INTRODUCTION

Vijayanagara Empire occupies a prominent place in the study of medieval Indian history.
The formation of the Vijayanagara Empire took place in the mid fourteenth century, at a time
when there was no single predominant power or competitive empire or states to lay claim to the
territorial or imperial power in South India. From the fourteenth to the seventeenth
century the Vijayanagara Empire spanned a vast area and incorporated diverse ethnic,
linguistic, socio-economic and political groups. The history of Vijayanagara has always been a
fascinating subject to the historians since 1900.

Historians have analyzed Vijayanagara history using various approaches such as the Orientalist
approach, the Regionalist approach, the Nationalist approach, the Segmentary Statehood
approach and the most recent being the Material Culture approach. The recent approach
towards the study of Vijayanagara is the one using an interdisciplinary method of correlating the
archaeologicalremains or data with the reconstruction of the material culture of the period. The
ruins of the city of Hampi afford a wealth of data to the historians who look at
Vijayanagara from an interdisciplinary perspective comprising of the multifaceted
aspects of the empire such as art, history, religion, society, economy, archaeology,
anthropology and so on in understanding the questions concerning the empire. Scholars like
George Mitchell, John Fritz, Vasundhara Filliozat, Kathleen Morrison, Carla Sinopoli and Anila
Varghese have raised questions which are not discussed in the written sources such as
the construction of ritual and cultural space and the kinds of activities that took place in these
speciall zones such as the legitimisation of power, the elaboration of an imperial ideology, the
articulation of beliefs, practices, rituals and expression of art, architecture, craft
production and courtly styles.

Vijayanagar brought a lot of wealth, fame and splendour to Hampi. In those times, most markets
1
in Hampi were always crowded and swarming with buyers and also merchants. These
merchants were not just Indians, but also people from various parts of the world. In no time, the
markets grew tremendously and goods were exchanged for spices and cottons. In ancient times,
thecurrencieswereall silver and gold.

It is said that jewellery and gems were sold in open baskets. The markets were so secure.
Above is an artistic depiction of one of the markets.

2
 HISTORY OF HAMPI
Hampi is also known as Pampa Kshetra, Kishkindha kshetra and even Bhaskara kshetra. These
names were derived from the famous Tungabhadra River Pampa. According to mythology it is said
that Pampa was Brahma’s daughter who was later married off to Shiva. It was here where the city
was built. The word Hampi is another version of ‘Hampe’, a Kannada name. Today, Hampi is also
known as Vijayanagara. As you walk through the remains of Hampi’s magnificent forts,
palaces and gateways, you will get a glimpse of the excellent architecture of those times. The
monuments speak volumes about the history of Hampi that used to be a prosperous and rich
kingdom in the 14th century which was eventually ruined owing to the attacks made by the
Mughals

The history of Hampi dates back to the 2nd and also the 3rd century, that is the Neolithic and
Chalcolithic era. This fact has been established from the ceramic potteries that have been found
here from those centuries. The popular folklore is that two local chiefs called Hakka and Bukka ,
on a hunting expedition reportof an unusual sightingtotheir guru Vidyaranya. Thefascinating sight
was that of a hare who was being chased by their hound. The hare suddenly becomes all brave
and powerful and turns around to chase the hound. This made the Guru believe that the place
where they found this unusually beautiful sight is very special and hence decided to shift their
local capital to this place. This was the start of an empire that went on to become one of the richest.
In a span of over 200 years, a total of four dynasties ruled Vijayanagara which is also called as the
City of Victory.

At one point Hampi was also one of the biggest trading centers of the world. Vijayanagar
brought a lot of wealth,fame and splendourto Hampi. Inthose times, most markets in Hampi were
always crowded and swarming with buyers and also merchants. These merchants were not just
Indians, but also people from various parts of the world. In no time, the markets grew
tremendously and good were exchanged for spices and cotton. In ancient times, the currencies
3
wereall silver and gold.

The Virupaksha temple is located in Hampi. The temple is dedicated to the hindu diety
Shiva.

The Vittala Temple or Vitthala Temple in Hampi is an ancient monument that is well-
known for its exceptional architecture and unmatched craftsmanship

4
SOURCES

The ‘Vijayanagara’ or ‘City of Victory’ was the name of the city as well as an empire which
was founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka in 1336 AD. The Vijayanagara kings
competed with contemporary rulers like Sultans of Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of
Orissa (Now Odisha). The sources of Vijayanagar empire history include accounts of foreign
travellers, Indigenous Works (local vernacular literature) and archaeological excavations.

Sources of Vijayanagara Empire

Sources Literary Works Information

Foreign Traveller RehlatarTuhfat-un- Account of the empire

Accounts Nuzzat byIbnBatuta under HariharaI

Matla as Sadain Wa Majma ul Anaccountofthe

BahrainbyAbdurRazzaq reignofDevarayaII

AnAccountofCountries Vivid account of

BorderingtheIndianOcean and Vijaynagara
their Inhabitants by Duarte governance under
Barbosa Krishna Deva Raya

Duarte Barbosa
Dominigo Paes gave most
detailed accounts of all historic
descriptions of ancient city
Hampi
Governance under
Krishna Deva Raya of
Vijyanagara Empire

5
 FernaoNunizgavedetailed
accountonthehistoryof
Vijaynagar.
Mentioned the
culturalaspectsof
the empire and
admire the jewels
worn of women as
well as how women
were appointed in
the King's service and
also detail account on
the foundation of the
city

Indigenous Works 1.Manucharitam by Polity and political ideas

AllasaniPeddan of the rulers societyand
thecaste system
2.Gangdas Pratapa Vilasam by
Gangadhara

3.Amuktarmalyada by
Krishnadeva Raya

Archaeological Sources Salu Vabhyudyam by Rajanatha 1.Acontemporary drama,

Dindima deals with siege of
Vijayanagara city by the
Brahmins and the
Gajapatis of Odisha after
the death of Deva Raya II

2.Historicaleulogyof
SaluvaDynasty

Inscriptions Bagapellisi Copper Plate Achievement of

Inscription Harihara I

6
 Bitragunta grant of Sangama II Genealogyof5
Sangama Brothers

ChannaRayaPateeka Successful invasions of

Inscription of harihara II BukkaI

Srirangam Copper Plates of Deva Achievements of Bukka I

RayaII

Devulapalli Copper Plates of Genealogy of Saluva

ImmadiNarasimha Dynasty

The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river
Tungabhadra which flows in a north easterly direction. The history of the Vijayanagara Empire
was recovered through the efforts of Mr. R Sewell, who was Keeper of the Madras Record
Office and was tasked with responsibility for documenting ancient inscriptions and remains in
the region. From the above sources, we know how the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire
maintained the well-functioning administrative methods developed by their predecessors
and also their style of architecture.

7
 POLITICAL HISTORY

DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE

HARIHARA AND BUKKA

The kingdom of Vijayanagara was founded by Harihara and Bukka , two of the five brothers
(surnamed Sangama) who had served in the administrations of bothKakatiyaandKampilibefore
those kingdoms were conquered by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate in the 1320s. When Kampili
fell in 1327, the two brothers are believed to have been captured and taken to Delhi, where they
converted to Islam. They returned to the Deccan as governors of Kampili for the Sultanate
with the hope that they would be able to deal with the many local revolts and invasions by
neighbouring Hindu kings. They followed a conciliatory policy towards the landholders of the
area, many of whom had not accepted Muslim rule and began a process of consolidation and
expansion. Their first campaign was against the neighbouring Hoysala king, Ballala III of
Dorasamudra but it stagnated after the brothers reconverted to Hinduism under the
influence of the sage Madhavacharya (Vidyaranya) and proclaimed their independence
from the Delhi Sultanate, however, they were able to defeat Ballala and thereby secure their
homebase. Harihara Ithenestablished his new capital, Vijayanagar, in an easily defensible position

8
 south of the Tungabhadra river, where it came to symbolize the emerging medieval political
culture of South India. The kingdom’s expansion in the first century of its existence made itthefirst
south Indian state to exercise enduring control over different linguistic and cultural regions, albeit
withsubregionalandlocalchieflypowersexercising authority as its agents and subordinates.

DYNASTIES OF THE EMPIRE

The Vijayangara Empire was established in 1336 AD. The Vijayanagara period is divided into four
different dynasties-Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu. It extended from River Krishna to
the extreme south.

 SANGAMA DYNASTY ( 1336-1485)-THE LONGEST REIGN

Harihara and Bukka were thesons of Sangama, feudatories of Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Hoysala
kingdom was conquered and hence, the Vijayanagara empire was extended under Harihara. Bukka,
then succeeded his brother and became the master of Raichur doab after dealing with Bahmani
sultan. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and extended the empire to the whole of south
India. The conflict between Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms was a long lasting one.The bone
of contention was the Raichur doab, between river Krishna and Tungabhadra and Krishna-
Godavari delta. The greatest ruler of Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. During his reign,
Abdur Razzaq visited the Vijayanagara kingdom.

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 SALUVA DYNASTY ( 1486-1505)

SALUVA NARASIMHAN

Saluva Narasimhan was the founder of the Saluva dynasty. He silenced the rebellions of
feudatories and kept the kingdom intact. Immadi Narasimha succeeded him. He was a weak
ruler and hence the control of state fell into the hands of Narsa Nayaka. Vasco Da Gama landed in
Calicutduringhistimein1498.

 TULUVA DYNASTY (1505-1570 AD)

Thesonof NarsaNayaka,ViraNarasimha wasthefounderof Tuluvadynasty. He was succeeded by

his half brother,Krishnadeva Raya in 1509 AD.

10
 SRI KRISHNADEVA RAYA

Upon the accession of Krishnadeva Raya to the throne,thecondition of the empire was unstable,
as he had to deal with rebellious subordinates, aggression of the Gajapathis of Orissa and the
Muslim kingdoms in the north. Krishnadeva Raya won the Gajapathi kingdom in present day
Orissa and extended the Vijayanagara empire to that region as well. Krishnadeva Raya
defeated the Deccan Sultans in the battle of Diwani. He then invaded Raichur doab
confronting Sultan of Bijapur. He was a scholar and wrote the Telugu work
‘Amuktyamalyada’ and a Sanskrit play ‘Jambavati Kalyana’. A new city called ‘Nagalapuram’
was built in memory of Nagaladevi.

BATTLE OF RAKSHASI TANGADI

The Battle of Rakshasi Tangadi is also known as the Battle of Talikota. In 1565 Rama Raya, the
chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into Battle at Rakshasi Tangadi, where his forces
were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victorious
armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few years.

11
Now the focus of the empire shifted to the east where the Aravidu dynasty ruled from
Penukonda and later from Chandragiri.

ARAVIDU DYNASTY(1570-1650AD)
Tirumala Raya ruled in the name of Sadashiva Raya. They failed to repopulate Vijayangara and shifted
to new capital at Penugonda and then to Chandragiri. The last ruler of Vijayanagara was
Sri Ranga III.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EMPIRE

Vijayanagara empire which lasted for more than two hundred years in the Deccan had a well
organized administrative system. It was on account of this system that there was an all round
prosperity in the state. Under the several rulers, the state made a remarkable progress in the
economic,cultural,political and social fields.

COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

The king was assisted by ministers who were nominated by the king. The ministers were
appointed from three classes –Brahmans, Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas. The three important
key posts of the state were the Prime Minister,the Chief Treasurer and

12
the Prefect of the Police. Sometimes two rulers ruled at the same time – a strange practice and
perhaps the only one in history; Harihara I and his brother Bukka Rai ruled at the same time.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

For the purpose of administration,the empire was divided into six provinces. A Province was called
Prant or Rajya. Each province was under a viceroy or Nayak who was either a member of the royal
family or influential noble of the state. Every viceroy enjoyed civil, military and judiciary powers
withintheprovince.He was required to submit regularly theaccount of the income and expenditure
to the central government.

DECENTRALISED ADMINISTRATION

The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted the principle of decentralization of political power. The
empire was divided into provinces, districts, ‘Nadus’, ‘Melagrams’ and ‘Grams’. Administration
of the villages was autonomous.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

The province was divided into smaller units. The village was the smallest units. It was self
sufficient. The village assembly was self responsible for the administration of the village.
Village accountant and the village watchman were hereditary officers. These officers were paid
either by grants of land or from a portion of the agricultural produce.

NAYANKAR SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION

Under this system, the ruler assigned a land track to officials in lieu of pay,that is, for maintaining
themselves and that of their army from the land track itself. These officials or landlords
provided military service to the ruler.

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SOURCES OF REVENUE

Land revenue was the chief source of income. Land was divided into four categories for
purposes of assessment, wetland, dry land, orchards and woods. Usually the share was one sixth
of the produce. Land revenue could be paid in cash or kind. The rates varied according to the type
of the crops, soil, method of irrigation etc. apart from the land revenue other taxes were:
irrigation tax, grazing tax and import-export duties on merchandise goods.

ADMINISTRATION OFJUSTICE

The king was the highest authority or the supreme court of justice. His word was final. Petitions
were presented to the king or the prime minister by all those who had a grievance and these were
disposed of according to the principles of Hindu law. Punishments were very severe. Torture was
used to find out the truth from the alleged culprit. Death sentence, mutilation of the limbs of
the body and confiscation of property were the deterrent punishments for the criminals. In the
villages, panchayats dispensed justice for ordinary crimes.

MILITARY ORGANIZATION

The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, artillery and camels. The rulers of the Vijayanagara
empire neglected naval power. The rulers recruited Turkish archers in the army. The military
organizationwasratherweakanditsprimaryweakness was artillery.

According to Domingoes Paes, a foreign traveller, Krishna Deva Raya’s army included 7,03,000
infantry, 32,600 cavalry and 551 elephants, besides an unaccounted host of camp
followers. Chariots had gone out of use. The efficiency of army was not proportionate to
the number of force.

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SPLENDOUR OF COURT

The court of the rulers of Vijayanagara was known for its grandeur and splendour.Itwas
attendedbynobles,priests,scholars,musicians,astrologers.

ORDERS OF THE RULERS

No written orders were issued by the rulers. The royal words were carefully noted down by
secretaries, whose record was the sole evidence of the commands issued.

THE DEFECTS OF VIJAYANAGARA ADMINISTRATION

The Vijayanagara administration system also had some vital defects which practically were
largely responsible for its fall.

 The provincial governors enjoyed too much power that subsequently caused the
disintegration of the empire.
 The army organization was not at all efficient and had many defects. As the
Vijayanagara kingdom had to fight almost a continuous war against the Bahmani Sultans,
they should have a strong and efficient army which obviously they lacked.
 The rulers allowed the Portuguese to settle on their western coast to have commercial
profit. But that was a great mistake.
 The rulers also failed to develop a sustained commercial activity in spite of various
facilities.

In spite of the defects mentioned above, the administration of Vijayanagara empire was just
and fine.

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 ECONOMICHISTORYOFVIJAYANAGARA

The economy of the empire was largely dependent on agriculture. Sorghum

(jowar), cotton, and pulse legumes grew in semi-arid regions, while sugarcane, rice, and
wheat thrived in rainy areas. Betel leaves, areca (for chewing) and coconut were the
principal cash crops. Large scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's
vibrant textile industry. Spices such as turmeric, pepper, cardamom and ginger grew in the
remote Malnadhill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a
thriving business centre that included market of precious gems and gold in large numbers. Prolific
temple-building provide employment to thousands of masons, sculptors, and other skilled
artisans.
Land ownership was important. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were
given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies made distinctions between land
usesto determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for
perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment. Salt production and the
manufacture of salt were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter),
which was sold as oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable.
Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino
horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made
frequent visit, some captained by the Chinese Admiral Zheng. He brought Chinese products to the
empire's 300 ports large and small, on the Seaand the Bay of Bengal.

16
 The Empire of Vijayanagara was very rich. The foreign travellers who visited the
Vijayanagara Empire have paid tributes to its wealth and splendour. According to Nicolo Conti, the
circumference of the city (Vijayanagara) is 60 miles; its walls are carried up to the mountains and
enclose the valley at their foot, so that its extent is thereby increased. The king is more powerful than
all the other kings of India. All the inhabitants of the country, whether high or low, wore jewels, gift
ornaments in their ears and around their necks, arms, wrists and fingers.AccordingtoPaes,theking
of Vijayanagara had lot of money. The residents of the city of Vijayanagara carried on trade of precious
stones. Thingswereinplenty and also cheap.
The prosperity of the Vijayanagara Empire was due to the growth of agriculture,
industries, trade and commerce. The state followed a wise irrigation policy. Industries were also
encouraged by the state. Commerce was inland, coastal and overseas. There were as many as 300 sea-
ports in the Vijayanagara Empire. There were commercial relations with the islands in the Indian
Ocean, the Malaya Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal.
The exports from the Vijayanagara Empire were cloth, rice, iron, salt, petrol, sugar and spices.
The imports were horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet. Duarte
Barbosa tells us that South India got its ships built inthe Maldives Islands.The artof ship building was
well-known.The coins of the empire were those of gold, copper and silver. There were emblems of
different gods and animals on them.

17
 Vijayanagara Empire occupies a prominent place in the study of medieval Indian history.
The formation of the Vijayanagara Empire took place in the mid fourteenth century, at a time
when there was no single predominant power or competitive empire or states to lay claim to the
territorial or imperial power in South India. An economy or economic system consists of the
production, distribution or trade, and consumption of limited goods and services by different
agents. Economics is the social science that studies economic activity to gain an understanding of
the processes that govern the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in
an economy. From the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries the Vijayanagara Empire spanned
a vast area and incorporated diverse ethnic, linguistic, socio-economic, and political groups.
A prominent feature of industrial production in the region was that some castes had become
famous for the production of standardized articles and such castes had a clear occupational base in
the social set-up of Rayalaseema. Though this feature existed since the time of the
Satavahanas, it was institutionalized in a rigid way during the Vijayanagara period.
Hamsavimsathi refers to many such castes of Rayalaseema which were associated with several non-
agricultural occupations. Golla, Kammara, Kanchara, Agasala, Vadla, Silpakara, Kummara, Jandra,
Thogata, Sale, Gandla, Idiga Medara etc., were some of these castes engaged in manufacturing.
These caste in course of time acquired the characteristics of guilds which were known as Shrenis. In
other words, caste guilds became craft-guilds on the basis of hereditary principles where in the
tradition of handing over the techniques of a particular industry to their sons was well established.
This was also true of the merchants who specialized in trading of a particular commodity and
established trade guilds accordingly like corn-dealers, florists and iron mongers.

18
ECONOMIC STATUS OF VIJAYANAGARA

Agriculture was in flourishing condition in Vijayanagara Empire. The agricultural wealth was
supplemented by numerous industries, the most important of which were textiles, mining and
metallurgy. Another important industry was perfumery. Industries and crafts were regulated by
guilds. There was flourishing inland, coastal and overseas trade which was an important source
of general prosperity. It had commercial relations -with the islands of the Indian Ocean, Burma,
the Malay Archipelago and China in the East and Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and
Portugal on the West. Among the exports, the main items were cloth, spices, rice, iron, sugar, etc.
The main imports consisted of horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silks and
velvets.

The Vijayanagara Empire was the most prosperous state of that time in India. All commodities
were available in abundance remained stored up properly and adequately in case of need. All the
foreign travellers who visited Vijayanagara during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries have given
glowing description of the wealth and prosperity of the state and its people. The Persian ambassador
Abdul Razaq, the Portuguese traveller Paes and the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti have praised the
riches of the Vijayanagara Empire. They state that not only the king and the nobles were rich but even
the common people enjoyed prosperity. The prosperity of the Vijayanagara Empire was on
account of the growth of agriculture, industries, trade and commerce. The land was very fertile.
Mostof the land inthe countryside was under cultivation.

19
Among the cottage industries cotton and textile industry occupied an important position inthe field
of industries. It was flourishing during this period. Thogata, sale, Jandra, and Kurni were the
communities specialized in the art of weaving. Thogata weavers manufactured coloured fabrics while
sale prepared white calico-cloth as mentioned in Rayarekha of Alvakonda. Kurnis originally weavers
of wool also took up weaving of cotton and silk fabrics. On the borders of TamilNadu there were
Kaikkolars (Sengundam Mudaliars), the weavers par excellence. The weaving communities have
separate quarters in the village. The master weavers used to carry cloth to the weekly markets. There
were famous centers for cloth production in Rayalaseema. Jammalamadugu, Tadipathri,
Dharmavaram, Alvakonda, Adavani, Gooty and Bellary were some of them. The coarse cloth was
available in all the places. The weaving communities had their craft guilds based on the castes. Kula

20
seti was the head of the Shernis or guilds. Yarn was also produced in the houses of the farmers. The
raw material required was cotton which was grown in plenty in Rayalaseema region. Neeli (Indigo)
was a vegetable dye produced by the farmers for the textile industries. The dying of yarn and also cloth
was done by the weaver himself. The trade in cotton textiles was flourishing condition. There was
also demand for cotton-cloth in European market.
PRECIOUS STONE
The most important minerals were diamonds and other precious stones. The diamond
mines were the most important as they attracted world markets. Brihatsamhita gives a long list of
gems – Vajra (Diamond), Indranila (sapphires), Opadamaraga (Ruby), Vaidury (Beryl), Pulaka
(Amethyst), Vimalaka (Royal gem), Rajamani (Quartz), Sphatika (Crystal), Sasikanta (Moon Gem),
Saugandhika, Gomeda (Opal), Sankha (Cranch), Mahanila (Azure Stone), Puspharaga (Topaz),
Mukta (Pearl), Praval (Coral). Kautilya says that Diamonds and precious stones were available in south.
The Telugu literature of the period describes nine varieties of gems – Navarathna. The variety of
metals; precious and semi-precious stones and pearls referred to in the Telugu literature proved that
science of mineralogy and metallurgy and gem industry reached a high level. In Rayalaseema,
Vajrakarur, Ramallakota and Munimadugu and its surroundings were famous for diamond
mines. As in the ancient times diamond mines in the medieval period also was considered to be
Royal monopoly. There was Vajra Bhandara. Their prices remained stored up properly and
adequately in case of need. All the foreign travellers who visited Vijayanagara during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries have given glowing description of the wealth and prosperity of
the state and its people. The Persian ambassador Abdul Razaq, the Portuguese traveller Paes and

21
 the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti have praised the riches of the Vijayanagara Empire. They state that not
only the king and the nobles were rich but even the common people enjoyed prosperity. The
prosperity of the Vijayanagara Empire was on account of the growth of agriculture, industries,
trade and commerce.
COTTAGE INDUSTRY
Among the cottage industries cotton and textile industry occupied an important position inthe field
of industries. It was flourishing during this period. Thogata, sale, Jandra, and Kurni were the
communities specialized in the art of weaving. They were said to have been enjoying certain
privilages. The weaving communities have separate quarters in the village. The master weavers
used to carry cloth to the markets. There were famous centers for cloth production in
Rayalaseema, Jammalamadugu, Tadipathri, Dharmavaram, Alvakonda, Adavani, Gooty and
Bellary were some of them. The coarse cloth was available in all the places. The weaving
communities had their craft guilds based on the caste. Kula seti was the head of the shreni or guilds.
Vamanur in Cuddapah district had a weaver’s guild. In addition to the Sudra castes like Thogata, Sale,
Jandras-Malas too took up weaving profession as subsidiary industry .They used to weave coarse
cloth. The carding, combining and spinning were the subsidiary industries based on the cotton
weaving and textile industries. Yarn was also produced in the houses of the farmers. The raw material
required was cotton, which was grown in plenty in Rayalaseema region. Neeli (Indigo) was a
vegetable dye produced by the farmers for the textile industries. The dying of yarn and clothes was
done by the weaver himself. There was also demand for cotton-cloth in European markets.

STEEL INDUSTRY

Iron and steel industry was flourishing in the river valleys as a large scale industry during this period in
the river valleys of Krishna and Tungabhadra. The Hematite Iron Ore occur in huge amounts.

22
Pedda Kolumula, Kolumula Palle and Kolimigundla were some of the famous centres. These centers
got their names on account of the large furnaces or Kolumulu established for making iron. The forests
situated nearby supplied the necessary charcoal. Near Kolumulapalle there was Boggupalle. The
site of Boggupalle was famous for charcoal. Near Chabali there were iron mines. Rayalaseema
contributed much for the development of iron and steel industry.

THE CRAFT GUILD ACTIVITIES

Thecraftguildshadbeendevelopedintoadecidingfactor in the society and in the state politics.
The Vijayanagara rulers were the defenders of the traditions and customs. They enforced strict rules
for the maintenance of KuladharmaandVrittidharmainaccordancewithdharmaShastras.Itis
worthwhile to note that stories of legendary origin of industrial communities were coined during
this period. Salis had two branches – Desisali and Padmasali. Desisalis traced their origin to Pancha
Maharshi while Padmasali to Bhavanarishi. Similarly other industrial communities had the storiesof
the mythical origin of their communities. These stories created a sort of pride in the members, so
that they could have an optimistic attitude towards life though they had just an average living.
According to Manu and Agnavalkya the violation of agreement entered into a member with the
guild or corporation is punishable with confiscation of property and banishments. The guilds
received deposits from the members paying regular interests and extending banking facilities.
They also undertook welfare activities such as construction of Choultries and assistance to the
poor

23
COINAGE OFVIJAYANAGARA
The Vijayanagara Empire from 1336–1646, was situated in Southern India and had a
complex currency system that was used even after the Empire ceased to exist. The standard unit
of coin issued by the Vijayanagara Empire was the gold Pagoda in English or Varaha of 3.4 gr. The
Varaha was also called Gadyana and came in the Ghattivaraha, Doddavaraha and Suddhavaraha
coin. This is used as a reference for the other coins values. 1 gold Varaha = 2 Pratapas = 4 Katis = 8
Chinna = 4 Haga = 2 Bele. 1 Pana or Varaha equaled 16 tara silvercoins,withthe 1Tara to3copperJital.
ThecopperDuggani was equal to2 copper kani or kakin, 5 Kasu and 10 Ara Kasu. There were also other
units of silver and copper based on their relationship with the Pagoda. These coins are now used as
objects of worship in the modern Indian homes.

24
25
 ART ANDARCHITECTURE

The Vijayanagara rule over the Andhra region had contributed to the political
unification whichbrought initstrailas acultural upsurge. Vijayanagara was well known for its
art and architecture. Architectural remains from Hampi help us to get a greater outlook
on the architectural features of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Building Material
The most important feature of the Vijayanagara temple architecture is the use of
granite for the temple structure, halls, gateways and enclosure walls. However, for the
super structures, the Vijayanagara architects preferred the brick and mortar and
stucco carvings.
Ground plan
The temple in this period consists of a Vimana Antarala, closed Mahamandapa
and a Ganga Mandapa. The latter is found in larger temples. The Devi and the Garuda shrines
in the case of Vaishnava Temples and the Devi shrine in the Saiva temples are a common
feature. At Hampi, the temple complexes of Ramachandra and Vitthala are worth
mentioning in this context.

26
.

Basements
The temples of the Vijayanagara period show preference for an Upapitha. In
the temples at Hampi, the Kapotabhadra and Vedibhadra type of sub base are noticed.
Walls

The wall patterns show the bays and recesses of the adhisthana taken up to the ceiling.
The wall is divided into central and corner bays. Each bay is framed by a pilaster topped by a
prominent puspa potika.
Interiors
Spacious and high interiors are the characteristic feature of the Vijayanagara
temples. The rangamandapa of the principal shrine typifies the form and character of the
Vijayanagara temple. Heavy and large sized pillars are used in the rangamandapa while
medium sized pillars are found in the mahamandapa or mukha mandapa. The grandness of
the mandapas not only due to the heavy pillars but also its high entablatures that forms
the central hall.

27
Doorways
Elaborately carved doorways of two or three jambs variety are seen in the temples of
Vijayanagara period. The jambs unlike the earlier period are broad. The shalabhanjika, a
lady holding the lamp and latapatra ornamentation are the common features of the
doorway. The Gajalakshmi or a lotus is mostly seen in the lalatabimba.

The Ceilings
The ceilings divided into a grids, have either lozenge shaped coffers with a lotus
medallion or three tiered domical ceiling with a large puspabodigai drop. Such ceiling
patterns were a part of the Hampi architectural styles of the medieval period.

Staircases
The sopana to the halls of the temples of Hampi is mostly of hastihasta type.

Prakara and theGopurams

The prakara wall pierced with the gateways was a common feature in the medieval
period. During the Vijayanagara period, the Gopuras having five storeys are noticed in
Hampi. They are simple and architectonic. Like the examples at Hampi, the Gopuras at
Tadapatri are richly decorated in ornamental and figural sculpture. The prakara wall is plain
andsimple unlike the richly carved prakara walls of Mallikarjuna temple at Srisailam.

Temple architectures

Examples of temples in Hampi built during the Vijayanagara period are the Virupaksha
temple, the Vitthala temple, Hazara Rama temple and the Krishna temple (built by the King
Krishnadeva raya in 1513 AD to celebrate the conquest of the eastern Kingdom of
Udayagiri or Utkala in the present day Orissa state).

28
Vitthala Temple, Hampi – An architectural Wonder

The Vitthala temple or Vittala temple in Hampi is an ancient monument that is

well known for its exceptional architecture and unmatched craftsmanship. It is considered to
be one of the largest and the most famous structures in Hampi. The temple is located in the
northeasternpartofHampi, near the banks of the Tungabhadra river.
The iconic temple has amazing stone structures such as the incomparable
stone chariot and the fascinating musical pillars. This predominant monument of
Hampi is a major attraction of the ruined town and is a must see for visitors and tourists.

Hazara Rama Temple, Hampi: A story carved in stone.

Hazara Rama Temple in Hampi is an important shrine in Hampi. This small but beautiful
temple is located at the center of the royal area. The temple is dedicated to Lord Rama, a Hindu
deity. It was once the private temple of the Kings and the royal family of Vijayanagara .The
temple is famous for the lovely basrelics and panels depicting the story of the epic
Ramayana.

29
Krishna Temple, Hampi

The Krishna Temple in Hampi, Karnataka is a notable one with unique architecture.
This temple is dedicated to Lord Balakrishna, the form of Lord Krishna when he was an
infant.

The Krishna Temple - overview

The Krishna Temple is also among the group of monuments which is currently
listed as a part of the World Heritage Monuments by UNESCO. This temple was built by the
ruler Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara period in the year 1513 A.D. He erected this
temple in honour of winning the battle and subsequent annexure of Utkala or the
eastern reign of Udayagiri. This place is currently known asOrissa.
The Krishna Temple is known for its exquisite carvings and elegant
architectural design. The King Krishnadevaraya was a lover of art and architecture and the
temples and monuments constructed during his reign are famous for their architectural
designs. Temple campus is adorned with pillared halls and small shrines. This is one of the
rare temples which have epics inscribed on the tower walls. More or less, this temple

30
 is fairly intact and stands testimony to the prosperous reign under the Vijayanagara
rule.

Virupaksha temple
Virupaksha temple is located in Hampi in the Ballari district of Karnataka,
India. It is a part of the group of Monuments at Hampi, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage
site. The temple is dedicated to Virupaksha, a form of Shiva. The temple was built by Lakkan
Dandesha, a nayaka (chieftain) under the ruler Devaraya II of the Vijayanagara Empire. This
temple is the main center of pilgrimage at Hampi, and had been considered the most
sacred sanctuaryoverthe centuries. It is intact amongthesurrounding ruins and is still used for
worship. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known here as Virupaksha, as the consort
of the local goddess Pampadevi who is associated with the Tungabhadra River. There is also
a Virupakshini Amma Temple (mother goddess) in a village called Nalagamapalle, chittoor
district, Andra Pradesh, approximately 100 km from Tirupati

31
 Fall of Vijayanagara Empire

Some where it had to begin, after reaching a zenith, the peak of its glory the mighty
Vijayanagara empire would sooner or later have to face it’s hour of reckoning like other
glorious empire before it. Greatempires like Cholas, Chalukyas , Kakatiyas,Hoysalas,toohaveto
end. Every ending has a beginning; a stage comes when you know that the end is right there
around the corner. Atleast those who are awake, those who are asleep they still continue
to believe that their empire is immortal. However, there was a difference in the way the
Vijayanagara empire ended, unlike the slow decaying of other great empires the end was
sudden it was like being hit with the hammer blow. Not withstanding some losses, when
Talikota happened, Vijayanagara was still one of the large empire down in south. Aliya
RamaRaya though old was not weak and it still had a huge army .But combined might of
Bahmani Sultan at Talikota, poor tactics by the Vijayanagara army, betraying Muslim soldiers
all added up to the defeat.

32
Hampi was still a thriving, bustling city when Talikota happened, and it took a good three to four
days to completely burn, break and loot it.After the glorious reign of Sri Krishna Deva Raya and
the heights Vijayanagara attained in his reign, the fall seemed inevitable some time. Krishna
Deva Raya had no immediate heir, his old son was an infant and when he passed away in 1529,
his younger brother Achyuta Deva Raya became the ruler. It is said that Krishna Deva Raya
himself handpicked Achyuta as his successor, but in reality the power lay with his son in law Aliya
Rama Raya. Going by accounts Achyuta Deva Raya was described as cruel, addicted to
pleasure and not too popular unlike hisbrother.

AN IDOL OF ACHYUTA DEVA RAYA

Achyuta also had to deal with the fact that in the last days of Krishna Deva Raya many of the
feudatories and enemies had scented blood and where waiting to strike back. Apart from the
enemies outside, Achyuta also had to contend with Aliya Rama Raya who literally was the
Defacto power behind the throne. The seeds for the destruction of Vijayanagara where sown
then and there itself.
The first blow was from the Adi lshahis of Bijapur, who still were smart under the loss of
Raichur, and the heavy defeats they suffered at the hands of Sree Krishna Deva Raya. Ismail
Adilshah along with Ummaid Shah and Amir Barad, Ismail Adilshah had already made
preparations to recapture Raichur, Mudgal, and after a seige of three months, both those
strategic forts where back in the hands of the Bahmanis again. It is said that the Sultan, who
vowed not to touch vine till they were captured through a lavish feast to celebrate

33
 the death of Krishna Deva Raya, and the recapture of Raichur, Mudgal. It did not help Achyuta
Rama Raya himself was a coward, and his arrogant, tyrannical attitude, alienated many
friends. The legacy of Vijayanagara built so painstakingly by many great rulers , taken to its
heights by SreeKrishna Deva Raya was now frittered away slowly.

SIVA TEMPLE AT TIMMALPURA

BATTLE OF TALIKOTA

Confrontation Deccan region of southern India between the forces of the Hindu raja of
Vijayanagara and the four allied Muslim Sultan of Bijapur , Ahmadnagar and Golconda . The
battle was fought on January 23rd 1565 at a sight near Bijapur, in what is now in Northern
Karnataka state. The army collectively numbered several hundred thousand with large
contingents of elephants. Each had been gathering in the area since late December 1564.The
battle seems to have been decided by the Muslim artillery and the capture and execution of the
ruling Hindu minister Rama Raya. The capital city of Vijayanagara was captured, destroyed over a
period of five months, and never reoccupy. The Raja and Rama Raya’s brother Tirumala retired to
Penukonda where the latter usurped the thorn in 1570. The battle was decisive in breaking up
the Vijayanagar Empire, domination by Telugu speakers over the Tamil and Kannada speaking
south. It also began a final Muslim penetration of southern India that lasted until the end of 18th
century.

34
 THE BATTLE OF TALIKOTA

LOSS OF CENTRAL CONTROL

The battle of Talikota did not result in the destruction of the kingdom of Vijayanagara
although the capital city never fully recovered from the ravages it suffered. Rama Raya’s brother
Tirumala established the new headquarter at Penukonda and attempted to rebuild the army. The
Nayakas of Madura, Tanjavur and Jinji effectively asserted their independence. Rebellious rulers
arose in many areas. Tirumala appealed to Nizam Shah of Ahmed Nagar for aid against a Bijapur
invasion that reached Penukonda. He then joined with Ahmed Nagar and Golconda in a
campaign against Bijapur. Tirumala accepted the new states of Nayakas oftheSouth,retainedthe
relation with Mysore and Keladi and appointed his three sons as Governors of three linguistic
regions of his kingdom – Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. In 1570, he had himself crowned and officially
inaugurated the Aravidu dynasty, the 4th and last dynasty of Vijayanagara.

35
 THE PENUKONDA FORT

When Tirumala retired, his son, Sriranga I tried to continue the process of rebuilding while
struggling to maintain his place among the Muslim sultanates without any support from the major
Telugu houses. An invasion by Bijapur was repulsed with the aid of Golconda, but subsequent
invasion by Golconda resulted in the loss of substantial amount of territory in the east.
The Vijayanagara government relocated from Penukonda, which had sustained to sieges, to
Chandragiri. Sriranga’s difficulties stemmed partially from the lack of aid from his brothers, who
ruled their separate regions, and partly from the dimensions of his nobles and the semi –
independent status of some of them. Many nobles had apparently decided that it was no longer
in their interests to give full support to the larger state and that, in the absence of overwhelming
power, the development of smaller subregional states was both possible and potentially more
profitable.
Sriranga died childless and was succeeded by his younger brother Venkata II, whose ability and
constant activity, combined with relative dearth of interference by the Muslim Sultanates,
prevented the further disintegration of centralized authority over the next 28 years. A series of
wars between 1580 and 1589 resulted in the reacquisition of some of the territory that had been
lost to Golconda. In the east and the eventual restoration of the Krishna River as
Vijayanagara’s northern boundary, but Venkata spent most of his time attempting to
retain his hold over his rebellious chieftains and nobles. Most the east and the Tamil South was in
rebellion at one time or another: the most serious threat occurred in 1601, when the Nayakas of
Madura, Tanjore, and Jinji came to the aid of the rebellious Lingama Nayaka of Vellore. Venkata
defeated

36
the Nayakas and later made Vellore his capital. But his authority was not in the far south. The
process of decentralization, although halted for a time, could not be reversed. In the northern
areas that had been laid to waste by invading armies, Venkata undertook a program of
restoration by offering lower revenue payments. His tact and firmness led to cordial relations
with the Portuguese, who established a Jesuit mission in 1607. the Dutch were permitted to
build a factory at devapattana and a fort at Pulicat, notwithstanding Portuguese
opposition to the latter. It would appear that by the time of his death in 1614, Venkata had
accomplished enough so that revival of imperial power and prosperity was possible, but
instead rivalries among the nobility rapidly led to further disintegration of the state.

A DUTCH CEMETERY IN PULICAT

SOCIAL HISTORY

The period of Vijayanagara empire is considered an age of prosperity in south India in the
14thcentury. Many travelogues written by visitors, ambassadors and authors of that time provide
ample proof of a vibrant era. Agriculture was the sustenance and the Tungabadra was the life
blood of the capital city.

37
Position OfWomen
Woman occupied a high position in the society. They took part in the literacy, political and social
life of the society. They were educated and worked at various posts in government departments.
They were trained in fine arts like music, dance and painting. They also received training in
wrestling and fighting. They were employed as bodyguard as well. Social wills concerning woman
were also prevalent. These were child marriages, polygamy, dowry system and practice of sati.

EVIDENCES OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AND THEIR ROLE DURING THE VIJAYANAGRA ERA.

38
 Woman worked in different occupations. According to Nuniz, the king of Vijayanagara
also had woman who knows how to wrestle, and others were positioned as astrologers and
soothsayers, and had woman who wrote account of expenses that are incurred inside the gates of
the palace and others whose duty is to write all the affairs of the kingdom and compare their books
with those of writers outside. The kingdom had woman who knew music and to play
instruments and sing. Even the wives of the kings are well versed in music. The kingdom had judges
as well as watchmen who guard the palace every night and they were woman.
Positions of the Brahmanas
The ruler of Vijayanagara Empire gave a lot of honor and respect to the Brahmanas.
Naturally therefore, the Brahmanas exercised a great influence in political and religious fields.
According to Nuniz, the Brahmanas were honest men, very good at accounts but little fit for
hard work.
 Food
Brahmanaswere vegetariansandallotherswerefreetoeatmeatexceptofcows and oxen. Animal
sacrifices were common.

CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION

During the Vijayanagara empire remarkable texts on Hindu religion, philosophy, grammar, drama,
dance, music, etc were produced. The rulers encouraged Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada
literature and languages. It is said that the reignof KrishnadevaRayamarkedthedawnofanewerain
theliteracyhistoryof South India.
He himself was great scholar, musician and a poet. His work in Telugu entitled Amuktamalyda
deals with several matters including the art of government. In his court, there were eight
famous poets called “Asta Digyajas .”
Liberal Religious Policy

All the rulers of the Vijayanagara empires were devout hindus. Most of the rulers were devotees of
Vishnavism. However, they were tolerant towards all regions. The Muslims, the Christians and
the Yahudis and the people of other faiths

39
enjoyed equal freedom. According to foreign traveler, Eduardo Barbosa, “The King allow such
freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed.”

The Virupaksha Temple is an example of hindu temples during the Vijaynagara

period.

While the Ganagatti Temple is an example of jain temple during the Vijaynagara
period

40
RECONSTRUCTINGVIJAYNAGARATHROUGHMODERN TECHNOLOGY.

The advent of digital technology has resulted in a great surge in interest to digitally restore
heritage sites. A large number of cultural heritage sites at Hampi India are largely composed of rock
structures which are in grievous situation and this necessitates the digital preservation of the
sites at Hampi. Digital preservation of the heritage sites can be accomplished using modern
techniques in computer vision and graphics.

The acquisition of the 3D data is an integral step in the digital preservation of the cultural
heritage sites. The classic 3D modelling tools are often derisory to accurately portraying the
complex shape of sculptures found at cultural heritage sites. The advent of inexpensive 3D
scanning devices like Microsoft Kinect and ToF (Tie offlight)cameras havesimplifiedthe 3D data
acquisitionprocess.

The state of the art 3D laser scanning devices generate very accurate 3D data of the objects at the
cultural heritage sites invite a lot of tribulations due to the generation of partial meshes. The
image based methods like SFM (structure from motion) and PMVS (patch based multi-view
stereo) consolidate the 3D-data acquisition process but do not generate high resolution 3D
data to accurately depict the artwork at the heritage sites. This warrants the need for efficient data
processing techniques for the digital preservation of the cultural heritage sites.

Ruins of Vittala Temple in Hampi

41
 The comparison of the rendered scene of the Vittala temple

Hampi with the original image of the scene. Our framework generates a realizable
reconstruction of the cultural heritage sites. The technology puts into service several data
processing algorithms like noise filtering ,3D super resolution, 3D hole filling and texture
mapping for the fine level 3D reconstruction of the objects. The fine level 3D reconstruction
of the objects. The fine level 3D reconstructed models at the cultural heritage sites are
registered with the coarse level models to generate a coarse to fine 3D reconstructed
model.

The coarse to fine 3D reconstructed models are subsequently rendered to obtain a digitally
realizable walk through of the heritage site. Therefore the contributions made by the
technology are the following.

It proposes a framework for the generation of realistic walk-through of cultural heritage sites
with coarse to fine 3D reconstruction.

• It proposes 3D super resolution and hole filling algorithms for efficient 3D processing using
concepts of Riemannian geometry with metric tensor and Christoffel symbols as a novel set
of features.
• It demonstrates the proposed framework for Vittila temple at Hampi ,India.

42
 DATA PROCESSING

Overview of the data acquisition and data refinement pipeline for detailed
reconstruction

The data processing algorithms area vital component in the digital restoration of cultural heritage
sites. The obtained data is in the form of a point-cloud which is filtered using Statistical Outliers filter
in order to eliminate any noisy data acquired during the scanning process. The data acquired using
scanners like laser scanners, Microsoft Kinect or image based methods comprise of certain missing
regions (holes), partial meshes or is of low resolution. To address these issues we propose geometry
based data processing algorithms for 3D data super resolution and hole filling.

• Super resolution.
The point-cloud data obtained from the low-resolution 3D scanner like the Microsoft Kinect or from
sparse reconstruction algorithms usually fail to capture the accurate geometric properties and
detailed structure of the 3D object either due to the presence of occlusions during the scanning
process, non-feasibility of the sparse reconstruction algorithm or adverse scanning environment.
As a result, these

43
techniques fail to portray all the details in a model’s surface resulting in a lowresolution
point-cloud data. The generation of high resolution 3D data is important for the realistic
rendering of cultural heritage sites. Hence there is an immense requirement to produce a high-
resolution point-cloud data from a given lowresolution point-cloud data. Authors in [9] proposed
decision framework for super resolution. The decision framework facilitates to obtain the
comparatively best fit interpolation curve based on the voting parameters obtained from the point
cloud thus producing super-resolved point cloud. However, we propose learning based super
resolution.
Given 3D model is modeled as a set of Riemannian manifolds in continuous and discretized space. A
Kernel based SVM learning framework is employed to decompose a given 3D model into basic shapes
viz., sphere, cone and cylinder using metric tensor and Christoffel symbols as a set of novel
geometric features. The decomposed models are then independently super resolved using
selective interpolation techniques for example the spherically decomposed model is super resolved
using spherical surface interpolation technique. The independently super resolved algorithms are
merged to obtain the final super resolved model.The metric tensor gives the quantitative measure for
the deviation in the manifold from the Euclidean space.
.

Proposed learning based super resolution framework

44
 Hole filling

The 3D data acquired using the proposed techniques consist of missing regions or holes due to
occlusions in the surface to be scanned. To address the issue we propose a hole filling algorithm
using, metric tensor Christoffel symbols as features. The holes are identified by using the
boundary detection algorithm. The neighborhood ofthehole is decomposed into basicshapesusing
akernelbasedSVM learningframeworkwithmetrictensorandChristoffel symbolsasfeatures.

The overview of the proposed hole filling algorithm. The decomposed regions in the neighborhood of
the hole are interpolated using selective surface interpolation techniques. The centroid of the hole
region is computed and the selective surface interpolation is carried out along the directorial
vector.

The point cloud is surface reconstruction using Poission surface reconstruction or Ball pivoting
surface reconstruction algorithm. The surface reconstructed model is texture mapped using image
alignment with mutual information and parameterization of the registered rasters for the surface
reconstruction mode. The overview of the proposed hole filling algorithm is shown in figure. The
decomposed regions in the neighborhood of the hole are interpreted.

Proposed hole filling algorithm

45
 Coarse to fine 3D reconstruction and rendering

In this section we present the coarse to fine 3D reconstruction and the rendering of the reconstructed
models for the generations of digital walkthrough. We carry out coarse level 3D reconstruction using
methodssuchassingleview3Dreconstruction donotaccuratelyportraythegeometricalcomplexitiesof
the artwork at the cultural heritage sites. However the fine level 3D reconstruction of large scale
outdoor objectsisnotfeasibleusingthetechniquesdiscussedintheprevioussection.

To resolve this issue we propose a coarse to fine level 3D reconstruction of the cultural heritage
sites. The coarse to fine level 3D reconstruction is achieved by registering the coarse level 3D models
with the fine level 3D models .The fine level 3D models are superimposed on the coarse level 3D
models by interactively selecting the correspondence points in the model.

The coarse to fine 3D reconstructed models are rendered for the generation of the digital walk-
through. The rendering of the reconstructed models is carried out using either a rendering engine like
OGRE 3D or a gaming engine.

Results anddiscussions

We demonstrate the proposed framework for Vittala Temple at Hampi, India.

 3D reconstruction
The coarse level 3D models at the cultural heritage site are obtained either using single view
reconstruction or using modelling tools. The CAD model for the Vittila temple and the single view
reconstruction of the kalyan mandap at Vittila temple is shown in figure,models are obtained using
scanner,MicrosoftKinectandimagebased methods.

46
 3D super resolution and hole filling.
The processed 3D models are then surface reconstructed using the poission surface reconstruction
algorithm with many parameter valu lowing parameter values Octree depth = 12, Solver divide = 10,
Samples are subsequently node = 2, Surf ace of f setting = 1. The surface reconstructed models are sub
textured mapped using image alignment mutual information and registration of rasters super
resolution models generated for different artifacts of one of the pillars at Main Mantap - Hampi
with magnification factor.

 Coarse to fine 3D restoration

The coarse level models and fine level models are registered using ICP algorithm. The pillars at kalyan
mandap can be classified into 5 different types. The fine level models of the pillars are obtained using
the proposed pipeline and is shown in figure. The fine level models of the pillars comprise of
roughly 300,00 vertices and 600,000 triangles.

 Realistic rendering
The coarse to fine level reconstructed models are rendered using OGRE 3D rendering engine
andunity3Dgamimgengineandtherenderedviewsareshownin figure.

Comparison of rendered views and the original images at Vittala Temple.

Left :Rendered scene, Right: Original image

47
 Conclusion

In this paper we have proposed a framework for the realization of digital walk- through of cultural
heritage sites. Digital restoration and preservation of cultural heritage sites is an important area of
research due to the availability of techniques in data acquisition, data processing and rendering. The
main goal of the paper is to create a framework for the generation of digital walkthrough of
cultural heritage sites. To accomplish this we have proposed a framework for coarse to fine level 3D
reconstruction using coarse level 3D reconstruction of the cultural heritage sites and fine
level 3D reconstruction of the artworks at the cultural heritage sites. We also proposed data
processing algorithms like 3D super resolution and 3D hole filling using concepts of Riemannian
geometry with metric tensor and Christoffel symbols as a novel set of features. We have
demonstrated the proposed framework for Vittala Temple - Hampi, India.

48
 CONCLUSION

The Vijayanagara epoch saw the transition of South Indian society from its medieval past to
its modern future. During the time that the rayas were peninsular overlords and their
capital the symbol of vast power and wealth, south Indian society was transformed in
several important ways. In the beginning, the Vijayanagara kingdom was not very different
from its medieval predecessors, Hoysalas and Kakatiyas. But one difference there was, and it
explained why the latter two kingdoms were replaceable. That was the urgency to develop better
military means to cope with Muslim newcomers to the peninsula. Krishnadevaraya cast aside
the ancient Chola and Pandya kings in the South and installed military commanders who not long
after established centres of sovereignty opposed to his successors. The Vijayanagara
transformation of the old regime out of which its early rulers emerged was not complete by the
late seventeenth century, but it was an irreversible change from that old order.

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known being
the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in
the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired
architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later
in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. Secular royal structures show the influence of
the Northern Deccan Sultanate architecture. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas
trade brought new technologies like water management systems for irrigation. The empire's
patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in the
languages of Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its

49
currentform.The VijayanagaraEmpirecreatedanepochinSouthIndianhistory that transcended
regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor.

Above this is the scene of marriage of Shiva and Parvathi. They're accompanied by
Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswati, Himavant (Parvathi's father).

50