Module II

 Syllabus:

 Noise, noise exposure regulation. Ionizing radiation,

types, effects. Chemical hazards-dust, fumes, mist, vapour, fog,
gases, Methods of Control. Biological hazards-Classification of
Biohazardous agents –bacterial agents, viral agents, fungal,
parasitic agents, infectious diseases.
 NOISE
 Noise is defined as unwanted sound or noise pollution.
 Noise is measured in decibels (dB).
 An 'A-weighting' sometimes written as 'dB(A)', is used to
measure average noise levels, and a 'C-weighting' or 'dB(C)', to
measure peak, impact or explosive noises.
 Remember every 3 dB doubles the noise, so what might
seem like small differences in the numbers can be quite
significant.
Noise Levels in dB
 To evaluate the noise hazards the physical parameter
used as risk predictors are defined as follows: daily noise
exposure level (LEX,8h) (dB(A) being the time-weighted
average of the noise exposure levels for a nominal 8-hour
working day.
 Effects of noise
 Hearing impairment and hearing disorders
 Noise and pregnant workers
 Work related stress
 Influence on work tasks
 Disturbance of speech communication
 Noise as a cause of accidents
 Other health effects
 Types of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
 Temporary Threshold Shift (auditory fatigue)
 temporary loss of hearing acuity after exposure to loud
noise
 recovery within 16-48 hrs

 Permanent Threshold Shift

 irreversible loss of hearing
 Hearing impairment and hearing disorders
= Most important effect of occupational noise
 Excessive exposures to noise are probably the most common
cause of hearing loss due to damage of the inner ear. In general,
prolonged exposure to sound levels > 85 dB(A) is potentially
hazardous although the important factor is the total amount of
exposure given by the level and length of exposure time.
 Risk of instant, irreversible damage begins at +/- 130–140 dB(C)
peak level. (explosions, firearm reports, or electric arcs).
 Noise & health surveillance
Health surveillance for hearing damage usually means:
 regular hearing checks in controlled conditions;
 telling employees about the results of their hearing checks;
 keeping health records;
 ensuring employees are examined by a doctor where
hearing damage is identified.
 Risk prevention
Actions to prevent risks are :

 assessment of the risks;

 prevention of exposure, including the use of personal hearing
protection;
 limitation of exposure in accordance with exposure and action
levels;
 health surveillance;
 information, consultation, and training to, with, and of workers.
 Risk assessment …
Assessment of risks arising from exposure to
noise should consider :

 the level, type, and duration of exposure, including any

exposure to impulse noise;
 the exposure limit values and action values;
 effects of noise on the H&S of workers in ‘risk groups’;
 effects on workers' H&S resulting from interactions
between noise and work-related ototoxic substances, and
between noise and vibrations;
 any indirect effects on workers’ H&S resulting from
interactions between noise and warning signals or other
sounds;
 … Risk assessment
 information on noise emission provided by manufacturers of work
equipment in line with the relevant directives;
 the existence of alternative work equipment designed to reduce the
noise emission;
 the extension of exposure to noise beyond normal working hours under
the employer’s responsibility;
 information obtained from health surveillance;
 the availability of hearing protectors with adequate attenuation
characteristics.
 Risk reduction in practice …
The reduction in risks from exposure to noise should take
into account:
 other working methods that need less exposure to noise;
 the choice of suitable work equipment, taking account of
the work to be done, emitting the least possible noise;
 the design and layout of workplaces and work stations;
 adequate information and training to instruct workers to
use work equipment correctly in order to reduce their
exposure to noise to a minimum;
 … Risk reduction in practice
 noise reduction by technical means:
 reducing airborne noise by means such as shields, enclosures, and
sound-absorbent coverings;
 reducing structure-borne noise by means such as damping or isolation;
 appropriate maintenance programs for work equipment, the workplace
and workplace systems;
 organization of work to reduce noise, by:
 limitation of the duration and intensity of the exposure;
 appropriate work schedules with adequate rest periods.
Organizational & administrative noise
control
Reduction of noise risks by organizational noise-control
measures should consider:
 noise emissions as an evaluation factor in a procurement policy;
 working methods which generate less noise;
 organization of work to reduce noise.

The organization of work could limit the duration and

intensity of exposure by:
 keeping the number of exposed workers to a minimum;
 task rotation;
 scheduling noisy activities for when fewer workers are exposed;
 appropriate work schedules with adequate rest periods.
 Hearing protection ?
 If the risks arising from exposure to noise cannot be prevented
by other means;
 When technical noise control is ineffective, infeasible or
prohibitively expensive;
 Individual hearing protectors should be selected to eliminate the
risk to hearing, or to reduce the risk to a minimum, or at least to
make sure the exposure limit values are not exceeded;
 Ensure the wearing of hearing protectors;
 Check the effectiveness of the measures taken.
 Hearing protection
Some types of hearing protection devices :

 Earplugs : Vinyl, silicone, spun fiberglass, cotton/wax

combinations, and closed-cell foam products that are inserted or
semi-inserted in the ear canal to form a noise blocking seal.
Comparatively, the attenuation is better below 500 Hz and above
2.000 Hz.
 Earmuffs : Ear cups, usually of rigid plastic material with an
absorptive liner, that completely enclose the outer ear and seal
around it with foam- or fluid-filled cushions. Comparatively, the
attenuation is better at intermediate frequencies.
 Earmuffs With incorporated active noise cancellation : a
new technology that especially for the lower frequency range
offers an active noise-level-dependent attenuation, as well as a
passive protection.
 Information and training
Workers exposed to noise should receive information and
training on the risks of that exposure, in particular:

 The nature of such risks;

 The measures taken in order to eliminate or minimize the risks;
 The exposure limit and exposure action levels;
 The results of the assessment and measurement of the noise and
an explanation of their significance and potential risks;
 The characteristics and properties of the hearing protectors;
 The correct use of hearing protectors;
 Why and how to detect and report signs of hearing damage;
 The circumstances in which health surveillance is applicable;
 Safe working practices to minimize exposure to noise.
 Radiation
 Ionizing radiation (high energy) : Alpha-Beta-Gamma

 Non-ionizing radiation (low energy) : UV-light, visible

light, infrared, radio waves, microwaves
 Radiation; ionizing & non-ionizing
Source Frequency in hertz (Hz)
X-rays, about 1 billion
billion Hz can penetrate 22
the body and damage
Gamma rays 10
20
internal organs and tissues 10
by damaging important X-rays 18
molecules like DNA. 10
This is called “ionization.” 16
10
14
Ultraviolet radiation
10
12
Microwaves, several billion Hz, Visible light 10
can have “thermal” or hearing 10
effects on body tissues Infrared radiation
10
8
Microwaves
10
6
Power frequency EMFs 50 or Radio waves
10
800 - 900 MHz 4
60 Hz carry very little energy, 15 - 30 Hz &
50 - 90 Hz Very low frequency (VLF)
10
have no ionizing effects 2
and usually no thermal 3,000 - 30,000 Hz 10
Extremely low frequency 60 Hz
effects. They can, however,
cause very weak electric (ELF) 3 - 3,000 Hz 0
Direct current
currents to flow in the body.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Ionizing radiation (high energy)
 Ionizing radiation is transmitted by radioactive materials
and certain equipment
 It can permeate through many materials
 Definition: “It is a type of radiation that is able to disrupt
atoms and molecules on which they pass through, giving
rise to ions and free radicals”.
 There are 3 types of ionizing radiation; alpha, beta &
gamma radiation
 Ionizing radiation can have various effects on health;
 Radiation sickness occurs after exposure to a very high dose of
radiation. It normally leads to death.
 Exposure to a moderate dose can lead to radiation tumors.
 Other effects are changes in the hereditary material (DNA)
like infertility, malformation of the unborn child and cancer.
Non-ionizing radiation (low energy)
 Is electromagnetic radiation with a lower frequency.
 Not enough energy to pull electron from orbit, but can excite the
electron.
 There are different types;
 UV : eg. Welding arcs, lasers, …
 Visible light : lamps, TL-tubes, welding arcs, lasers, …
 Infrared : heat lamps, electrical heaters, welding process, …
 Radio waves : heating, signal transfer, plastic sealing, …
 Microwaves : electromagnetic waves
 High exposure levels can heat up the body tissue.
 Prolonged exposure to low levels could cause health damage,
depending on the wavelength, the energy content and the depth
of the penetration, like inflammations of the eye, skin burns,
tumors or melanomas and reduced fertility.
 Radiation Units
 Exposure: Roentgen 1 Roentgen (R) = amount of X ray or
gamma radiation that produces ionization resulting in 1
electrostatic unit of charge in 1 cm3 of dry air.
 Absorbed Dose: rad (Roentgen absorbed dose) =
absorption of 100 ergs (The erg is a CGS unit of energy and
work equal to 10−7 joules)of energy from any radiation in 1
gram of any material; 1 Gray (Gy) = 100 rads = 1 Joule/kg;
Exposure to 1 Roentgen approximates 0.9 rad in air.
 Biologically Equivalent Dose: Rem (Roentgen
equivalent man) = dose in rads x QF, where QF = quality
factor. 1 Sievert (Sv) = 100 rems.
 SI Unit for radiation exposure
Coulombs/kilogram (C/Kg)
1 Roentgen = 2.58 X 10^-4 C/Kg
 SI unit for absorbed dose
Gray (Gy)
1 Gy =100 Rad
 SI Unit for radioactivity
Becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegration/ second
Curie (Ci) = 3.7 X 10^10 disintegrations/ second
 Health Effects
Types Sources Health Effects
Ionizing X-rays Cancer, congenital
Gamma rays defects, death

Non-ionizing Ultraviolet skin redness, premature

skin ageing, and skin
cancer
Infrared corneal and conjunctival
burns, retinal injury,
cataract
Laser Skin and eye problem
 Control measures for radiation
 No eating, drinking or smoking at the workplace.
 Implement consequent personal hygiene.
 Leave the packaging of radioactive material intact.
 Do not dismantle radioactive sources.
 Use specific personal protective equipment.
 Place warning signs.
 Cordon off the areas around a radioactive source.
 Reducing Exposure
 Time: Reduce the time spent near the source of
radiation.

 Distance: Increase the distance from the source of

radiation.

 Shielding: Place shielding material between you and

the source of radiation.
 Monitoring
 Dosimeters: Dosimeters are devices used to measure the
amount of energy deposited by ionising radiation. This
measurement is used to estimate the effective dose received
by the human body through exposure to external ionising
radiation.

 Provide a record of accumulated exposure for an

individual worker over extended periods of time and are
small enough for measuring localized exposures

 Common types: Film badges; pocket dosimeters, &

Thermoluminescence detectors (TLD);
 Direct Reading Survey Meters And Counters:

 Useful in identifying source of exposures and in

evaluating potential sources, such as surface or
sample contamination, source leakage, inadequate
decontamination procedures, background radiation.
 Common types:
 Alpha : Proportional or Scintillation counters
 Beta, gamma : Geiger-Mueller or Proportional
counters
 X-ray, Gamma : Ionization chambers
 Neutrons : Proportional counters
 Continuous Monitors: Continuous direct reading
ionization detectors (same detectors as above) can
provide read-out and/or alarm to monitor hazardous
locations and alert workers to leakage, thereby
preventing exposures.

 Long-Term Samplers: Used to measure average

exposures over a longer time period. For example,
charcoal canisters or electrets are set out for days to
months to measure radiation in basements.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
 Chemical Hazards
 Hazardous substances are substances that can have a
harmful effect on health

 Examples:
 Chemicals - organic solvents, acids, pharmaceutical
ingredients…
 Dust - metal dust, wood dust, flour…
 Fumes - welding, soldering…
 Fibers - asbestos
 Routes of entry into the body

inhalation

dermal
ingestion
Type of Health Effects

Acute effects –
immediate reaction

Chronic effects –
develop over years
 Health Effects
 Renal Diseases
 Respiratory Diseases
 Skin Diseases
 Hematologic Diseases
 Cardiovascular Diseases
 Neurologic Diseases
 Carcinogenic
 Teratogenic
 Health Effects
Effects Chemical Agent Industry/Process

Renal Diseases: Battery, chemical

acute/chronic renal Mercury, cadmium, industries,
failure chloroform pesticide
Respiratory Diseases:
Irritation, inflammation Solvents, ammonia Chemical industries

Pneumoconiosis Inorganic dust Mining, construction,

sandblasting, coal

Cancer Chromium Plating, metal refining

 Health Effects
Blood Diseases:
Anemia Lead Battery mfg., lead
smelting

Aplastic anemia Benzene Solvent & soap mfg.

Skin Diseases:
Allergic/contact Plastic epoxides Plastic, varnish
dermatitis

Acne Cutting oils, grease Machine-tool

operators
Skin Cancer Arsenic, tar Petroleum refinery
 Health Effects
Liver Disease:
Acute liver toxicity Carbon Cleaning fluids, dry
tetrachloride cleaners
Liver cancer Vinyl chloride Plastics & vinyl
chloride mfg.

Cardiovascular Disease:
Hypertension Lead, Cadmium Battery mfg. &
recycling
Atherosclerosis Carbon disulfide Degreasing, dry
cleaning
Arrythmias Fluorocarbon, Refrigeration, solvent
trichloroethylene workers
 Gases, vapours and particulates
 Definitions:
 Gas is a term usually applied to a substance that is in
the gaseous state at room temperature and pressure
 Vapour is applied to the gaseous phase of a material
that is ordinarily solid or liquid at room temperature
and pressure
 Aerosol is applied for a relatively stable suspension of
solid particles in air, liquid droplets in air or solid
particles dissolved or suspended in liquid droplets in
air
 Gases, vapours and particulates
 Definitions:
 Mists and fogs are aerosols of liquid droplets formed by
condensation of liquid droplets on particulate nuclei in the
air
 Fumes are solid particles formed by combustion,
sublimation or condensation of vaporised material
 Dusts are solid particles in air formed by grinding, milling
or blasting
 Fibres are solid particles with an increased aspect ratio
(the ratio of length to width); they have special properties
because of their ability to be suspended in air for longer
periods than dusts and other aerosols.
 Control of chemical hazards
 Separate storage of chemicals and food items
 Separate storage of allergens from non allergen
ingredients
 Accurate ingredient listings
 Policies regarding keeping hazardous chemicals in
facility
BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
 Biological Hazards
 'biological agents` shall mean micro-organisms, including those
which have been genetically modified, cell cultures and human
endoparasites, which may be able to provoke any infection, allergy or
toxicity.

 Types of biological hazards :

 Viruses (e.g. hepatitis C, yellow fever)
 Fungi or Molds
 Bacteria (e.g. legionella, salmonella )
 Plants
 Insects
 Animals
 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

VIRUSES FUNGI

BACTERIA PARASITES
 A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only
inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses can infect all
types of life forms, from animals and plants to
microorganisms
 Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms that
thrive in diverse environments. They can live within soil, in
the ocean and inside the human gut.
 A fungus is a primitive organism. Mushrooms, mold and
mildew are examples. Fungi live in air, in soil, on plants and
in water. Some live in the human body. Only about half of
all types of fungi are harmful.
 A parasite is an organism that lives in or on an organism of
another species (its host) and benefits by deriving
nutrients at the other's expense.
 Biological Hazards
 Indicative list of activities with possible exposure to
biological hazards :
 food production,
 activities where there is contact with animals and/or
products of animal origin,
 health care, including isolation and post mortem units,
 clinical, veterinary and diagnostic laboratories,
excluding diagnostic microbiological laboratories,
 refuse disposal plants,
 sewage purification installations.
 Biological Hazards
Biological agents are classified into risk groups, according to
their level of risk of infection:
 Group 1 = unlikely to cause human disease;
 Group 2 = can cause human disease and might be a
hazard to workers; it is unlikely to spread to the
community; there is usually effective prophylaxis or
treatment available;
 Group 3 = can cause severe human disease and
present a serious hazard to workers; it may present a
risk of spreading to the community, but there is
usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available;
 Group 4 = causes severe human disease and is a
serious hazard to workers; it may present a high risk of
spreading to the community; there is usually no
effective prophylaxis or treatment available.
 Risk prevention
 If possible, a harmful biological agent, is to be replaced
with a biological agent which, under its conditions of use,
is not dangerous or is less dangerous to workers' health, as
the case may be, in the present state of knowledge.

 Exposure must be prevented.

 Prevention measures and requirements are different with

respect to the classification of the biological hazard (e.g.
Construction of the workplace, registrations of exposures,
notification of the Government, training programs,
collective protection, …)
 Risk reduction
 The risk of exposure must be reduced to protect the H&S of the
workers, in particular by the following measures :
 an as low as possible number of workers exposed;
 work processes and engineering control measures to avoid or
minimize the release of biological agents;
 collective protection measures and/or, in addition, individual
protection measures;
 hygiene measures to prevent or reduce the accidental transfer or
release of a biological agent;
 use of the biohazard sign;
 plans to deal with accidents;
 testing, where technically possible, for the presence, outside the
primary physical confinement;
 means for safe collection, storage and disposal of waste;
 arrangements for the safe handling and transport.
 Hygiene & individual protection
 No eating or drinking in working areas where there is a risk
of contamination by biological agents;
 Use of appropriate protective clothing or other special
clothing;
 Appropriate and adequate washing and toilet facilities,
which may include eye washes and/or skin antiseptics;
 Protective equipment properly stored in a well-defined
place, checked and cleaned, and replaced if needed;
 Working clothes and protective equipment, must be
removed on leaving the work-area and kept separately from
other clothing.
 Working clothing and protective equipment must be
decontaminated and cleaned or, if necessary, destroyed.
 Selected Infectious Diseases and
Occupations
Agent / Disease Occupation
Colds, influenza, scarlet fever, May be contracted anywhere
diphtheria, smallpox
Tuberculosis Silica workers, people exposed
to heat and organic dusts, and
medical personnel
Anthrax Animal handlers and handlers
of carcasses, skins, hides, or
hair of infected animals,
including wool carpet
processors and handlers.
 Selected Infectious Diseases and
Occupations

Agent / Disease Occupation

Ringworm (in horses, cattle, Pet shop salesmen, stockmen,

deer, pigs, cats, dogs, birds) breeders of cats and dogs, and
other animal handlers

Tetanus Farmers (spores in soil) or

anyone in contact with manure.
 Selected Infectious Diseases and
Occupations

Agent / Disease Occupation

Psittacosis (in parrots, Pet shop personnel, gardeners,
parakeets, pigeons, ducks, housewives, veterinary
turkeys, chickens, etc.) surgeons, and researchers.

Hookworm Miners, agricultural laborers,

planters of sugar, tobacco, tea,
rice and cotton, and brick and
tunnel workers.
 Selected Infectious Diseases and
Occupations

Agent / Disease Occupation

Rabies (e.g. dogs, bats, rats, Veterinarians, letter carriers,
pigs, cats) laboratory research workers,
agricultural workers.

Fungus Farmers, outdoor workers,

animal handlers