2.

Methods and Organization of the Study

2. Metode-Metode dan Organisasi Penelitian

5. General Method and Organization

5. Metode Umum dan Organisasi

V.A. Krutetskii’s study of mathematical ability was done over twelve years (1955—66).

The basic material was obtained by experimental research. Non-experimental methods of

study were also used.

The experimental method of investigating mathematical ability was a qualitative and

quantitative analysis of the solution of special experimental mathematical problems by
pupils with various abilities in mathematics.

As for the nonexperimental methods of study, a large rolewas played by the questionnaire
method, whose purpose was to collect material for resolving certain questions by written
or oral interrogation of a definite group of persons.Of course, as S. L. Rubinstein has
indicated (354, p. 33), the materials obtained by this method cannot have an independent
value in investigating a problem, but they are extremely valuable as supplementary data.

In the same year V.A. Krtutetskii made a written interrogation (using a special
questionnaire) of a number of well-known Soviet mathematicians. In particular, these
questions were asked:
1. What qualities of the mind, in your opinion, make a person mathematically able?
2. To what extent are mathematical abilities general or specific intellectual abilities?
3. What are your views on the presence of different types of mathematical ability?
The questionnaires were sent to 50 mathematicians. Answers were received from 21,
including 15 extended replies and 6 replies without additional comments.

6.Hypothesis concerning the Components of Mathematical Abilities

If we are speaking of the component mathematical abilities that arise from the basic
characteristics of mathematical thought, we should list:
1. An ability to formalize mathematical material, to isolate form from content, to abstract
oneself from concrete numerical relationships and spatial forms, and to operate with
formal structure— with structures of relationships and connections.
2. An ability to generalize mathematical material, to detect what is of chief importance,
abstracting oneself from the irrelevant, and to see what is common in what is externally
different.
3. An ability to operate with numerals and other symbols.
4. An ability for “sequential, properly segmented logical reasoning” (Kolmogorov, 180, p.
10), which is related to the need for proof, substantiation, and deductions.
Let us add to this list the components we isolated earlier:
5. An ability to shorten the reasoning process, to think in curtailed structures.
6. An ability to reverse a mental process (to transfer from a direct to a reverse train of
thought).
7. Flexibility of thought an ability to switch from one mental operation to another;
freedom from the binding influence of the commonplace and the hackneyed.This
characteristic of thinking is important for the creative work of a mathematician.
8. A mathematical memory. It can be assumed that its characteristics also arise from the
specific features of themathematical sciences, that this is a memory for generalizations,
formalized structures, and logical schemes.
9.An ability for spatial concepts, which is directly related to the presence of a branch of
mathematics such as geometry (especially the geometry of space).

7. Methods Used in the Experimental Investigation

As has already been indicated, the basic method of the investigation was an analysis of
the process of solving experimental problems by pupils whose mathematical abilities were
at different levels of development.The main idea of the experimental study was as
follows: If the solution of a problem is a product of two factors— the characteristics of the
problem it self and the characteristics of the person solving it— we should establish these
factors in succession, offering the same problem to different examinees and different
problems to a single examinee.

In organizing our experimental study, we proceeded from the following principles:

1. In conformity with the basic tenet of Soviet psychology that one must study
abilities within the activity for which the abilities are being studied, and on the
basis of an analysis of this activity, we believed that experimental problems should,
as a rule, correspond to the nature of a pupil’s mathematical activity.

1. Experimental problems should be of various degrees of difficulty (low, average,

and high), including nonstandard problems requiring elements of mathematical
creativity.

2. Experimental problems ought to fulfill their direct purpose: solving them should
help to clarify the structure of abilities.
 3. For the purposes of V.A. Krutetskii’s study, it was necessary to establish not only
and not so much the ultimate result of the examinees' performance of a task but
primarily the process used in that performance.

5. Influencing the solution of problems, we know, is an intricate complex of factors—

in particular past experience,the aggregate of knowledge, habits, and skills.But we
are studying ability, not knowledge, habits, and skills, although as was stated
above the concepts are closely interrelated. It is hard to isolate the factor of ability
in this intricate complex of causes. Apparently one should select problems in such a
way that only ability will primarily influence their solutions.

6. We know that ability shows up only in motion, in a dynamic state, in development.

7. Although V.A. Krutetskii regarded the qualitative analysis of the solution process as
a basic principle of his research, He did not limit himself to that, but tried to find
quantitative characteristics of the phenomenon as well.

A basic difference in principle between V.A. Krutetskii’s experimental problems and the
tests used in foreign psychometrics is that:

1. He use these experimental problems not for selecting mentally gifted or mentally
inferior pupils, not for measuring the degree of mental giftedness in mathematics, but for
a study (an investigation of the structure) of ability. If w e call our problems tests (this will
be discussed below), then they are research tests, especially created for research
purposes, in contrast to the diagnostic tests used abroad (diagnosis for “strict” prognosis).

2. His experimental problems are oriented not only toward a result, but mainly toward
revealing the qualitative features of the solution process, of the ways of achieving a result,
and therefore the descriptions of the solution were not limited to quantitative indexes:
numerical indicators or ratings (grades). Our principal attention was given to describing
the process of solution.

7. The System of Experimental Problems for Investigating Schoolchildren's Mathematical

Abilities

The experimental study aimed to investigate the components of mathematical abilities

and developed a special system of problems to expose mental activity characteristics of
pupils with different abilities in mathematics. The system evolved over time, with some
types of problems and assignments replaced by more indicative tasks. The series were
grouped into four basic categories: three, relating to the three basic steps in solving
mathematical problems, and the fourth, investigating types of mathematical ability. The
classification was based on the fundamental purpose of the problem, making the
placement of series in a group somewhat conditional.

The system of experimental problems includes 26 series, containing 79 tests (including 22

arithmetical, 17 algebraic, 25 geometric, and 15 others).

Most of the problems were taken from various Soviet and foreign sources.

Our system of problems was meant for a detailed investigation of mathematical abilities
in pupils in grades six and seven.

8. Organization of the Experimental Investigation

Since the problem of abilities is a problem of individual differences, abilities can be

studied only by investigating individual differences in a suitable activity. Apparently, the
most natural way to study abilities is by comparing those who perform a certain'activity
successfully or creatively (who are called capable) with those who do not (who
consequently are regarded as incapable or less able).

To clarify what mathematical abilities are, itis important to know not only what there is
about all mathematicallyable pupils, what individual psychological traits are peculiar to all
of them, but also what mathematically incapable pupils do not have, what individual
psychological qualities are weakly developed in them and thereby condition their relative
inability in mathematics.

Thus, for his study, groups of mathematically capable, average, and relatively incapable
pupils were singled out.

Absolute inability to study mathematics, a kind of “mathematical blindness,” does not

exist. Every normal, mentally healthy pupil is capable of mastering the school mathematics
course more or less successfully with proper instruction is able to acquire knowledge and
skill within the scope of the secondary school curriculum. A relative inability for
mathematics is expressed in the fact that the study of mathematics comes to some pupils
with great difficulty, despite their diligence and zeal; they cannot count on great success in
mathematical activity, either in rapid progress or in achievement level. Poor progress is by
no means always evidence of little ability. It is known that an imaginary inability often
occurs that can be explained by vital learning problems (laziness, absences due to illness,
etc.).