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Article history: Pakistan is among the naturally gifted countries that are rich in conventional and renewable energy
Received 15 July 2015 resources. Despite the massive potential of energy resources, Pakistan is still an energy deficient country
Received in revised form and have to import petroleum products to barely accomplish its energy demand. Geothermal energy is
1 February 2016
still one of the unexplored energy resources for electric power generation in Pakistan. Pakistan can
Accepted 16 April 2016
overcome the energy shortage to a significant level by harnessing renewable energy resources, such as,
geothermal energy. Majority of the geothermal hot springs and mud volcanoes exists within the seismic
Keywords: belt of Pakistan. Therefore, the country has viable geothermal energy manifestations. Several hot springs
Geothermal energy in Gilgit and Hunza region are originated due to the collision of Indian Plate with Eurasian Plate. Simi-
Renewable and sustainable energy
larly, various geothermal reservoirs exist in Northeast to Southeast narrow belt along Indus basin margin.
Geothermal power plant
The survey discusses the current energy crisis in Pakistan and addresses the role of geothermal energy
Tectonic zones of Pakistan
for the economic development of Pakistan. We served the manifestation and geographies of geologically
active zones of Pakistan, like fault lines, plate tectonics, belt, and tectonic thrust, cleanest, base load,
reliable, renewable, and sustainable geothermal energy resources. In our work, the hot springs and mud
volcanoes of geologically active areas in maps are enlisted in Tables with potential features. The schemes
used for extraction of geothermal energy for electric power generation are also investigated. The global
electric power production from geothermal energy is visualized and discussed. Moreover, the suitable
moderate temperature Binary Cycle Geothermal Power Plant for electric power generation in Pakistan is
also described in detail. Furthermore, geothermal plants are experimentally summarized in different case
studies. Finally the performance of geothermal and conventional thermal plants is critically analysed.
& 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
2. Geotectonics of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
3. Geothermal energy resources in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
3.1. Hot springs in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
3.2. Mud volcanoes in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
4. Electric power generation from geothermal energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
4.1. Dry steam power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
4.2. Flash steam power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
4.3. Binary cycle power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
5. Comparative analysis of geothermal power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
n
Corresponding author at: COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Pakistan. Tel.: þ 92 313 5855187, þ 39 329 8751672.
E-mail addresses: umairyounas@ciit.net.pk, umair.ciitatd@gmail.com (U. Younas), bilalkhan@ciit.net.pk (B. Khan), engrhallianali@gmail.com (S.M. Ali),
chaudhry@ciit.net.pk (C.M. Arshad), umarfarid@ciit.net.pk (U. Farid), kamranzeb@ciit.net.pk (K. Zeb), fahadrehman@ciit.net.pk (F. Rehman),
ym@comnets.uni-bremen.de (Y. Mehmood), vaccaro@unisannio.it (A. Vaccaro).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.038
1364-0321/& 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413 399
1. Introduction Pakistan has high irradiance of solar energy and 1600 GW gen-
eration is possible annually from solar photovoltaic [14]. Solar
Fully stabilized energy supply is a need of Pakistan for the power is an expensive option for high power generation. On the
economic development. Due to increase in industrialization, other hand, geothermal energy comprises around 2% of the
urbanization, and growth rate, energy demand is increasing renewable energy generation [15]. A surveyed, geothermal energy
rapidly. Developing countries like Pakistan are facing problem to possesses the potential of producing 240 GW of electrical energy
overcome the massive energy demand [1,2] and paying [16]. Geothermal energy, on the other hand, constitutes 5% of
cost on energy import to fulfil the energy demand [3,4]. Due to scientific studies in renewable energy, led by U.S. Geological Sur-
aforementioned factor, Pakistan is bearing demand and supply vey [17].
mismanagement issues in power sector [5–7]. High cast of The authors in [18] stated that, solar and wind energy resources
conventional fuel forced policy makers to renewable energy gen- are intermittent in nature, expensive sources, and complex control
eration. In various categorizes of renewable generation, such as schemes are required to achieve electric power for grid as com-
wind and solar energy, Geothermal energy is still an open pared to geothermal energy. According to Geologists, structural
challenge for Pakistan. This energy generation plant, feasibility studies confirm that Pakistan lies on junction of tectonic plates.
study and reports, and data analysis is never touched in past Therefore, country has abundant geothermal reservoirs including
decades. low, medium, and high temperature to support energy sector to a
The author in [8] described per capita energy consumption is significant level [19]. Worldwide, more focus is given to geother-
directly related to economic development of Pakistan. The mal energy. Global installed capacity of geothermal energy in the
worldwide per capita energy consumption is listed in Table 1. The year 2015 is illustrated in Fig. 2 [20]. Unfortunately, Pakistan has
major contribution of global power generation capacity is illu- no geothermal power plant yet installed [21]. So, among all the
strated in Fig. 1. The authors in [9] described that energy demand above-mentioned renewable energy resources, geothermal energy
will potentially increase. While, conventional energy resources is the least exploited energy resource for electric power generation
will deplete with time, cause increases in prices and largest source in Pakistan.
of environmental emissions [10]. Geothermal energy is the heat energy present inside the earth
The conventional energy resources emits harmful emissions in surface in the form of hot springs, fumaroles, volcanoes, and
environment including CO2, SOx, and NOx . Due to depletion of geysers. This heat inside the earth is naturally created due to the
coal, petroleum, and natural gas reserves, renewable energy continuous decay of fossil fuels (20%) and radioactive minerals
resources is the best solution for future electric power generation. (80%) [22,23]. Moreover, geothermal energy is one of the cleanest,
The renewable energy resources including solar, wind, biogas, and abundant, reliable, renewable, and sustainable energy resources.
geothermal energy resources are environment friendly, produce Consequently, it produces less carbon emissions as compared to
less emission, viable, and alternative resource of power generation coal, oil, and gas [3]. In addition, the key benefit of geothermal
to meet the future energy demand. The energy demand is energy is its 24 h availability, so called base load energy resource,
increasing at the rate of 2% annually, while renewable energy while solar works only in daylights while wind turbines only work
generation is capacity is increasing at rate of 5.2% annually which in the presence of favourable wind speed [4].
is even more than twice of demand. Thus, renewable resources are The occurrence of geothermal energy is analysed in four different
the best solution to balance energy demand and supply.
types, namely hydrothermal, geo-pressured, hot rock, and dry rock.
Renewable energy resources originates from natural resources,
Due to versatility for various daily lie applications, the most explored
such as sunlight: water, wind, ocean tides, and biomass energy. In
form is hydrothermal resources [24]. Aforesaid geothermal energy
Pakistan resources are unlimited and replenished naturally [11,12].
resources provide temperature variations respective to the depth of
Pakistan has a great potential of aforementioned renewable
reservoir well. However, the temperature is minor near to the surface
energy resources in various provinces such as in Punjab, North
and increase down towards core of earth. 1.5 km deep well of geo-
West KPK, and in 1000 km (km) coastline of Sindh, the average
thermal reservoir provide hot water to the surface [17]. The hot water
wind speed is almost in the range of 5–7 m/s [13]. Similarly,
is further utilized in various direct heating and indirect (electric power
generation) applications [25]. The critical analysis of depth and
Table 1
Global power generation capacity till end of 2012.
USA 13,361
France 7756
Germany 7217
China 2942
Turkey 2474
India 644
Sri Lanka 636.3
Pakistan 457
Nepal 454.1
Bangladesh 278.1
Afghanistan 119.8
Fig. 1. Shares of global energy resources.
400 U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413
Table 2
Survey of geothermal energy resources of Pakistan.
Himalayan Collision Zone. types of sedimentary formations has been identified in different
Chagai Volcanic Arc. regions in Pakistan and still various places are not investigated.
Indus Basin Margin. The low to high enthalpy brines geothermal reservoirs addressed
by [52] are illustrated in Fig. 7. Moreover, the most famous areas
Pakistan is a huge museum of geological formations and from are active in geothermal reservoirs including: (a) Rakaposhi is
centuries and had variety of rocks exists. In Pre-Cretaceous a steepest place on the earth, (b) K2 is second highest peak in the
period Indian mass are buckled with Africa and still exists. While, world, and (c) Nanga Parbat is the highest mountain in the world.
in Late Cenozoic period, Indian plate collides with Eurasian mass, Fumaroles of pure dry steam are emitting from foothill side of the
forming huge chains of mountains in North and North West of Nanga Parbat. This dry steam is a geothermal energy source and
sub-continent, namely Himalayas, Karakorum, and Hindukush [9]. found rare in the world. Furthermore, some important potential
The mountains are still considered as geologically active areas of areas added in research by [51] are demonstrated in Fig. 8 and
the world. By report of Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) “110” listed below:
U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413 403
Northern Areas of Pakistan contains variety of hot springs with Indian plate with Eurasian plate as mentioned earlier [32]. The
high and intermediate temperature. geothermal manifestations are rigorous along these structures, as
Western Baluchistan has hot springs with high temperature demonstrated in Fig. 9 [32].
brine whereas South Baluchistan region has hot springs with
low brine temperature. 3.1. Hot springs in Pakistan
Zone of Indus Basin and Western Sindh comprised of geother-
mal resources present with moderate and low brine Major geothermal reservoirs of Northern Area of Pakistan are:
temperature. (a) Tatta Pani, Tao, (b) Mushkin, (c) Sassi, (d) Budelas, (e) Hakuchar,
South-Western and Northern Punjab region has low brine and (f) Chu Tran. The detailed description of these locations is
temperature resources. illustrated in Fig. 9. Northern areas of Pakistan including Kar-
akorum, Hindukush, and Himalayan belt have high geothermal
activities [53]. Hot springs of Chitral region are related to Hindu-
3. Geothermal energy resources in Pakistan kush fault system. Enormous hot springs with temperature ranges
of 300 °C to 1700 °C are present in various areas of Pakistan [18].
Pakistan is one of the propitious developing countries that exist Physical and chemical characteristics of hot springs of Northern
on the seismic belt having great geothermal potential. Geothermal Areas of Pakistan are tabulated in Table 3 [32,53].
manifestations in Pakistan are investigated in the form of hot Moreover, the hot springs of Murtazabad, Budelas, Sassi and
springs, mud volcanoes, and geysers [53,18,54,55,51] respectively. Dassu are associated with MKT, while the hot springs of Tatta Pani
In Pakistan, there is a prodigious potential of hot springs and mud and Mushkin are associated with the MMT. These thermal springs
volcanoes. Various geothermal indices are present in Northern are caused by the friction between MMT and MKT. Reshun and
Area, Chagai Area, Karachi, and Hyderabad. Hot springs with high Ayun fault domain comprise thermal springs that are situated
brine temperature are present in the North Western Baluchistan. approximately 50 km North-West of Chitral at Garam Chasma
South Baluchistan hot springs have brines of modest temperature. valley [56]. Near the snout of Pechus glacier, a hot spring exists
However, Indus Basin and Western Sind zone have hot springs almost 105 km North-East of Mastuj [54]. Some hot springs are
with modest to low brine temperature. Similarly, South-Western cited in district Yasin at 3 km North of Rawat Village. Near Mur-
and Northern Punjab have low brine temperature reservoirs. The tazabad, 7 thermal springs are present that are scattered on right
abovementioned geothermal resources are concentrated along side of the Hunza River. The average surface temperature of these
MMT, MBT and MKT that are created as a result of the collision of sites is 400–910 °C recorded [57] that is listed in Table 4 [55].
Table 3 Table 5
Physical and chemical characteristics of hot springs in Northern Areas of Pakistan. Physical and chemical properties of hot springs in Chagai Volcanic Arc.
Location Hot Reservior tem- Features of hot Remarks Location Hot Reservior tem- Features of Remarks
spring perature (°C) water spring perature (°C) hot water
No no.
Location Reservoir temperature (°C) Similarly, on the eastern side, hot spring near Mushkin associated
with the MMT. Moreover, temperature of reservoirs ranges from
Chilas 20
Jaglot 10–65
86 °C to 90 °C. Several hot springs in Tatta Pani are scattered in
Murtazabad 26–91 about 8 km area and emanate from the Raikot fault zone along the
Hakuchar 49–50 western margin of the Nanga Parbat (Haramosh Massif) at Sassi
Budelas 39–40
and at Tatta Pani, along the Indus River. The hot springs of Garam
Chashma and Tatta pani are shown in Fig. 10(a) and
(b) respectively. At Sassi spring field temperature of spring is 54 °C,
The thermal springs associated with MKT are present in wes- whereas the reservoir temperatures range from 40 °C to 48 °C [59].
tern side of the Hunza Valley. Beside these springs, five geothermal The Indus and Baluchistan sedimentary basins are enriched in
springs of Murtazabad region are also located. The temperature hot springs associated with siesmo-tectonic zones [61]. Further,
ranges of Murtazabad thermal springs ranges from 260 °C to Kirthar has three hot springs ranges located on west of Dhadar,
910 °C and temperature recorded ranges from 198 °C to 212 °C near Sanni to South of Thal. According to [53], the Mach and Kir-
[58]. Furthermore,. Similarly, towards South-East side in Skardu thar range has a pile of sediments more than 10 km thick. That
District, two sulphur springs and three hot springs are explored in region is of high seismicity. In the Harnai valley; prominent ther-
the Dassu area. The maximum water temperature of these springs mal springs are located associated with the Harnai and Tatra faults,
is 71 °C. In geological prospective, Dassu is similar to Murtazabad where earthquakes of magnitudes 6 to above 7 on Richter scale
and Budelas. Thermal Springs of Chagai Magmatic Arc exists near have been recorded [52–54]. Similarly, two hot springs are located
Koh-e-Sultan Volcano in Baluchistan. Chagai Volcanic arc is com- to the north of the Zhob valley that is among the series of imbri-
posed of a narrow belt that spread out Eastwards opposite to the cated faults in a region of relatively high seismicity.
chaman transform fault. Structured feature is created by subduc-
tion of Arabian plate under the Eurasian Plate. The volcano at the
North side of Makran region, Koh-e-Sultan and other volcanoes in 3.2. Mud volcanoes in Pakistan
Chagai volcanic arc areas created the result of subduction [18]. The
surface temperature of these thermal springs is recorded as 25– Mud volcano is the discharge of mud, fluid, and gases from rock
32 °C . North-West part of Koh-e-Sultan has great potential of formation in the area of high sedimentation. According to [51], a
geothermal energy. Features of North-West part of Koh-e-Sultan mud volcano is basically a small and temporary place formed by
springs are illustrated in Table 5 [59]. radiation of gases from the earth. The mud volcanoes may also
Moreover, two thermal springs also exists in Karachi. One is at present under sea or ocean. Mud volcanoes are created due to the
Mango Pir and second is at Karsaz. The features of two hot springs subduction zones. Mud volcanoes are described onshore and off-
of Karachi are listed in Table 6 [57]. shore along Makran Region Baluchistan [62–66]. Moreover,
In [60], the geothermal activity of Nanga Parbat (Haramosh famous mud volcanoes in Makran Region are Chandragup, Jabel-u-
Massif) forms hot springs along the faulted margins of the massif. Ghurab, and Khandewari are sketched in Fig. 11 [63].
406 U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413
Fig. 10. (a) Hot spring of Garam Chashma and (b) Hot spring of Tatta Pani.
The geothermal activities occurs more near to fault lines at the Table 7
junction of the tectonic plates. The Authors in [67–69] explained mud Characteristics of various clusters/sub clusters of active mud volcanoes based on
satellite images [77].
volcanoes originate due to fault activities. Sometimes, mud volcano is
used to locate active fault system. Frequent fault activities causes Name of the No. of mud Range of cov- Range of crater
earthquakes, the authors in [70–74] presented a deep relationship cluster volcanoes ered area (ha) diameter metres
between earthquakes and mud volcanoes. In last 66 years, three (m)
severe earthquakes cause appearance of Mud Island in coastal belt of
South Chandragup 4 11.90–138.0 22.5–145
Makran Region [66,75]. Furthermore, more than “80” mud volcanoes North Chandragup 5 01.70–1921.0 9.0–118
are explored in Pakistan, maximum number of that are in Baluchi- West Chandragup 2 43.70–64.5 108.0–112
stan [76]. Seven mud volcanoes lay North East of Aghor and “11” mud Jabel-u-Ghurab 4 0.60–02.6 1.5–11
North Khandewari 3 0.09–308.2 13.5–110
volcanoes located between Kutch and Gwadar. Numerous mud vol-
South Khandewari 3 41.00–163.4 Up to 138
canoes in coastal belt of Makran Region near town village of Gwadar, Kund Malir 16 0.04–118.6 1.0–4.5
Ormara, Kund, Malir, Bela, and Awaran which are listed in Table 7. South Awaran Hills 8 0.03–265.7 1.0–10.5
The authors in [77] addressed more than “70” mud volcanoes North Awaran Hills 9 0.13–336.2 1.0–7.5
locations on Landsat-5 image of Coastal Belt. Furthermore, this Sipai Sing 3 0.19–10.21 5.0–85
East Ormara 6 0.63–20.92 1.0–67
mud volcanoes active zone is called as Makran Zone of Active Mud Central Ormara 1 10.5 1.0–30
Volcanoes (MZAMV). The MZAMV zone is divided into “14” sub West Ormara 4 0.06–00.47 1.0–6
clusters features of subdivision are illustrated in Fig. 12 [77]. Gwadar 2 0.11–0.46 1.0–7
Moreover, the earlier mentioned Chandragup, Jebel-u-Ghurab,
and Khandewari clusters, [77] and other discovered mud volca-
noes within the clusters, namely Awaran Hills, Sipai Sing, Kund cluster is presented in Fig. 13. Moreover, the mud volcanos of
Malir, Ormara, and Gwadar clusters are located in coastal belt of coastal belt and Hingol are demonstrated in Fig. 14(a) and
Makran Region. According to the research of [78] large extent of (b) respectively [63]. Likewise, the mud volcanoes of Makran
mud volcanoes exists in Baluchistan. Chandragup mud volcano region and Hingol are illustrated in Fig. 14 [78].
U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413 407
Fig. 12. Major structural features and their relationship with mud volcanoes and their deposits.
Moreover, the earlier mentioned Chandragup, Jebel-u-Ghurab, Geothermal resources are available in three temperature ranges
and Khandewari clusters, [77] and other discovered mud volca- [79]: (a) Low Temperature, (b) Moderate Temperature, and
noes within these clusters, namely Awaran Hills, Sipai Sing, Kund (c) High Temperature. Temperature greater than 150 °C is high
Malir, Ormara, and Gwadar clusters are located in coastal belt of temperature while, temperature more than 90 °C and less than
Makran Region. According to the research of [78] large extent of 150 °C is moderate temperature and temperature lower than 90 °C
mud volcanoes exists in Baluchistan. Chandragup mud volcano considered as low temperature. For different ranges of temp-
cluster is presented in Fig. 13. Moreover, the mud volcanos of erature, separate geothermal plants are used for electric power
coastal belt and Hingol are demonstrated in Fig. 14(a) and generation. Comprehensively, the main categories of geothermal
(b) respectively [63]. Likewise, the mud volcanoes of Makran power plants are:
region and Hingol are illustrated in Fig. 14 [78] respectively.
Dry steam power plant.
Flash steam power plant.
Binary cycle power plant.
4. Electric power generation from geothermal energy
Fig. 14. Mud volcanoes of Makran region: (Left) Coastal belt mud volcano; (Right) Hingol mud volcano.
steam. The steam reduces the need to burn fossil fuels to run the
turbine. (Also eliminating the need to carry and hoard fuels). This
is the oldest type of geothermal power plant. It was first used at condensing steam turbines are used. New developments of
Lardarello in Italy in 1904, and is still very effective. From inside of improved Geothermal Systems (EGS) are focus on improved sys-
earth (Geothermal reservoir) steam is transferred to turbine
tems, using existing deep reservoir resources. The aim of such
through pipe. The high temperature and pressure steam rotates
projects is the development of supercritical fluid reservoirs with
the turbine. The Electrical generator is operated by the turbine and
steam temperatures up to 400–600 °C. The majority of the geo-
electrical output is produced for electrical load [18]. This approach
to utilize geothermal energy is restricted because dry-steam thermal reservoirs in Pakistan are in moderate or low temperature
hydrothermal resources are very odd. These plants produce only range. Therefore, dry steam geothermal power plant is not eco-
excess steam and very minor amounts of non-condensable gases. nomical for Pakistan. The schematic of dry steam geothermal
For dry steam resources either atmospheric exhaust turbines or power plant is illustrated in Fig. 16 [81,82].
U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413 409
Table 9
Comparative analysis of geothermal power plants with traditional thermal and coal power plants.
Ref. no. Features Geothermal power plant Traditional (coal, thermal) power plants
Table 10
Comparison between thermal and geothermal emissions.
Emission Nitrogen oxide (NOx) Sulphur oxide (SO2) Particulate matter (PM) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Reference
Sample Impact Lung irritation Wheezing Asthma Global warming produced by carbon dioxide and [90]
Coughing Chest tightness Bronchitis it increases:
Smog formation Respiratory illness Cancer Sea level
Water quality Ecosystem damage Atmospheric deposition Flood risk
deterioration Visibility impairment Glacial melting
Geothermal Emission 0 0–0.35 0 0–88.8 [90]
Thermal Emission 4.31 10.39 2.23 2191 [90]
0
Table 12 Coal Oil Geothermal (Max) Geothermal (With Gas Injection)
Comparison of land occupied by power plants.
Fig. 19. Comparison of CO2 and SO2 emissions from geothermal and conventional
Technology Land occupied (M2/MWh/30 years) power plants.
Geothermal 0.40
Geothermal power plants works for 90–100% of the time.
Coala 3.64
Soar Thermal 3.56 Though, the coal and nuclear power plants stay online for 75% and
Photo Voltaic 3.24 65% respectively. Moreover, geothermal power plants produce
Windb 1.34 13.38 g carbon/KWh emissions, whereas natural gas, oil, and coal
a
Includes Coal Mining.
yield 453 g, 906 g, and 1042 g carbon/KWh respectively. Geother-
b
Land Occupied by Turbines and Service Roads. mal Power Plants use steam for generating electric power instead
of fuel. As a result, the plant produces less than 1% CO2 emissions.
Pakistan has plenty of hot water geothermal reservoirs. Therefore, The detailed comparative analysis is presented in Fig. 18.
any geothermal fluid is suitable to heat the binary fluid in Binary
Cycle Power Plant for generating electricity in Pakistan. In USA,
similar technology of hot water geothermal is used to generate 6. Experimentally investigated geothermal plants
electricity [91]. Binary Power Plants normally used for moderate
temperature greater than 100 °C. In this survey, the similar plant is With collaboration of Chinese academy of science, Guangzhou
proposed for electric power generation in Pakistan. Geothermal Institute of Energy Conversion built Binary Cycle power plant
having working fluid ammonia-water in Sanshui, Guangdong
power is environmentally benign, produce minimum emissions, and
province, China in 2010. The operating capacity of the plant is
less plant area is required. Emissions comparisons between geo-
10 kW and working fluid is 60% ammonia-water. The system
thermal and conventional power plants are illustrated in Table 11.
consists of: absorber, exchanger, screw, cooling tower, electric
Furthermore, the land impact for geothermal based power
generator, and so on. Ammonia vapour is generated in the eva-
plants is also comparatively minimum. Only few acres required for
porator from 60% concentrated ammonia solution along with
instalment of geothermal plant. Besides, with appropriate siting
geothermal water. The screw generator is driven by the vapour;
and trade-offs, the power plant is also feasible for frivolous and also it is further absorbed in absorber by dilute ammonia to recycle
scenic applications. The comparative analysis of geothermal and process. Moreover, the system is monitor by various equipment i.e.
conventional power plants is demonstrated in Table 12 [93]. pressure gauges, flow rotators, and thermometers [94–97]. In
U. Younas et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 398–413 411
Table 13
Summary of experimentally investigated geothermal power plant: case studies.
Case Ref. Country Reservoir Year Mean res. T Domain (km2) Size Bocks no. Generation Fluid flow rate
studies (°C) (MW) (kg/m2)
2 [98–100] Nicaragua Momotombo 1983– 240–340 3.1 2.4 3 km depth 972 32 357
1989
3 [101] New Zealand Ngatamariki 2008– 80–120 10.5 11 5 km depth 24,128 130 695
2009
4 [102–104] Italy Larderello 2009– 200–300 70 70 7.5 km 10,000 150 1300
2010 depth
5 [105,106] New Zealand Wairakei 1958– 250–260 30 30 3.4 km 8055 140 1460
2008 depth
6 [107] Germany Groß 2000– 125–150 4.8 5.5 0.6 km 489,591 200 21
Schönebeck 2010 depth
7 [108,109] Ethiopia Tendaho Rift 1970– 245–290 2.5 4 3 2 km depth 700 3.5 140
1990
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