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Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477

XXIV R-S-P seminar, Theoretical Foundation of Civil Engineering (24RSP) (TFoCE 2015)

The analysis of thermal effect on concrete box girder bridge

Lukáš Krkoškaa,*, Martin Moravčíka
a
University of Zilina, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Structures and Bridges, Univerzitna 2,
01026 Žilina, Slovakia

Abstract

Thermal load, especially vertical temperature gradient is an important factor that should be considered during the bridge design
procedure. In the world several researches focusing on thermal influences was performed, mostly in USA and China, but only
a few analyzed real measured cross-section temperature gradient at European bridges. In this paper, short overview of thermal
loading on concrete bridge structures was analyzed. The measurement of real temperature gradient along the cross-section
of concrete box girder bridge realized by balanced cantilever method has been analyzed and compared to the five different bridge
design codes.
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the XXIV R-S-P seminar, Theoretical Foundation of Civil
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Engineering
Peer-review (24RSP)
under responsibility of organizing committee of the XXIV R-S-P seminar, Theoretical Foundation of Civil Engineering (24RSP)

Keywords: Thermal effects; Concrete box girder bridge.

1. Introduction

During the service lifetime, designed to 100 years or even more, bridges are exposed to daily, seasonal and yearly
temperature variations induced by climatic conditions, as solar radiation, ambient air temperature, humidity and
wind speed. Temperature variations are secondary affected by orientation of structure, material of structure, deck
surface finishing layer, structure dimensions and cross-section geometry. These effects may cause nonlinear thermal
load that influences the performance of bridges.
In practice, the variations of temperature affects bridges significantly. Uniform temperature changes cause large
total length changes, expansion or contraction. These changes of length influence internal forces, structural dynamic
characteristics and the continuous expansion and contraction may damage critical members of the bridge, such

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +421 911 314 440

E-mail address: lukas.krkoska@fstav.uniza.sk

1877-7058 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of the XXIV R-S-P seminar, Theoretical Foundation of Civil Engineering (24RSP)
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.07.118
 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477 471

as expansion joint, bearing and anchor head. If these deformations are restricted, temperature variations result
in thermal stresses, what may leads to unexpected tensile cracks and consequent possible reinforcement corrosion.
Vertical and horizontal temperature difference result in additional bending moments in vertical plane and horizontal
plane, respectively.

Fig. 1. Environment effects on bridge temperature changes [1].

2. Description of the bridge

In this paper it is analyzed the prestressed concrete box girder highway bridge structure SO205, highway part
from Zilina to Liptovsky Mikulas. This bridge structure is designed as two parallel single 5 spans bridges and the
span lengths are 75+120+75+53+37m, built by combination of the balanced cantilever method and casting at
bearing scaffold. The deck of the bridge consists of a continuous box girder seated on simple bearings on the piers
and abutments. The height of the single cell box cross section of the deck decreases from 6.5 m (pier) to 2.85 m
(mid-span), as shown in Fig. 2. The width of the deck slab with symmetrical overhangs is 13.65 m.

Fig. 2. Cross sections of single cell prestressed box girder at mid-span (left) and pier (right).

3. Bridge monitoring system arrangement

During the construction of the bridge, for the research described in [2], total 24 vibrating wire strain gauges were
arranged at three characteristic cross sections of main 120 m span (balanced cantilever), L1 (6 measuring points)
and L2 (9 measuring points) are first segment of cantilever and UL (9 measuring points) is the key segment, as
shown in Fig. 3. Vibrating wire strain gauges are able to measure strain (as the function of measured value) and
temperature. The ambient air temperature, relative humidity and humidity of concrete were measured too. [2]
472 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477

Fig. 3. Bridge monitoring system arrangement in cross sections L1, L2 and UL.

Fig. 4. Position of cross sections L1, L2 and UL in longitudinal section.

4. Thermal effects on structures

Thermal load is an important factor that should be considered during the whole lifetime of the bridge.
The temperature distribution within an individual structural element may be split into the following four essential
constituent components, as illustrated in Fig. 4:
a) uniform temperature component (effective bridge temperature), ∆Tu,
b) linearly varying temperature difference component about the z-z axis, ∆TMZ,
c) linearly varying temperature difference component about the y-y axis, ∆TMZ,
d) non-linear temperature difference component, ∆TE. It results in a system of self-equilibrated stresses which
produce no net load effect on the element.

Fig. 5. Diagrammatic representation of constituent components of a temperature profile [3].

 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477 473

Effective bridge temperature depends on the maximum and minimum temperature that bridge reaches over
prescribed period and result in the expanding or contracting of bridge components in the longitudinal direction.
The movement of the structures associated with effective bridge temperature can be determined by linear elastic
method for statically determinate structures. For statically indeterminate structures, as this deformations are
restricted, temperature variations result in thermal stresses. Vertical temperature difference (temperature gradient),
refers
to the differences in temperature between the top surface and other levels through the depth of the superstructure,
results in the bending moments in vertical plane. Positive temperature gradient occurs when conditions are such that
solar radiation and other effects cause a gain in heat through the top surface of the superstructure. Conversely,
reverse temperature gradient occurs when conditions are such that is lost from the top surface of the bridge deck as a
result
of radiation and other effect. Horizontal temperature difference, refers the differences in temperature between two
positions on the same level in the cross section, results in the bending moments in horizontal plane. [3] The effective
bridge temperature and vertical temperature difference are included in almost all bridge specifications.

5. Measurement results

Fig. 6 represents temperatures measured from the date of casting L1 segment up to today, 794 days period. High
temperatures of concrete in first 10 days are caused due to hydration process of concrete, this effect is not studied
in this paper. Day 9.8.2013 (248th day of structure life) was selected as the day of the highest positive vertical
temperature gradient in the girder and it is also a day of highest ambient temperature. Day 11.12.2014 (737 th day
of structure life) was selected as the day of the highest negative vertical temperature gradient. For better
transparency of diagram, the values of two gauges in the same level are averaged in one value.

Ambient temperature
40
Teplota_L1
Bottom surface
35
Web
30 Top surface
Temperature >°C@

25

20

15

10

-5

-10

Days

Fig. 6. Measured temperatures of L1 cross section and ambient air temperature.

Fig. 7 shows the vertical temperature gradients, obtained by subtracting a minimum temperature from the vertical
temperatures along the depth of the cross section and comparison of these obtained gradients with temperature
gradient for the same concrete box girder cross section recommended in several bridge specifications, namely
Slovak eurocode STN EN 1991-1-5 [3], Czechoslovak standard for bridge loading ČSN 73 6203 [4], British
standard for bridge loading
BS 5400-2 [5], German standard for bridge loading DIN 1072 [6] and United States Highway Bridge Design Code
ASSHTO 2012 [7].
474 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477

POSITIVE TEMPERATURE GRADIENT NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE

GRADIENT
0.03 0.03
0.03 0.03
0.03 0.03
0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
Height of construction [m]

0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
0.02 0.02
STN EN 1991-1-5
0.01 0.01
ČSN 73 6203
0.01 0.01
0.01 BS 5400-2
0.01
0.01 DIN 1072 0.01
0.01 ASSHTO 2012 0.01
0.01 STN EN linear 0.01
0.00 0.00
ČSN linear
0.00 0.00
Experiment
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

-16

-14

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0
∆Tmax [°C] ∆Tmin [°C]

Fig. 7. Comparison of obtained temperature gradient with different bridge specifications models.

6. Comparison of load effects on the bridge

By designing of pre-stressed concrete bridge structures in practice, we are interested in tensile and compressive
stresses in critical fibres. Requirements of decompression, ultimate tensile and compressive stress of structure during
whole construction and after putting structures in service have to be satisfied.
The main objective of this article is to compare thermal effects with long term loads and traffic loads effects.
For the purposes of this comparison the normal stresses in top and bottom fibres of cross sections above the pier
and at the mid-span was calculated. Thermal effects are represented by positive and negative vertical temperature
gradients, according to STN EN 1991-1-5 [3], while effects of uniform temperature changes are neglected because
of simple bearings. For the calculation of long term effects (self-weight, weight of the upper, pre-stress, creep
and shrinkage of concrete), phased 2D model of monitored bridge construction was made. This model considers real
building procedure. Traffic load effects are represented by loading model LM1, according to STN EN 1991-2 [8].
This comparison takes into account only basic values, without applying any coefficients (factors for actions
or combination).This comparison is shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9.

TOP FIBRES STRESS

Pier Mid-span
0.06 0.04 0.04
0.04 0.02
0.02
>N.mm-2@

0.00
-0.02
-0.04 -0.01
-0.06
-0.05 -0.05 -0.04
-0.08 -0.06

Long therm loads Positive temp.gradient Negative temp.gradient LM1

Fig.8. Top fibres normal stress in the main span of the bridge.
 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477 475

As we can see in Fig. 8, compressive stress at the cross section above the pier due to positive temperature
gradient reaches 77% value of compressive stress due to long term loads effects. On the other side, tensile stress due
to negative temperature gradient together with traffic loads reaches 99% (68%+31%) value of compressive stress
due to long term loads, thereby almost completely use up compressive reserve of pre-stressed concrete.
Compressive stress at the mid-span due to positive temperature gradient is dominant. It is 5% higher than
compressive stress due to traffic load and 74% higher than compressive stress due to long term effect. Tensile stress
occurred due to negative temperature gradient reaches 81% value of maximum compressive stress.

BOTTOM FIBRES STRESS

Pier Mid-span
0.10 0.08
0.07
0.02 0.03
0.04
>N.mm-2@

0.01
-0.02
-0.01 -0.02
-0.05
-0.03 -0.02
-0.08
-0.11
-0.14 -0.11

Long therm loads Positive temp.gradient Negative temp.gradient LM1

Fig. 9. Bottom fibres normal stress in the main span of the bridge.

As we can see in Fig. 9, compressive stress at the cross section above the pier due to positive temperature
gradient is not significant, it reaches only 22% value of compressive stress due to long term loads effects. On the
other side, tensile stress due to negative temperature gradient is equivalent to value of compressive stress due to
traffic loads
and reaches almost 64% value of compressive reserve of pre-stressed concrete.
Compressive stress at the mid-span due to negative temperature gradient is not significant and reaches only 18%
value of maximum compressive stress, but tensile stress due to positive temperature gradient together with traffic
loads reaches 95% (27%+68%) value of compressive stress due to long term loads, thereby almost completely use
up compressive reserve of pre-stressed concrete.

7. Variable actions effects for serviceability limit states

By creating of combinations for serviceability limit states according to STN EN 1990 [9] two or more variable
actions are never taken by their full values. The leading action is taken by full value and the others by combination
values, which are obtained by multiplying basic value by partial factor ψi. As the leading variable action will be
taken at first traffic load and then the thermal load. Partial factor for traffic load have different values for tandem
system (TS) and uniformly distributed load (UDL). Resulting stress in critical fibres by using characteristic
combination (1)
and frequent combination (2) for serviceability limit states are calculated in the text bellow.

¦G
j t1
k, j P  Qk ,1  ¦\ 0,i .Qk ,i
i !1
(1)

¦G
j t1
k, j P \ 1,1.Qk ,1  ¦\ 2,i .Qk ,i
i !1
(2)

Where: Gk,j … permanent load P … pre-stress load

476 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477

Qk,1 … leading variable action Qk,i … others variable actions

ψ0,1,2 … partial factors (Tab. 1)
Tab. 1 shows recommended values of partial factor for serviceability limit states combinations. As we can see,
value ψ2 for traffic load is equal to 0. It means that in frequent combination (2) it is pointless to set thermal effect
as leading variable actions, because resultant stress will be significant lower.

Table 1. Recommended values of partial factors ψ.

Action Label ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
TS 0,75 0,75 0
Traffic load (LM1)
UDL 0,4 0,4 0
Thermal load Tk 0,6 0,6 0,5

In Tab. 2 and Tab. 3 we can see difference between normal stresses in critical fibres due to different leading
variable action in creation of characteristic combination (1). For the better transparency or even possibility to
compare results only effects of variable actions with the same orientation was combined.

Table 2. Normal stress at the section above the pier due to variable actions according to characteristic combination.
Leading variable Qk,1 ∑ψ0 . Qk,j Total stress
Fibres Difference
action >N.mm-2@ >N.mm-2@ >N.mm-2@
LM1 (traffic) 1,97 2,58 4,55 -
Top
Tk (thermal) 4,30 0,66 4,96 +9,01%
LM1 (traffic) -2,19 -0,47 -2,66 -
Bottom
Tk (thermal) -0,78 -0,75 -1,53 -42,44%

Tensile stress in top fibres at the cross section above the pier is about 9% higher with thermal load as the leading
variable action and this difference can be significant regarding to low tensile strength of concrete. On the other side
compressive stress is markedly lower by difference 42.44%.

Table 3. Normal stress at the mid-span cross section due to variable actions according to characteristic combination.
Leading variable Qk,1 ∑ψ0 . Qk,j Total stress
Fibres Difference
action >N.mm-2@ >N.mm-2@ >N.mm-2@
LM1 (traffic) -4,46 -2,83 -7,29 -
Top
Tk (thermal) -4,72 -2,37 -7,09 -2,77%
LM1 (traffic) 7,64 1,82 9,46 -
Bottom
Tk (thermal) 3,04 4,01 7,05 -25,51%

At the mid-span cross section the difference of compressive stress in top fibres with thermal load as the leading
variable action is negligible lower. Difference of tensile stress in this case is 25.51 % lower, so neglecting of thermal
load as leading variable action is safe.

8. Conclusion

Analysis shows that thermal effects due to vertical temperature gradient impact significantly on the stress
condition of the bridge. Especially in the combination with traffic load can these effects completely set up the
compressive reserve of pre-stressed concrete and tensile stress may occur, what is unacceptable for example for
requirement of decompression. Analysis of variable actions effects for serviceability limit states shows that thermal
effects cannot be fully neglected, but conversely in some cases should be taken as the leading variable action in
characteristic combination for serviceability limit states.
 Lukáš Krkoška and Martin Moravčík / Procedia Engineering 111 (2015) 470 – 477 477

From analysis of one bridge, without investigating other types of structures we cannot say that given results are
generally valid, or it is valid only for this type of structure. Therefore is necessary to perform measurements
and analysis of temperature gradient on more structures of various types. Measurement what was made here is not
fully sufficient for accurate description and analysis of temperature gradient behavior, therefore it is necessary
to perform continuous temperatures measurement, at least in periods with predicted maximum and minimum air
temperatures.

Acknowledgements

This article was made by financial support of grant agency VEGA 1/0336/15, grant agency APVV-0763-12,
APVV-0106-11 and project “Research center of University of Zilina”, ITMS 26220220183.

References

[1] Guang-Dong Zhou, Ting-Hua Yi, Thermal Load in Large-Scale Bridges: A State-of-the-Art Review. International Journal of Distributed
Sensor Networks, vol. 2014.
[2] Moravčík, M., Dolinajová, K., Časový vývoj pomerných pretvorení betónu na letmo betónovanom dialničnom moste. Betonárske dni, vol.
2014.
[3] STN EN 1991-1-5: Actions on Structures. Part 1-5: General Actions - Thermalactions.
[4] ČSN 73 6203: Actions on Bridges.
[5] BS 5400-2: Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges. Part 2: Specification for Loads.
[6] DIN 1072: Road and Food Bridges: Design Loads.
[7] ASSHTO 2012: LRFD Bridge Design Specification.
[8] STN EN 1991-2: Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges.
[9] STN EN 1990: Eurocode. Basis of structural design.