable than the exaggerated account
Chand Bardai’s Prithiviraj Raso portrays the
105

www.tntextbooks.in
of Abul Fazal. Similarly, Badauni’s outstanding people and the countries he visited. According
work, Tarikh-i-Badauni (Badauni's History), to him, Egypt was rich then, because of the
was published in 1595. This work spans three whole of the Indian trade with the West passed
volumes. The volume on Akbar’s reign is a frank through it. Ibn Battuta tells us of caste in India
and critical account of Akbar's administration, and the practice of sati. We learn from him
particularly of his religious policy. that Indian merchants were carrying on a brisk
Travellers and Travelogues trade in foreign ports and Indian ships in the
seas. He describes the city of Delhi a vast and
Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited
magnificent city. Those were the days when
when the Pandya kingdom was becoming
Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq transferred his
the leading Tamil power in the 13th century.
capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) in
Marco Polo was twice in Kayal, which was a
the south, converting this city into a desert.
port city (presently in Thoothukudi district of
Tamilnadu). It was full of ships from Arabia
and China. Marco Polo tells us that he himself
came by a ship from China. According to Marco
Polo, thousands of horses were imported into
southern India by sea from Arabia and Persia.
Al-Beruni (11th century) accompanied
Mahmud of Ghazni in one of his campaigns, and
stayed in India for 10 years. The most accurate
account of Mahmud’s Somnath expedition is
that of Alberuni. As learned man and a scholar,
he travelled all over India trying to understand
India and her people. He learnt Sanskrit and Ibn Battuta
studied the philosophy of India. In his book In the South, Vijayanagar had many foreign
Tahquiq-i-Hind, Alberuni discussed the Indian visitors who left behind their detailed accounts of
conditions, systems of knowledge, social norms the state. An Italian named Nicolo Conti came in
and religion. 1420. Abdur-Razzaq came from Heart (the court
Ibn Battuta (14th century), an Arab-born of Great Khan in Central Asia) in 1443. Domingo
Morocco scholar, travelled from Morocco Paes, a Portuguese traveller, visited the city in
right across North Africa to Egypt and then to 1522. All of them recorded their observations,
Central Asia and India. His travelogue (Rihla which are very useful for us today to know the
[The Travels]) contains rich details about the glory of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Summary
The period from A.D. (CE) 700 to 1200 and from A.D. (CE) 1200 to 1700 are classified as Early
Medieval and Later Medieval periods in Indian history.
Sources are classified as primary and secondary sources.
106

www.tntextbooks.in
Inscriptions on stones, rocks and temple walls and copper-plate grants with royal orders and
events in the courts, which have evidentiary value are dealt with.
Temples, palaces, mosques, tombs, forts, minars and minarets, collectively known as monuments,
belonging to early Medieval and Mughal periods, are highlighted.
The coins of Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji and copper coins of the later Islamic rulers are
discussed.
Devotional literature belonging to the era of Bhakthi Movement is provided.
Books, biographies and autobiographies that provide information about the political, social and
economic conditions of the medieval times are detailed.
Travallers’ accounts mostly by the visiting Arab and Persian scholars are given in the end.
Glossary
a person who writes accounts of important
chronicler வரலாற்றுப் பதிவாளர்
historical events
animosity hostility, antagonism விர�ோதம், பகைமை
a book or illustrated account of the places visited
travelogue பயணக்குறிப்புகள்
and experiences encountered by a traveller
commemoration in remembrance of நினைவாக
elaborately in detail விரிவாக
minarets a tall tower, typically part of a mosque தூபிகள்
the places, buildings where materials are stored or
repositories களஞ்சியங்கள்
kept
portraits pictures , images in drawing or painting உருவப்படங்கள்
a collection of detailed information about a
compendium த�ொகுப்பு
particular subject , especially in a book
substantiate to prove with evidence சான்றுகளுடன் நிரூபித்தல்
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer 2. _____________ was the land gifted to

1. ____________ are the temples.
writings engraved on a) Vellanvagai b) Shalabhoga
solid surfaces such as c) Brahmadeya d) Devadana
rocks, stones, temple 3. _____________period was known as the
walls and metals. period of devotional literature.
a) Chronicles b) Travelogues a) Chola b) Pandya
c) Coins d) Inscriptions c) Rajput d) Vijayanagara
107

www.tntextbooks.in
4. _________ provides information about 4. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller,

the first Sultan of Delhi. visited the Chola Empire in 1522.
a) Ain-i-Akbari b) Taj-ul-Ma’asir V
Match the statement with the
c) Tuzk-i-Jahangiri d) Tarikh-i-Frishta reason
5. _____________ , an Arab-born Morocco Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
scholar, travelled from Morocco to India. 1) Assertion(A): Muhammad Ghori’s gold
a) Marco Polo b) Al Beruni coins carried the figure of Goddess
Lakshmi.
c) Domingo Paes d) Ibn Battuta
Reason(R): The Turkish invader was
II Fill in the Blanks liberal in his religious outlook.
1. ___________ inscriptions provide details a) R is the correct explanation of A.
about administration in a Brahmadeya b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
village.
c) A is wrong and R is correct.
2. ___________ had stamped the figure of
d) A and R are wrong.
Goddess Lakshmi on his gold coins and
had his name inscribed on it. 2) Find out the wrong pair
3. 3.6 grains of silver amounted to a) Madura Vijayam - Gangadevi
a ___________. b) Abul Fazal - Ain-i-Akbari
4. ______________ was patronised by Sultan c) Ibn Battuta - Tahquiq-i-Hind
Nazir-ud-din Mahmud of Slave Dynasty. d) Amuktamalyatha - Krishnadevaraya
5. An Italian traveller _____________ visited 3) Find out the odd one
Vijayanagar Empire in 1420. a) Inscriptions b) Travelogues
III Match the following c) Monuments d) Coins
1. Khajuraho - Odisha
VI Answer the following in one or two
sentences
2. Konark - Hampi
1. Who compiled Nalayira Divyaprabhandham?
3. Dilwara - Madhya Pradesh
2. What does the word Tuzk mean?
4. Virupaksha - Rajasthan
3. Name Jahangir’s memoir.
IV State true or false 4. Name the two different types of sources for
the study of history.
1. Pallichchandam was the land donated to
Jaina institution. 5. List out the important mosques and forts
constructed during the medieval times.
2. The composition of metal coins gives us
information on the political condition of 6. Mention the important foreign travellers who
the empire. visited India during the medieval period.
3. The high cost of copper made palm leaf and VII Answer the following in detail
paper cheaper alternatives for recording 1. Describe the different types of coins
royal orders and events in royal courts. introduced by the rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
108

www.tntextbooks.in
VIII Answer Grid

1. _____________ was a courtier of Emperor 2. Tiruvalangadu copper plates belong to
Aurangazeb. _________.
Ans: Ans:
3. ______ was the land for the maintenance 4. ______________ compiled Periyapuranam.
of the school.
Ans:
Ans:
5. ______ is an Arabic word meaning history. 6. Muhammed bin Tughluq transferred his capital
from Delhi to ________ in the south.
Ans:
Ans:
IX HOTs
1. The composition of metals in coins is indicative of the economic prosperity of the empire –
Substantiate.
X Student Activity
1. Prepare an album collecting pictures of palaces, tombs, mosques and forts of Medieval India.
XI Life skill
1. Find out from the libraries in your town or village and prepare a report about the primary and
secondary sources available there.
References
1. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, New Delhi:Penguin Group, 2014.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. K.A. Neelankanta Shastri, Cholas. Madras: University of Madras (Reprint).
4. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Axis Books Private Ltd, 2013.
ICT CORNER
Sources of Medieval India
PROCEDURE :
Step 1: Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Click “India ” Option and then select any period (Ex. Medieval)
Step 3: Select any dynasty and then select any Kingdom (Ex. Sultanate)
Step 4: Explore the coins with pictorial descriptions.
Sources of Medieval India URL:

https://www.mintageworld.com/ (or) scan the QR Code
109

www.tntextbooks.in
Unit -2
Emergence of
New Kingdoms in
North India
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge about the kingdoms of Rajputs and their

counterparts in North India
To assess the contributions of Rajputs and Palas to Indian culture
To know about the early military expeditions of Arabs and Turks
Introduction: of Sind (A.D. (CE)712) rather than in A.D.

(CE)1200. But the resistance shown by the
There are plenty of stories that speak of the valour
kings of Kanauj, especially of Yasovarman (A.D.
and chivalry of Rajputs. Rajput states formed
(CE)736) and later by the Rajput chiefs and
a collective entity that was called Rajputana.
kings who held Kanauj and most of northern
Chittor was prominent and had become the
India until the middle of the 10th century made
rallying point for all Rajput clans. It was small
it impossible.
compared to Malwa and Gujarat. Yet the Rajputs
ruled over these states. In commemoration
of the victory of Rana of Chittor over Malwa,
the Jaya Stambha, the tower of victory, was
built in Chittor. The Pratiharas and the Palas
had established their powerful kingdoms in
western India and in eastern India respectively.
By the 9th century, the Pratihara dynasty had
progressed to such an extent that it called itself
the sovereigns of Rajasthan and Kanauj. The
decline of Pratihara kingdom led to the rise of
Palas in Bengal and Chauhans in north-western
India. India’s Islamic period might have begun
in the immediate context of Arabs’ conquest Jaya Stambha
110

www.tntextbooks.in
Origin of the Rajputs Chandelas of Bundelkhand were prominent.

The word ‘Rajput’ is derived from the Tomaras were ruling in the Haryana region. But
Sanskrit word Rajputra, which means ‘scion of they were overthrown by the Chauhans in the
the royal blood’. After the death of Harsha in 12th century.
A.D. (CE) 647, various Rajput clans established
Thirty-six royal Rajput clans were listed
kingdoms in different parts of northern and
by the Oriental scholar James Tod in A.D. (CE)
central India. The Rajputs trace their pedigree far
1829. Among them four claimed a special status:
back into the past. Their three principal houses
are the Suryavanshi or the Race of the Sun, the the Pratiharas, the Chauhans, the Chalukyas
Chandravanshi or the Race of the Moon and the (different from the Deccan Chalukyas), known
Agnikula or the Race of Fire God. Among those as Solankis, and the Paramaras of Pawars. All
who claimed descent from solar and lunar lines, the four clans were of the Agnikula origin.
NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS

N
W E
S
TOMARAS
DELHI
CHAUHANS Kanauj
KAMARUPA
PRATIHARAS
Nalanda
CHANDELAS
PARAMARAS
SOLANKIS PALAS
RASHTRAKUTAS
CHOLAS
Not to Scale
111

www.tntextbooks.in
Pratiharas centuries. Taking advantage of these internecine

The Pratiharas or Gurjara Pratiharas, one quarrels, many local kings succeeded in making
of the four prominent clans of the Rajputs, ruled themselves independent.
from Gurjaratra (in Jodhpur). In the 6th century Palas
A.D. (CE), Harichandra laid the foundation
Dharmapala (A.D. (CE) 770 - 810)
of the Gurjara dynasty. Nagabhatta I was the
first and prominent ruler of Pratiharas. In the Gopala, who founded the Pala dynasty,
8th century, he ruled over Broach and Jodhpur did not have royal antecedents. He was elected
and extended his dominion upto Gwalior. by the people for his superior capabilities.
He repulsed the invasion of the Arabs of Sind During his reign from 750 to 770, Gopala laid
from the east and checked their expansion. He the foundations for the future greatness of
was succeeded by Vatsaraja, who desired to this dynasty in Bengal. Dharmapala, his son,
dominate the whole of North India. His attempt made the Pala kingdom a powerful force in
to control over Kanauj brought him into conflict northern Indian politics. He led a successful
with the Pala ruler Dharmapala. campaign against Kanauj. He was a great
patron of Buddhism. He founded Vikramashila
There was a prolonged tripartite struggle Monastery, which became a great centre of
between the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, Buddhist learning.
the Rashtrakutas of Deccan and the Palas
of Bengal, as each one of them wanted to
establish their supremacy over the fertile
region of Kanauj. In the process, all the three
powers were weakened.
Vatsaraja’s successors Nagabhatta-II and

Rambhadra did not do anything impressively.
Vikramashila Monastery
Mihirabhoja or Bhoja, son of Rambhadra,
within a few years of his accession, succeeded Dharmapala was succeeded by his son,
in consolidating the power of the Pratiharas. As Devapala, who extended Pala control eastwards
a strong ruler, Bhoja was able to maintain peace into Kamarupa (Assam). Devapala was also a
in his kingdom. The Arab menace was firmly great patron of Buddhism. He gifted five villages
tackled by him. After Bhoja, the Pratihara to Buddhists. He also constructed many temples
Empire continued its full glory for nearly a along with monasteries in Magadha. According
century. to the historian R.C. Majumdar, ‘The reigns of
Dharmapala and Devapala constitute the most
Having successfully resisted the Arabs, the
brilliant chapter in the history of Bengal.’
Pratiharas turned their attention towards the
east and by the end of millennium, they ruled After Devapala, five rulers ruled the
over a large part of Rajasthan and Malwa. They region insignificantly. The kingdom attained
also held Kanauj for some time. The Rajputs unprecedented glory when Mahipala ascended
fought each other endlessly in the 11th and 12th the throne in 988.
112

www.tntextbooks.in
Mahipala I (988 - 1038) fought in 1191. However, he was defeated and

killed in the second battle of Tarain in 1192.
Mahipala I was the most powerful ruler of
the Pala dynasty. He is called the founder of the Contribution of Rajputs to Art and
second Pala dynasty. The decline of Pratiharas Architecture
gave the Palas an opportunity to take a leading Art
role in north Indian affairs. But he could not
Rajput courts were centres of culture where
extend his domain beyond Banaras because of
literature, music, dance, paintings, fine arts and
the impressive campaigns of the Chola king from
sculpture flourished. A specific style of Rajput
the South, Rajendra Chola. Mahipala restored
painting—often focusing on religious themes
the old glory of the Palas. He constructed and
emerged at Rajput courts. Their style of painting
repaired a large number of religious buildings
is called ‘Rajasthani’. The Rajasthani style
at Banaras, Sarnath and Nalanda.
of painting can be seen at Bikaner, Jodhpur,
The Pala dynasty declined soon after the Mewar, Jaisalmer (all in Rajasthan).
death of Mahipala and gave way to the Sena
dynasty.
The Chauhans
The Chauhans ruled between A.D. (CE)
956 and 1192 over the eastern parts of the
present-day Rajasthan, establishing their capital
at Sakambari. This Rajput dynasty was founded
by Simharaji, who was popularly known as the
founder of the city of Ajmer.
Rajasthani Painting
The Chauhans were the feudatories of
the Pratiharas and staunchly stood by them to
Architecture
check the Arab invasions. The last of Chauhan The Rajputs were great builders. Some
kings, Prithiviraj Chauhan, was considered of the important examples of the Rajput
the greatest of all Chauhan rulers. He defeated buildings are the strong fortresses of
Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain Chittorgarh. Ranathambhor and Kumbahlgarh
There is a long epic poem Prithvirajraso, composed by the bard Chand Bardai, a few
centuries later. The story goes like this: The daughter of the King of Kanauj was to marry.
A suyamwara (the bride choosing the bridegroom of her choice) was held to enable her
to choose her husband. But she was in love with Prithiviraj and desired to marry him.
Prithiviraj was the enemy of her father. In order to insult him, the King of Kanauj had not only denied
him an invitation but had placed a statue of Prithiviraj as door keeper at the entrance to his court. To
the shock of everyone assembled, the princess rejected the princes present and garlanded the statue
of Prithiviraj, indicating her choice. Prithiviraj, who had been hiding in the vicinity, jumped in and
rode away with the princess in a horse. Later both of them were married.
113

www.tntextbooks.in
Udaipur Lake Palace Jaipur Amber Fort Gwalior Palace
(all in Rajasthan), Mandu, Gwalior, Chanderi fine sculptures. These temples are dedicated to
and Asirgarh (all in Madhya Pradesh). Jain Tirthankaras and Hindu deities like Shiva
and Vishnu.
The examples of domestic architecture
of the Rajputs are the palaces of Mansingh at
Gwalior, the buildings at Amber (Jaipur) and
lake palaces at Udaipur. Many of the Rajput
cities and palaces stand among the hills in forts
or by the side of beautiful artificial lakes. The
castle of Jodhpur in Rajasthan is perched upon
a lofty rock overlooking the town.
The temples the Rajput rulers built have

won the admiration of art critics. The temples
in Khajuraho, the Sun temple in Konark, the
Dhilwara Jain temple constructed in Mount
Abu and Khandarya temple at Madhya Pradesh
are illustrious examples of their architecture.
The Khajuraho in Bundelkhand has 30

temples. The shikharas of the Khajuraho temples
are most elegant. The exterior and interior
parts of the temples are adorned with very Kajuraho
The Raksha Bandan (Rakhi) tradition is attributed to Rajputs. Raksha (protection) Bandhan (to
tie) is a festival that celebrates brotherhood and love. It is believed that if a woman ties a rakhi
around the wrists of male members, it means they are treating them like brothers. Such men are
placed under an obligation to protect them.
Rabindranath Tagore started a mass Raksha Bandhan festival during the Partition of Bengal
(1905), in which he encouraged Hindu and Muslim women to tie a rakhi on men from the other
community and make them their brothers. The exercise was designed to counter British efforts to
create a divide between Hindus and Muslims.
114

www.tntextbooks.in
There are sixteen Hindu and Jain temples

at Osian, which is 32 miles away from Jodhpur.
The Jain temple at Mount Abu has a white
marble hall and a central dome of 11 concentric
rings and richly carved vaulted ceiling and
pillars. Palm Leaf Painting of Palas
Advent of Islam
Islam as a religious faith originated at
Mecca in Arabia. The founder of Islam was
Prophet Muhammad. The followers of Islam
are called Muslims. An Islamic state, especially
the one ruled by a single religious and political
leader, was known as ‘Caliphate’. Caliph means
a representative of the Prophet Muhammad.
Two early Caliphates were ‘Umayyads’ and the
Temple at Osian
‘Abbasids’. Both the Umayyads and the Abbasids
Contribution of Palas to Culture expanded their rule separately by their conquests
The Palas were adherents to the Mahayana and by preaching the principles of Islam.
school of Buddhism. They were generous In the 8th century India, the Arab presence
patrons of Buddhist temples and the famous appeared in the form of a Muslim army that
universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. It conquered the Sind. But their further expansion
was through their missionaries that Buddhism was made impossible by the kings of Gangetic
was established in Tibet. The celebrated plains and the Deccan. By the end of the
Buddhist monk, Atisha (981-1054), who 9th century, with the decline of the Abbasid
reformed Tibetan Buddhism, was the president Caliphate, the Arab garrisons in India and
of the Vikramashila monastery. The Palas also elsewhere threw off Caliph’s control and began
maintained cordial relations with the Hindu- to rule independently.
Buddhist state of the Shailendras of Sumatra
The Turkish governor, Alp-Tegin, was
and Java.
one among them whose capital was Ghazni
Under Pala patronage, a distinctive school (Afghanistan). His successor and son-in-law
of art arose, called Pala art or Eastern Indian Sabuktigin wanted to conquer India from
art. Pala artistic style flourished in present- the north-west. But only his son Mahmud
day states of Bihar and West Bengal, and also succeeded in this endeavour.
in present-day Bangladesh. It was chiefly
represented by bronze sculptures and palm-leaf
Mahmud of Ghazni
paintings, celebrating the Buddha and other
(A.D. (CE) 997 -1030)
divinities. The Pala bronze sculptures from this Mahmud is said to have conducted 17 raids
area played an important part in the spread of into India. At that time, North India was divided
Indian culture in Southeast Asia. into number of small kingdoms. One of them was
115

www.tntextbooks.in
Arab Conquest of Sind and its Impact

In A.D. (CE) 712, Muhammad bin Qasim who was the commander of the Umayyad kingdom
invaded Sind. Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind, and killed him in the battle. The capital
of Sind, Aror, was captured. Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan. He organised the
administration of Sind. The people of Sind were given the status of ‘protected subjects’. There was
no interference in the lives and religions of the people. But soon Qasim was recalled by the Caliph.
The Arab scholars visited Sind and studied many Indian literary works. They translated many
Sanskrit books on astronomy, philosophy, mathematics and medicine into Arabic. They learnt
the numerals 0 to 9 from India. Until then, the people in the West did not know the use of zero.
Through the Arabs, Europe gained more knowledge in mathematics. The importance of zero was
learnt by them from India. It is believed that the people in the West and the Arabs learnt the game
of chess only from the Indians.
Arrival of Turks in India

Shahi kingdom, which extended from Punjab immolated himself because he thought that this
to Kabul. The other important kingdoms were defeat was a disgrace. His successor Anandapala
Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa and fought against Mahmud but was defeated in
Bundelkhand. The initial raids were against the battle of Waihind, near Peshawar, in 1008.
the Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud
was defeated in 1001. After his defeat, Jayapala extended his rule over Punjab.
116

www.tntextbooks.in
The subsequent raids turned his attention to India. Unlike Mahmud

of Mahmud into India were of Ghazni, he wanted to extend his empire
aimed at plundering the rich by conquering India. In 1175 Muhammad
temples and cities of North captured Multan and occupied whole of it in
India. In 1011 he raided his subsequent expeditions. In 1186 he attacked
Nagarkot in Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Punjab and captured it.
Delhi. The Battle of Tarain (1191 - 1192)
Realising the grave situation in which they
were caught, the Hindu princes of North India
formed a confederacy under the command of
Prithiviraj Chauhan. Prithiviraj rose to the
occasion and defeated Muhammad in the
battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191. This was
called the first battle of Tarain. To avenge this
Ruins of Somnath Temple
defeat, Muhammad made serious preparations
In 1018 Mahmud plundered the holy city and gathered a huge army. He arrived with his
of Mathura. He also attacked Kanauj. The ruler large force in Lahore via Peshawar and Multan.
of Kanauj, Rajyapala, abandoned Kanauj and He sent a message to Prithiviraj, asking him
later died. Mahmud returned with enormous to acknowledge his supremacy and become a
riches. His next important raid took place in Muslim. But Prithiviraj rejected the proposal
Gujarat. In 1024 A.D. (CE) Mahmud marched and prepared his army to resist the invader.
from Multan across Rajaputana and defeated Many Hindu kings and chieftains also joined
the Solanki king Bhimadeva I and plundered him. In the ensuing second battle of Tarain in
1192, Muhammad thoroughly routed the army
Anhilwad. Mahmud is said to have sacked the
of Prithiviraj who was captured and killed.
famous temple of Somanath, breaking the idol.
Then he returned through the Sind desert. That The second battle of Tarain was a major
was his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in disaster for the Rajputs. Their political prestige
1030 A.D. (CE) The Ghaznavid Empire roughly suffered a serious setback. The whole Chauhan
included Persia, Trans-Oxyana, Afghanistan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.
and Punjab. The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly
established in India at Ajmer and a new era in
Muhammad of Ghor (1149 - 1206)
the history of India began. After his victory over
Muhammad of Ghor or Muhammad Prithiviraj at Tarain, Muhammad returned to
Ghori started as a vassal of Ghazni but became Ghazni to deal with the threat from the Turks
independent after the death of Mahmud. Taking and the Mongols. After the death of Muhammad
advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid in 1206, his most capable general Qutb-ud-din
Empire, Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni Aibak who had been left behind in India took
under his control. Having made his position control of Muhammad’s territories in India and
strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad declared himself as the First Sultan of Delhi.
117

www.tntextbooks.in
Summary
After Harsha, new regional powers emerged. Prominent ruling dynasties among them were
Pratiharas, Palas, Chauhans and Paramaras.
Pratiharas and Palas were battling to control the northern plains. Their focus was on capturing
the city of Kanauj.
The continued conflict over the possession of Kanauj prompted the local chieftains and kings to
declare themselves independent.
The Rajputs and Palas made impressive contribution to the evolving Indian culture.
The attempts of Arabs to expand were resisted by various rulers.
Military raids of Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century followed by expeditions of Muhammad
of Ghor paved the way for the establishment of Islamic rule in India.
Glossary
scion a descendant of the notable family வாரிசு, வழித்தோன்றல்
unprecedented exceptional முன்னெப்போதுமில்லாத
internecine mutually destructive இருசாராருக்கும் நாசத்தை விளைவிக்கின்ற
portraiture the art of painting சித்தரிக்கும் கலை
elegant grand நேர்த்தியான
monastery a place where monks live மடாலயம்
confederacy a league or alliance of states கூட்டமைப்பு
Evaluation
4. What was the most important cause of the
invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni?
I. Choose the correct answer
a) To destroy idolatry
1. Who wrote Prithivirajraso? b) To plunder the wealth of India
c) To spread Islam in India
a) Kalhana
d) To establish a Muslim state in India
b) Vishakadatta
c) Rajasekara
II Fill in the blanks
d) Chand Bardai
1. _____________ was the founder of
2. Who was the first prominent ruler of
Vikramashila University.
Pratiharas?
2. Arabs conquered Sind in
a) Bhoja I b) Naga Bhatta I
________________.
c) Jayapala d) Chandradeva
3. The city of Ajmeer was founded by
3. Ghazni was a small principality in _______ ______________.
a) Mangolia b) Turkey 4. The Khandarya temple is in
c) Persia d) Afghanistan __________________________.
118

www.tntextbooks.in
III Match the following a) R is the correct explanation of A.
1. Khajuraho - Mount Abu b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
2. Sun temple - Bundelkhand c) A is correct and R is wrong.

d) A is wrong and R is correct.
3. Dilwara Temple - Konark
4. Assertion:- The second battle of Tarain
IV True or False was lost by Prithiviraj.
1. Rajputra is a Latin word. Reason:-There was disunity among the
2. King Gopala was elected by the people. Rajputs
3. The temple at Mount Abu is dedicated to
a) R is the correct explanation of A.
Lord Shiva.
b) R is not the correct explanation of A.
4. Raksha Bandan is a festival of brotherhood.
c) A is correct and R is wrong.
5. Indians learnt the numerals 0 – 9 from
Arabs. d) A is wrong and R is correct.
5. Consider the following statements and
V Consider the following statements.
find out which is/are correct.
Tick ( √ ) the appropriate answer.
1. R
aksha Bandan tradition is attributed to
1. Assertion:- The tripartite struggle was to
Rajputs.
have control over Kanauj.
2. Tagore started a mass Raksha Bandan
Reason:-Kanauj was a big city. festival during Partition of Bengal
a) R is the correct explanation of A. 3. R
aksha Bandan was to counter the
b) R is not the correct explanation of A. British attempt to create a divide
c) A is wrong and R is correct. between Hindus and Muslims.
d) A and R are wrong. a) 1 is correct.
2. Statement I. Mahipala could not extend b) 2 is correct.
his domain beyond Benaras. c) 3 is correct.
Statement II. Mahipala and Rajendra d) All the above are correct.
Chola were contemporaries. VI Answer in one or two sentences
a) I is correct. 1. Write about tripartite struggle over Kanauj.
b) II is correct. 2. Name any four Rajput clans.
c) I and II are correct. 3. Who was the founder of Pala dynasty?
d) I and II are false. 4. Mention the first two early Caliphates.
5. Name the ruler of Sind who was defeated
3. Assertion:- India’s Islamic period did not
by Qasim.
begin after Arab conquest of Sind in AD
(CE)712. VII Answer the following in detail
Reason:- Gurjara Pratiharas gave a stiff 1. What was the impact of Arab conquest of
resistance to Arabs. Sind? (point out any five)
119

www.tntextbooks.in
VIII HOTs
a. Difference between Mahmud Ghazni’s invasion and Muhammad Ghor’s invasion.
b. Find out
First battle of Tarain Second battle of Tarain
Fought in the year
Causes for the battle
Who defeated whom?
What was the result?
IX Students activity
a) Word Splash
(Students discuss what they know about the Harsha Rajputs

words given here. They use the words from Kanauj Vikramashila
what they have learnt in a narrative form) Prithiviraj Caliph
b) Time Line
Write the event for the given year in each column.
Advent of Islam in India
A.D.( C.E) 1192
A.D. ( C.E)1191
A.D. ( C.E) 1175
A.D. ( C.E) 1030
A.D. ( C.E)1001
A.D. ( C.E)712
X Map work
On the river map of India mark the territories ruled by Pratiharas, Chauhans, Palas and Paramaras.
120

www.tntextbooks.in
XI Answer Grid
1. W
ho was the Shahi ruler of Punjab 2. Rajput style of Painting is called _________
defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni? Ans:
Ans:
3. How many Rajput clans were there? 4. W
ho established the first Islamic empire in
Ans: India?
Ans:
5. Who was the first Sultan of Delhi? 6. Where is Mecca?
Ans: Ans:
XII Life skill

1. Make an album with the pictures of temples built by Rajput rulers.
References
1. Romila Thapar, Early India, New Delhi: Penguin, 2002.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004 (Reprint).
3. S.K. Singh, History of Medieval India, New Delhi: Axis Books, 2013.
4. K.V Rajendra, Ancient and Medieval Indian History, New Delhi: Pacific Publication, 2010.
121

History 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

History 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

www.tntextbooks.

UNIT Bahmani and Vijayanagar

make Devagiri (renamed as Daulatabad) as the

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 175 01-03-2020 18:52:21

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 176 01-03-2020 18:52:21

Mohammed I (1358–1375) capital was shifted from Gulbarga to Bidar in

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 177 01-03-2020 18:52:21

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 178 01-03-2020 18:52:21

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 179 01-03-2020 18:52:21

II the Tuluva dynasty (1505–1570) and the

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 180 01-03-2020 18:52:22

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 181 01-03-2020 18:52:22

The battle of Talikota (1565)

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 182 01-03-2020 18:52:22

By 1400, there were five rajyas in the Tamil

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 183 01-03-2020 18:52:22

Little Kingdoms in Ramanathapuram and Pudukottai

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 184 01-03-2020 18:52:22

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 185 01-03-2020 18:52:22

at Kanchipuram and in the Jambukesvara

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 186 01-03-2020 18:52:22

Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms 187

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 187 01-03-2020 18:52:22

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 188 01-03-2020 18:52:22

III. Write short answers Activity

6. Explain the location of Golkonda fort and its

IV. Answer the following in detail B enjamin B. Cohen, Kingship and

Accumulated gathered சேர்த்த

Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms 189

XI History - Lesson 12.indd 189 01-03-2020 18:52:22

UNIT Cultural Development

Introduction in Kannada, Vikramarjuna-vijayam, also

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 117 29-02-2020 13:17:10

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 118 29-02-2020 13:17:10

I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale

Cultural Development in South India 119

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 119 29-02-2020 13:17:10

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 120 29-02-2020 13:17:10

same goddess is called Huccimalligudi, which

Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

the title Tribhuvacharya (maker of the three

At the south-eastern corner of the village is

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 121 29-02-2020 13:17:11

122 Cultural Development in South India

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 122 29-02-2020 13:17:12

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 123 29-02-2020 13:17:12

124 Cultural Development in South India

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 124 29-02-2020 13:17:13

to be very important and a series of sculptures Maritime Trade

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 125 29-02-2020 13:17:13

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 126 29-02-2020 13:17:13

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 127 29-02-2020 13:17:13

128 Cultural Development in South India

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 128 29-02-2020 13:17:14

Hariti with children are significant. Bodhisattva

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 129 29-02-2020 13:17:15

130 Cultural Development in South India

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 130 29-02-2020 13:17:15

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 131 29-02-2020 13:17:16

XI History - Lesson 9.indd 132 29-02-2020 13:17:16

from Jataka stories and select scenes from 3. Kambuja is modern__________.

EXERCISE II. Write Brief Answers

1. Which one of the following is not properly 3. 

6. Explain the location of Golkonda fort and its

IV. Answer the following in detail B enjamin B. Cohen, Kingship and

1. Which one of the following is not properly 3.

(a) Govinda III – Vatabi 4. Point out the contribution of Ramanujar in

3. Describe the architectural excellence of shore 2. Noburu Karasimha, A Concise History of

Summary Use of iron plough and axe helped