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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to sincerely thank Ms. Le Nhat Hanh - Lecturer of the Faculty of
Management for enthusiastically teaching and guiding students throughout the course. Thanks
to the teacher's timely advice and guidance, we overcame the difficulties in writing this essay.
Next, we would like to express our gratitude to the teachers of Ho Chi Minh City University
of Economics - those who have contributed to imparting knowledge to help us have a good
foundation today. In addition, it is impossible not to mention my family, friends, and relatives
who have been my strong support and spiritual support during the past time. The success of
the essay cannot be attributed to everyone's gratitude. But after all, we realize that with our
little knowledge and experience, it will certainly be difficult to avoid shortcomings in the
essay. We hope that you will sympathize and give us feedback to help us improve more and
more.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................ 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Research background and statement of the problem ............................................................... 5
1.2. Research objectives ................................................................................................................ 5
1.3. Subject and scope of research ................................................................................................. 6
1.3.1. Research object ............................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2. Scope of research ............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.3. Survey objects ................................................................................................................. 6
1.3.4. Scope of survey ................................................................................................................ 6
1.4. Research method.................................................................................................................... 6
1.5. Research contribution ............................................................................................................ 7
1.6. Research Structure: ............................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 02: LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT ............................ 8
2.1. Definition............................................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Theoretical backgrounds ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1. Self-leadership theory .................................................................................................... 10
2.2.2. Self-regulation theory .................................................................................................... 10
2.2.3. Social cognitive theory ................................................................................................... 11
2.3. Prior relevant studies ........................................................................................................... 11
2.4. Research framework and hypothesis development ................................................................. 18
2.4.1. Relationship between learning orientation and self-efficacy ............................................. 18
2.4.2. Relationship between learning orientation and self-leadership ......................................... 19
2.4.3. Relationship between self-efficacy and metacognition ...................................................... 19
2.4.4. Relationship between self-efficacy and self-leadership ..................................................... 20
2.4.5. Relationship between metacognition and self-leadership .................................................. 20
2.4.6. Relationship between self-leadership and job satisfaction ................................................ 21
PROPOSAL MODEL ................................................................................................................ 22
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT ............................ 23
3.1 Research process................................................................................................................... 23
3.2. Measurement scale ............................................................................................................... 24
3.3 Questionnaire design ............................................................................................................. 27
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 28

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 CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Research background and statement of the problem

In recent years, as the technological age has risen, the trend of self-employment has
also become popular. Many young people are starting to become self-employed instead of
working 8 hours a day in the traditional style. So is it possible to ensure work efficiency
without the supervision, assignment and management of superiors? To ensure work
efficiency, each person needs to be equipped with self-leadership skills to be able to organize
and manage their own work. Self-leadership (Manz, 1983, 1986, 1992; Manz and Neck, 1999;
Manz and Sims, 2001) is a process through which people influence themselves to achieve the
self-direction and self-motivation necessary to behave and perform in desirable ways. Self-
leadership – a process through which individuals exert self-influence over their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors at work – is advanced as a pivotal construct in the organizational
sciences (Houghton & Neck, 2002; Manz, 2015; Manz & Neck, 2004; Stewart, Courtright, &
Manz, 2019). Self leadership is being heralded by its proponents as a substitute for leadership
in organizations. Through self leadership training, individuals can learn self-influence
techniques that stimulate and capitalize on intrinsic motivation (Manz) 1986.

14% of knowledge human resources in Vietnam are currently full-time freelance

workers, a notable statistic given by Anphabe when determining human resource trends from
the beginning of 2022 to the present. Workers, especially young people, are having a big
change in choosing a fourth job and how they work. Not only the full-time freelancer group,
the part-time freelancer group also accounts for 39%. Besides income pressure, working
environment experience is considered the main factor driving this trend, especially among
young people. This is a considerable number. For professionals working under unpredictable
conditions and especially for those being exposed to organizational crisis situations, there is
a high probability that they will experience more negative emotions such as stress and anxiety
(Neck & Manz, 1986; Pearson & Claire, 1998; Pulakos et al., 2002). Therefore, self leadership
ability is more worthy of attention.

We study self-leadership behavior to learn about the factors that influence it, both directly
and indirectly, and to learn about the positive effects it has on satisfaction. in the worker's job.
helps to improve work performance and increase efficiency. Self-leadership training can be
used as a valuable tool to help organizations improve employees’ adaptive performance and
job satisfaction, especially during organizational crisis.

1.2. Research objectives

From the existing arguments in the literature collected from related articles, this
research article was formed with the purpose of analyzing the impacts related to the ability to
self-leadership in freelance work. Thereby, finding proper mechanisms for factors that have
direct and indirect effects on self-leadership ability. In particular, this research also aims to:
(1) Find and consider the relationship between direct and indirect factors that affect

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self-leadership ability.
(2) Explore the mediating role in self-leadership and experience in current freelance
work through related factors.
(3) Determine the regulatory role in balancing freelance work with management skills
through self-leadership.
(4) Analyze and measure vital factors affecting the ability to self-leadership in
freelance fields.
(5) Evaluate freelancers' experiences through the operational structure of factors that
impact self-leadership precisely.
With the above-mentioned aims, the research will contribute to providing crucial
insights and knowledge about self-leadership ability to optimize efficiency in freelance work
and professions.

1.3. Subject and scope of research

1.3.1. Research object

The topic focuses on studying the relationship between goal orientation, self-
leadership aspects and adaptive and proactive work role performance, awareness of self-
efficacy contributes to development and performance. awareness through freelance work.

1.3.2. Scope of research

The research focuses on clarifying the impact of freelance work on surrounding issues,
and vice versa. Investigating the mediating factors between the effects: self-efficacy for
learning goals, self-leadership metacognition, and performance.

1.3.3. Survey objects

This study was conducted with subjects of different ages doing freelance work in Ho
Chi Minh City.

1.3.4. Scope of survey

What is the reason for choosing survey subjects: Ho Chi Minh City is the central city
of Vietnam and the number of people here is high, this helps data collection and survey results
to reflect. Photos are full of the value of research objects. And the time to complete the thesis
is limited and available resources do not allow expanding the scale of the survey.

1.4. Research method

A combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was used in this thesis. All
of the analyzed constructs' measuring scales were initially adapted from earlier studies and
translated from English. After that, the questionnaire was created with 25 freelancers on social
media platforms in Ho Chi Minh City and then modified to ensure its clarity before

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distributing. Quantitative study, which included data analysis, would constitute the second
stage. Over a fourth-week period, the survey will be carried out on 03 platforms (TikTok,
Youtube, Instagram) in Ho Chi Minh City. After collection, the dataset was analyzed using
SmartPLS 4 and involved the following procedures:

- Assessment of measurement scales: reliability and validity (discriminant

convergent).
- Assessment of the structural model with hypothesis testing.

1.5. Research contribution

Academic Implications: This research has added to the scale system factors that affect
self-leadership and job satisfaction of freelancers working on social networks in the context
of the gig economy.

Practical Implications: This research aims to become a scientific basis to help

freelancers on social media platforms evaluate their work situation as well as work time,
working environment, and level of satisfaction. of viewers to help improve work efficiency
and ensure freelancers can manage their work well. From there, it can help freelancers grasp
viewer psychology and create content that satisfies viewers.

1.6. Research Structure:

After Chapter 01 – Introduction, the current thesis is composed of two themed

chapters:
Chapter 02 - Literature review and hypothesis development: This section (1) provides
definitions for the relevant variables based on previous research; (2) establishes the theoretical
foundation; (3) reviews the studies relevant to this thesis; and finally (4) presents the research
model and the associated hypotheses

Chapter 03 – Research method: This chapter is concerned with the method used for the
current thesis, including the research process, measurement scale, questionnaire design,
sample and data collection, as well as the sample characteristics.

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 CHAPTER 02: LITERATURE REVIEW AND
HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

2.1. Definition

Definition Example

Learning orientation: Learning orientation Freelancers on social networks need to have

at the individual level as motivational goal- a Learning orientation to learn new
orientation (e.g. a goal learning orientation knowledge in the field they are pursuing to
to develop competence to master a freelance keep up with trends. Learning orientation
job). This definition of learning orientation trains them with intrinsic motivation and
emphasizes two fundamental aspects that capacity to develop their freelance work,
can be regarded as necessary “ingredients” thus they get a good income from the social
for building a grounded foundation for networking platforms.
creative self-efficacy: intrinsic motivation
and skills or competence. These two aspects
are reflected in the so-called “three-
component model of creativity” (Amabile,
1996). The definition of learning orientation
used in this study focuses on none of these
modes of learning or identity from whom or
with whom learning orientation is focused
on. Instead, it is a general mindset about
freelancer's jobs. It is a positive motivational
drive to develop one’s task competence
independent of the sources of learning.

Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to the When working on social networks, Self-

freelancers’ beliefs and attitudes toward their efficacy will help freelancers overcome
capabilities to achieve success, as well as many pressure situations from netizens, they
belief in their ability to fulfill tasks and the confidently make high-risk decisions to
successful learning of the sources. Self- trend their videos
efficacy beliefs lead to the individuals’
excellent performance through increasing
commitment, endeavor, and perseverance.
Those with high levels of self-efficacy are
more likely to rely on themselves when faced
with com- plex issues to find a solution to the
problem, as well as being patient during the

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process, making more efforts, and persisting
longer to overcome the challenges.

Metacognition: Metacognition (SNT), is Metacognition is a necessary ability for

thinking about the thinking, cognitive freelancers working on social networking
processes and work of planning, executing, platforms. A weak perception will not help
monitoring, checking and evaluating the them reflect on past decisions, they can get
execution of an activity. Help freelancers be caught up in negative things and thereby
self-aware of their own mistakes in the cause their freelance work to decline.
learning and working process, helping them
set effective goals. Knowledge and the
individual's cognitive control or ability to
think about thinking (Flavell, 1987).

Self-Leadership: Self-leadership is the Self-leadership skills help freelancers

ability to influence yourself. In the context of control their work effectively. It includes
working in a free economy, self-leaders have planning, maintenance, self-discipline, and
the skills to understand themselves as well as quick adaptation in all situations. Therefore,
manage and control their thoughts, activities, freelance work also develops more smoothly
behaviors, etc. Self-leadership as a concept and faces fewer difficulties.
has also been expanded to include training
individuals to improve their performance.
Many self-help books have been written and
have received a lot of attention from
practicing executives (Neck and Manz,
2010). Furthermore, in previous studies,
several dependent variables of self-
leadership were tested and empirically
validated (Neck and Houghton, 2006).

Job Satisfaction: Job satisfaction is con- Job satisfaction in freelance work is shaped
sidered a fairly stable individual appraisal of by the direct impact of self-leadership. When
one’s job and is linked to several attribute- freelancers are satisfied, they will want to
like features such as self-efficacy, locus of stick with their work for a long time.
control and self-esteem (Judge et al., 2001).
Job satisfaction prevents psy- chological
problems such as depression and anxiety
(Faragher, Cass, & Cooper, 2005) and

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 promotes workplace productivity (Judge,
Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001). Freelance
job satisfaction has been linked to self-
regula- tory constructs such as resilience
(Matos, Neushotz, Griffin, & Fitzpatrick,
2010) and self-leadership (Neck & Manz,
1996; Sesen, Tabak, & Arli, 2017).

2.2. Theoretical backgrounds

2.2.1. Self-leadership theory

Self-leadership theory is normative in the sense that it prescribes how psychological
phenomena ought to happen. Self-leadership theory is a normative theory and it distinguishes
itself from descriptive classic psy- chological theories such as Bandura’s (1991) social
cognitive theory or Carver and Scheier’s (2004) self-regulation theory because it provides
direction on how to improve individuals’ self-regulatory capacity (Manz, 1986). As stressed
by Neck and Houghton (2006), self-leadership regards the intentional implementation of
psychological strategies (e.g., goal setting; performance expectancies) that are purpose driven
and are designed to improve the self-regulation process by means of setting superordinate
standards (i.e., reasons; motivations) that drive goals and behaviours (Neck & Manz, 2010).
Whereas self-regulation regards the reduction in discrepancies that have can either have an
internal (e.g., personal goals) or an external (e.g., organizational goals) source (Bandura,
1991), self-leadership regards the reduction, management and gen- eration of discrepancies
(Neck & Houghton, 2006). Self-leadership is the process through which individuals. Self-
leadership follows self-management theory (Manz, 1986). This theory suggests that
individual action is dependent on the ongoing motorization of the environment, immediately
followed by situational assessments and the decision on the best course of action (given the
results that are expected to be achieved) (Manz, 1986). In self-leadership literature the
mechanism underlying self- managing activities is designated as behavior focused strategies
(Marques-Quinteiro, Curral & Passos, Social Indicators Research, 2011). Self-management
theory also states that such regulatory mechanism can be enhanced through cognitive and
motivational functions, thus suggesting an interaction between such functions and self-
managerial activity.

2.2.2. Self-regulation theory

Self-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious, personal management that
involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors and feelings to reach goals.
Self-regulation consists of several stages. According to self-regulated learning theories
(SRT), apart from being aware of the cognitive and metacognitive strategies, learners should
be motivated to enthusiastically use these strategies to succeed. In this respect, the general

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expectancy-value theory of motivation suggests that there are three motivational components
that might be associated with the components of self-regulated learning like metacognitive
strategies: (a) an affective component, which involves emotional reactions of learns to the
task (pride, anger, etc.), (b) an expectancy component, including the learners’ beliefs about
their capability to do a task (self-efficacy), and (c) a value component, including the learners’
goals and beliefs about the importance and interest of the task. Prior research reveals that the
expectancy, value, and affective components are positively associated with the self-regulated
learning components.

2.2.3. Social cognitive theory

Social cognitive theory (SCT) began as Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by
Albert Bandura. It evolved into SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context
with dynamic and reciprocal interactions between people, environments, and behavior. The
unique characteristic of SCT is its emphasis on social influence and emphasis on
strengthening society externally and internally. SCT examines the unique ways in which
individuals acquire and maintain behavior, and also considers the social environment in which
individuals perform that behavior. This theory can shape metacognitive abilities, which take
into account a person's past experiences, which determine whether an action occurs or not.
These past experiences influence reinforcement, expectations, and expectations, all of which
shape whether a person performs a particular behavior and why a person performs that
behavior. Many behavioral theories used in health promotion do not consider the maintenance
of behavior but focus on the initiation of behavior. This is unfortunate because maintaining
behavior, not just initiating it, is the real goal of public health. The goal of SCT is to explain
how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-
directed behavior that can be maintained over time.

2.3. Prior relevant studies

(1) Determinants and effects of employee’s creative self-efficacy on innovative activities
(Terje Slåtten et al., 2014).

Terje Slåtten et al (2014) have done research on the determinants and influence of
employees' capacity for self-creativity on innovative activities. This study has revealed how
one can (seriously) build a platform to cultivate the firm's "Creative Capital" focusing on the
creative self-efficacy of the individual employee in a specific work role.

This paper aims to identify factors that could be related to creative self-efficacy: leader-
related, self-related and job-related. Transformational leadership represented the leader-
related factors, learning orientation represented the self-related factors and autonomy
represented the job-related factors of creative self-efficacy. This article also aims to examine
the effect of creative self-efficacy on what is called innovative activities.

This study used a structured survey questionnaire. Before the collection of data, one
expert evaluated the questionnaire and pre-tested it on five respondents to evaluate the

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readability and understand ability of the questionnaire. The data were collected from front-
line employees in a hospitality sector situated in southern Norway. Front-line employees in
hospitality organizations are expected to deal with a number of requests by customers
(Karatepe and Uludag, 2008). Consequently, hospitality organizations provide an appropriate
setting for an examination of the chosen variables in this study.

The findings reveal that the job-related factors (autonomy) were the most influential
determinants to creative self-efficacy, followed by the self-related factors (learning
orientation) and finally leader-related factors (transformational leadership). Furthermore,
creative self-efficacy has a positive effect on innovative activities. Creative self-efficacy was
found to have a mediating role between the three determinant variables and the effect variable.

Figure 2.1. Research model of Terje Slåtten et al. (2014)

(2) Goal orientation and work role performance: predicting adaptive and proactive
work role performance through self-leadership strategies (Marques-Quinteiro, P., & Curral,
L. A., 2012)

This article explores the relationship between goal orientation, self-leadership

dimensions, and adaptive and proactive work role performances. It is hypothesized that
learning orientation, contrary to performance orientation, positively predicts proactive and
adaptive work role performances, being this relationship mediated by self-leadership behavior
focused strategies. Self-leadership natural reward strategies and thought pattern strategies are
expected to moderate this relationship. 108 workers from a software company participated in
this study. As expected learning orientation predicted adaptive and proactive work role
performance.

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 108 individuals from 3 international software companies participated in this study. One
week before data collection participants were informed of the study through an email that also
worked as an invitation letter. Data collection went from April 2009 to May 2009 and
respondents gave their answer on paper questionnaires.

Descriptive statistics and inter-correlations for the hypothesized model. Learning

orientation correlated significantly with behavior focused strategies, proactive work role
performance and adaptive work role performance. Behavior focused strategies also correlated
significantly with thought pattern strategies natural reward strategies and proactive work role
performance. Contrary to expectations self-leadership behavior focused strategies had no
positive significant correlation with adaptive work role performance thus neglecting
hypothesis and Table 1 also shows that performance orientation has no significant correlation
with other variables in the model, thus rejecting hypothesis 1.3 and 1.4.

Figure 2.2. Research model of Marques-Quinteiro, P., & Curral, L. A. (2012)

(3) Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and
metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: a
structural equation model (Hayat et al., 2020 )

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 Ali Asghar Hayat, Karim Shateri, Mitra Amini and Nasrin Shokrpour (2020) have done
the research. Recognition of the factors affecting the medical students’ academic success is
one of the most important challenges and concerns in medical schools.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the mediating effects of metacognitive learning
strategies and learning-related emotions in the relationship between academic self-efficacy
with academic performance in medical students.

The subjects were selected using the convenience sampling method. The present study
was carried out on 279 students of medicine studying in the 2018–2019 academic years at
Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. The students filled out three questionnaires: academic
emotions (AEQ), metacognitive learning strategies, and academic self-efficacy
questionnaires. The data were analyzed using SPSS and Smart PLS3. They were asked to fill
out the forms anonymously.

The results of structural equation modeling revealed that the students’ self-efficacy has
an impact on their learning-related emotions and metacognitive learning strategies, and these,
in turn, affect the students’ academic performance. Moreover, learning-related emotions
influence the metacognitive learning strategies, which in turn mediate the effect of emotions
on academic performance. The results of this study revealed that metacognitive strategies and
learning-related emotions could play a mediating role in the relationship between students’
self-efficacy and academic performance.

Figure 2.3. Research model of Hayat et al. (2020)

(4) Examining the Influence of Self-Efficacy and Conscientiousness on the

Freelancers’ Self-Leadership: A Study in India (Shukla, K., Saha, S., & Shaheen, M., 2021 )

Shukla, K., Saha, S., & Shaheen, M. (2021) do this research to demonstrate the
importance of self-efficacy and conscientiousness in self-leadership. The study’s outcome

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will help the recruitment team identify people who have self-leadership attributes, and will
help identify person-job matching in an organization.

The survey questionnaire was sent to 150 people working in different organizations
(all across India) through social media platforms such as Facebook. Linkedin, etc. 103
questionnaires were received with a response rate of 68.67%. The sample had 73.8% males
and 26.2% females. The mean age was 34.9 years (ranging from 22 years to 59 years), and
the average years of experience was 11.05 years (ranging from 4 months to 33 years).

With respect to the association between self-efficacy and self-leadership, the study
found that self-efficacy does predict self-leadership. The findings validate previous studies’
results. When the employees’ self-efficacy is strong, they feel confident in their ability to take
on specific duties and do them successfully (Shaheen and Krishnankutty, 2018). Interestingly,
the data show that self-efficacy is more essential than conscientiousness for self-leadership.
The findings also suggest several paths to self-leadership in the workplace.

If we consider the limitation of the study, the first limitation of the study is the sample
size. The second limitation is that the authors did not consider any control variable like age,
gender, or work experience. The third limitation is that the study did not consider the
organization size in this model.

Figure 2.4. Research model of Shukla, K., Saha, S., & Shaheen, M. (2021)
(5) Propensity for Self-Development of Leadership Attributes: Understanding,
Predicting, and Supporting Performance of Leader Self-Development (L.A. Boyce et al.,
2010)

Lisa A. Boyce, Stephen J. Zaccaro and Michelle Zazanis Wisecarver conducted to gain
deeper insights into and bolster the individual professional self-development of junior-
military leaders.

The research delineated that individuals exhibiting a mastery, work, and career-growth
orientation tend to be more motivated to engage in leader self-development. Furthermore,
such individuals demonstrate proficiency in executing instructional and self-regulatory

15
processes, rendering them more likely to succeed in leader self-development endeavors.
Additionally, it emphasized the role of an organizational support tool in moderating the actual
performance of leader self-development activities.

The study involved the active participation of more than 400 individuals in a
meticulous longitudinal examination designed to assess a structural model of leader self-
development in a six-week professional military education (PME) program, focusing on
enhancing the understanding of leadership self-development. Out of the 561 students enrolled,
498 voluntarily participated. The participants, all army officers, had an average age of 29,
with ages ranging from 22 to 45.

The findings reveal that certain individual characteristics influence the motivation and
skills contributing to a person's propensity for self-directed learning activities (SDLA),
leading to a greater inclination to self-develop. Specifically, individuals with a strong work
orientation are more motivated to engage in leader self-development, those with a career-
growth orientation are more skilled at self-development, and those with a mastery orientation
are both more motivated and skilled at leader self-development.

Figure 2.5. Research model of L.A. Boyce et al. (2010)

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 (6) Employee adaptive performance and job satisfaction during organizational crisis:
The role of self-leadership (P. Marques-Quinteiro et al., 2019)

This study aimed to test the positive relationship between self-leadership training,
adaptive performance, and job satisfaction over time. The results show a significant
association with the development of adaptive performance and job satisfaction. The study,
unique for its three-dimensional self-leadership program and temporal framework, explores
how training impacts changes in self-leadership, adaptive performance, and job satisfaction
in dynamic work environments. Despite an unexpected bailout, the study observed
organizational dynamics and studied how self-leadership training fosters adaptive
performance and job satisfaction during change. The training positively influenced self-
leadership over eight months, with a significant increase in the experimental group. The
control group showed no significant changes post-bailout.

The study involved 52 private banking employees from the bank’s private banking
department, with an average age of 44.54 years. Private bankers, facing high work-related
stress, are expected to exhibit extra role behaviors, including adaptability and proactive
problem-solving. Using items inherited from previous research studies a 5-point Likert scale
ranging between 1 (totally ineffective) and 5 (totally effective).

The results showed an increase in self-leadership, adaptive performance and job

satisfaction for the experimental group, while job satisfaction decreased for participants in the
control group. Their findings suggest that change in the level of self-leadership is positively
related with change in the level of adaptive performance and job satisfaction over time. This
study presents new evidence that individual adaptive performance and job satisfaction can be
enhanced through self-leadership training. Self-leadership training can be used as a valuable
tool to help organizations improve employees’ adaptive performance and job satisfaction,
especially during organizational crisis.

Figure 2.6. Research model of P. Marques-Quinteiro et al. (2019)

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2.4. Research framework and hypothesis development

2.4.1. Relationship between learning orientation and self-efficacy

The relationship between learning orientation and self-efficacy is reciprocal in nature.
A strong learning orientation can enhance an individual's self-efficacy by providing them with
opportunities for skill development, mastery experiences, and positive feedback. When
individuals engage in active learning behaviors such as seeking out challenging tasks or
persisting through difficulties, they can experience success which reinforces their belief in
their abilities (self-efficacy). Conversely, high levels of self-efficacy can also contribute to a
stronger learning orientation. When individuals believe in their own capabilities to learn new
things or improve existing skills, they are more likely to engage in proactive learning
behaviors such as seeking out new challenges or investing effort into mastering difficult tasks.

When individuals with a learning orientation encounter obstacles or setbacks, they are
more likely to respond with resilience and persistence, which can further enhance their self-
efficacy. They view challenges as part of the learning process and are motivated to continue
working towards their goals. Additionally, individuals with a learning orientation tend to
focus on their own progress and improvements rather than comparing themselves to others.
This reduces the pressure to outperform others and allows them to concentrate on their own
development, leading to higher self-efficacy

Learning orientation. This study uses learning orientation to relate the self-related
factor to employees’ creative self-efficacy. There are two reasons for this choice. First, and
most importantly, learning has been considered to be an essential source of self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1986, 1997). Specifically, two modes of learning have been suggested:

(1) enactive learning (i.e. learning through one’s own direct practice)

(2) vicarious learning (i.e. learning through observation and modeling) (Weiss,1990)

Second, some researchers have suggested that learning is an essential and critical
source to both creativity and innovation (Mavondo et al., 2005; Hirst et al., 2009), as well as
to a firm’s maintenance of its competitive advantage (Liu et al., 2002) in both the short and
the long run (Kohli et al., 1998). According to Mavondo et al. (2005, p. 1,241), “a learning
orientation involves questioning organizational practices and assumptions”. The questioning
of practices and assumptions could involve a thorough consideration of the firm’s front-line
service practices. Although it seems that much of the literature focuses on organizational
learning, we must recognize that organizations are unable to learn. More precisely it is the
individual in the organization who can learn. AsKohli et al. (1998,p. 263) correctly observe,
“organizations ultimately learning through their individual members and are, therefore,
directly affected by individual learning”. Porter and Tansky (1999, p. 48) emphasize this point
by describing the individual’s learning orientation as the most “critical factor to success”.
Consequently, there are good reasons for focusing on the individual learning orientation as
the one reflecting the self-related determinant factor of creative self-efficacy.

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H1: Learning Orientation has a positive impact on Self-Efficacy

2.4.2. Relationship between learning orientation and self-leadership

Self-leadership is positively predicted by personal characteristics such as learning
orientation (Curral & Marques-Quinteiro, 2009). Individuals with a strong learning
orientation tend to be more intrinsically motivated. This internal motivation can contribute to
self-leadership by fostering a proactive approach to goal setting and achievement. For
example, a study published in the "Journal of Applied Psychology" (VandeWalle, 1997)
found that learning-orientation individuals set higher performance goals for themselves.
Learning orientation involves a willingness to embrace challenges and learn from
experiences. This adaptability is a key component of self-leadership. Research by Dweck
(2006) on mindset theory indicates that individuals with a growth mindset (similar to a
learning orientation) are more likely to exhibit adaptive self-leadership behaviors.
Learning-orientation individuals often have a strong focus on continuous improvement. This
mindset aligns with the self-leadership concept of self-regulation and striving for personal
development. Evidence from the field of organizational behavior, such as research by
Stajkovic and Luthans (1998), suggests that self-leadership positively influences individual
performance.

Learning orientation involves seeking out information and applying it to solve

problems. This information-seeking behavior aligns with effective decision-making, a key
component of self-leadership. Research by Day and Dragoni (2005) suggests that self-
leadership skills positively influence decision-making effectiveness.

In summary, a strong learning orientation can positively impact self-leadership by

fostering intrinsic motivation, adaptability, continuous improvement, resilience in the face of
setbacks, and enhanced decision-making skills.

H2: Individuals with a strong learning orientation are more likely to exhibit effective
self-leadership skills.

2.4.3. Relationship between self-efficacy and metacognition

As shown in other studies, self-efficacy and metacognitive working strategies are
closely related (Pintrich PR, De Groot EV., Tembo LH, Ngwira FF) studies, metacognitive
working strategies mediate the effect of self-efficacy on working performance. Self-efficacy
becomes a key determinant of whether freelancers adopt these strategies or not. According to
the review of the literature, although many studies have been conducted on direct effect of
variables as self-efficacy, metacognitive strategies and their roles, few studies have focused
on direct and indirect relationship among these variables and investigated the role of
emotions, self-efficacy, and metacognitive working strategies together as predictors of
working achievement in a structural equation model.

19
 There has been some progress in research in this area. According to the review of the
literature, although many studies have been conducted on direct effect of variables as working
self-efficacy, metacognitive working strategies and their roles in working achievement, few
studies have focused on direct and indirect relationship among these variables and
investigated the role of self-efficacy, and metacognitive working strategies together as
predictors of achievement in a structural equation model. Relationship between Self-Efficacy
and Metacognition:

Bandura (1997) suggests that individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to set
challenging goals for themselves. Metacognition comes into play as individuals plan and
strategize to achieve these goals. The planning and goal-setting aspects of metacognition are
influenced by one's belief in their own efficacy. (Zimmerman et al 2000) proposed that self-
efficacy beliefs influence how individuals interpret and use feedback. High self-efficacy
individuals are more likely to use feedback as a source of information for metacognitive
regulation. For instance, a student who believes in their ability to improve in a particular
subject is more likely to view constructive feedback as a guide for adjusting their learning
strategies.

Pajares and Kranzler (1995) found that students with high self-efficacy are more likely
to persist in the face of challenges and setbacks. Metacognition plays a role in this persistence
by enabling individuals to reflect on and adjust their strategies when faced with difficulties.
For instance, a learner with high self-efficacy may engage in metacognitive reflection to
understand why they struggled with a particular task and then adjust their approach
accordingly.

In summary, the evidence suggests that self-efficacy influences metacognition by

shaping learning strategies, goal setting, feedback processing, performance, and persistence.

H3: Academic self-efficacy has a direct effect on metacognitive learning strategies.

2.4.4. Relationship between self-efficacy and self-leadership

Self-efficacy being a psychological resource generates an agentic influence on the
cognitive process of individuals (Prussia et al., 1998; and Hobfoll, 2002). It triggers self-belief
in one’s ability and leads to a confidence level where one performs and excels (Redmond et
al., 1993). Past studies have noticed that empowerment, a process where one acts according
to one’s own will, has significant association with self-perception and confidence (Conger
and Kanungo, 1988). Thus, based on the theoretical foundation of self-efficacy, that is Social
cognitive theory, the fourth hypothesis is proposed as:

H4: Self-efficacy has a positive association with self-leadership.

2.4.5. Relationship between metacognition and self-leadership

The interplay between metacognition, skills in leader self-development, and the
inclination for personal and professional growth is a nuanced dynamic. The proficiency in

20
executing activities related to leader self-development serves as a crucial mediator,
channeling the impact of metacognition on the enhancement of leadership attributes.

In this intricate relationship, the proficiency in self-development activities is closely

associated with one's propensity for growth, acting as a discernible indicator of an individual's
natural inclination to gain valuable insights into both organizational objectives and personal
performance. Proficient skills become a tangible manifestation of an individual's commitment
to understanding and improving their own capacities within the broader context of
organizational goals.

The existing body of literature, as exemplified by studies such as those conducted by

London & Mone (1999) and Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman (1983), underscores a vital
connection. It suggests that variables oriented towards career growth are intrinsically linked
to the possession of skills essential for accurately identifying and navigating professional
strengths and weaknesses. In essence, individuals with a pronounced orientation towards
career advancement are more likely to exhibit the requisite skills needed for a comprehensive
assessment of their own capabilities.

Therefore, the logical conclusion emerges that individuals characterized by a strong

career orientation are predisposed to engage in proactive behaviors that foster their self-
development. This includes activities like needs analysis, a critical examination of progress,
and regular self-monitoring. Such individuals, driven by their inherent orientation, are more
likely to actively seek and embrace opportunities for growth and improvement, contributing
not only to their personal development but also aligning themselves more effectively with
organizational objectives.

H5: Metacognition has a positive relationship with self-leadership.

2.4.6. Relationship between self-leadership and job satisfaction

Considerable research has revealed positive effects of self-leadership on work-related
outcomes. These studies have been conducted in a variety of circumstances such as individual
members in team contexts (Cohen et al., 1997; Manz & Sims, 1987; Uhl-Bien & Graen, 1998),
for employee trainees (Frayne & Geringer, 2000; Frayne & Latham, 1987), college students
(Prussia et al., 1998), and employees whose organization had experienced bankruptcy (Neck
& Manz, 1996). A number of studies have specifically examined how self leadership training
influences employees. These studies (Frayne & Geringer, 2000; Frayne & Latham, 1987;
Godat & Brigham, 1999; Latham & Frayne, 1989; Neck & Manz, 1996) provide support for
self-leadership as a set of control strategies that can be taught to increase self-leadership
practice and subsequent freelancer productivity. Self-leading freelancers are better adjusted
and more confident, which increases the likelihood that they will be successful (Stajkovic &
Luthans, 1998).

Increased self-leadership has also been linked with greater job satisfaction (Neck &
Manz, 1996; Uhl-Bien & Graen, 1998). dịch: Job satisfaction for freelancers can also increase

21
through clarifying personal tasks (Brown & Peterson, 1993). By employing constructive
thought pattern strategies and natural reward strategies, freelancers may be able to enhance
the meaningfulness of their less appealing tasks. For instance, a freelancer engaged in tasks
that may seem mundane can find motivation by envisioning the positive impact of their work,
such as contributing to the success of a client's project. Therefore, with the progression of
self-leadership training, freelancers are expected to acquire the skills to cultivate more
positive assessments of their current job by effectively managing their personal behavior,
cognition, and emotional responses. Initially, freelancers may apply behavior-focused
strategies to establish personal goals and contingent rewards. As they advance, they will
integrate these with constructive thought pattern strategies and natural reward strategies to
foster a positive attitude toward their freelance work. The anticipation is that, over time,
freelancers will develop a more favorable evaluation of their current job and experience
increased satisfaction with it (Spector, 1986).

Taken all together, we posit that freelancers having self-leadership skill tend to have
higher levels of job satisfaction. Thus, the next hypothesis is stated as follows:

H6: The positive effect of self-leadership on job satisfaction for freelancers.

PROPOSAL MODEL

22
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS
DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Research process

This research is a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. The
questionnaire underwent successful modifications, ensuring its validity and clarity through
qualitative techniques. To standardize the measurement scale across all studied constructs, an
initial literature review of relevant papers was conducted. Subsequently, the components of
these structures were translated from English to Vietnamese. A questionnaire was created
using the measuring scale as a guide and 25 freelancers will pretest it. The questionnaire will
undergo revisions to ensure clarity before finalization and distribution. The second stage of
the study comprised a paper-based interview with participants who used to have experience
of freelance work on social platforms (such as Youtube, Tiktok, Instagram,... ).

Ultimately, the dataset will be gathered and assessed using SmartPLS 4. In the initial
phase of this process, a two-stage technique will be employed to evaluate the measurement
model. Convergent validity will be gauged through indicator reliability and average variance
extracted, while the reliability of the researched constructs will be assessed using Cronbach's
alpha and composite reliability (AVE). Furthermore, the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT)
and cross loadings will be employed to appraise the discriminant validity of the measurement
model. The subsequent step involves scrutinizing potential common method bias (CMB) to
ensure the integrity of the research findings. Moving forward, the structural model will be
scrutinized using various criteria, including R2 and Q2 for endogenous constructs to assess
the predictive power and relevance of the proposed research model, respectively.
Additionally, VIF values will be examined to identify any collinearity issues, and the SRMR
value will be utilized to evaluate the model fit.

23
3.2. Measurement scale
A structured survey questionnaire was used in this study. Before collecting data, an
expert evaluated the questionnaire and pre-tested it on five respondents to assess its
readability and comprehension. As a result of this pretest, certain questions were reworded to
improve validity and clarity.to quantify variables concerning... The items in this study were
inspired by Gong et al. (2009). One example question is "I am confident in my ability to solve
problems creatively." The variables under investigation were measured using standardized
and validated scales. The scale items were about self-leadership and were anchored on a 5-
point Likert-type scale, with 1 being strongly disagree' and 5 being strongly agree. The
measurements for these constructs were adopted from prior studies with some minor
modifications to fit the current research context.

2. Measurement scale 3. Pre-test

1.Literature review & Draft questionnaire

4. Modified
5. Main survey
questionnaire

6. Assessment of the measurement 7. Test for

model (two-stage approach) common method

8. Assessment of the
structural model

24
 Constructs Items

Learning orientation 1. I have confidence in my ability to

solve problems creatively.
2. My leader has provided me with
new ways of looking at things that
used to be a puzzle for me.
3. My leader makes me feel we can
reach our goals without him/her if
we have to.
4. My leader encourages me to express
my ideas and opinions.
5. I try out new ideas in my job.
6. I seek to learn something new in my
job.
7. I can decide on my own how to go
about doing my work.

Self-efficacy 1. I can always manage to solve

difficult problems if I try hard
enough.
2. If someone opposes me, I can find
means and ways to get what I want.
3. It is easy for me to stick to my aims
and accomplish my goals.
4. I am confident that I could deal
efficiently with unexpected my
goals.
5. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I
know how to handle unforeseen
situations.
6. I can solve most problems if I invest
the necessary effort.
7. I can remain calm when facing
difficulties because I can rely on my
coping abilities.
8. When I am confronted with a
problem, I can usually find several
solutions.
9. If I am in a bind, I can usually think
of something to do.
10. No matter what comes my way, I’m

25
 usually able to handle it.

Metacognition
1. When reading for this course, I
make up questions to help focus my
reading.
2. If course materials are difficult to
understand, I change the way I read
the material.
3. Before I study new course material
thoroughly, I often skim it to see
how it is organized.
4. I try to change the way I study in
order to fit the course requirements
and instructor's teaching style.
5. I try to think through a topic and
decide what I am supposed to learn
from it rather than just reading it
over when studying.
6. When studying for this course I try
to determine which concepts I don't
understand well.

Self-leadership 1. I keep track of my progress on

projects I’m working on.
2. I use written notes to remind myself
of what I need to accomplish.
3. I work toward specific goals I have
set for myself.
4. I find my own favorite ways to get
things done.
5. I think about and evaluate the beliefs
and assumptions I hold.
6. When I’m in difficult situations I
will sometimes talk to myself (out
loud or in my head) to help me get
through it.
7. When I have successfully completed
a task, I often reward myself with
something I like.

Job satisfaction 1. I feel good at my workplace.

26
 2. I like working for this company.
3. I feel close to my co-worker.
4. All my talents and abilities are put
to good use at my workplace.
5. My income is good.
6. I get along well with my
supervisors/ chain of command.
7. I believe organizational
management is concerned about
me.
8. I feel safe regarding my workplace.
9. I believe work is good for my
physical health.
10. I am acknowledged when I perform
my work/ tasks well.

3.3 Questionnaire design

The paper-based questionnaire was designed in three sections. Section 01 states the
project's aim improve work performance and ensure freelancers can manage their work well,
instead of being supervised, managed like in the traditional work environment before; and
screening questions to identify eligible respondents. The second section included
measurement of the research constructs. Finally, the last section contained the respondent’s
demographic information. We pre-tested the questionnaire with 25 KOLs/KOCs having over
10000 followers on Youtube, Tiktok, Instagram live in Ho Chi Minh city. The questionnaire
was then modified to ensure its clarity before finalization and distribution.

27
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