Name – Geetansh Baweja

Roll No. – 2020UEI2845

BRIEFLY EXPLAIN SENSOR DATA PRE-PROCESSING

Sensor data pre-processing is a crucial step in the data analysis pipeline,
especially in the context of IoT (Internet of Things) and sensor-based systems.
This process involves cleaning, transforming, and organizing raw sensor data to
make it suitable for further analysis and modelling. Proper sensor data pre-
processing ensures that the data is accurate, consistent, and relevant for the
intended applicaNon. Below, are the key steps involved in sensor data pre-
processing:

1. Data Collec/on:
Sensor data is collected from various sensors, such as temperature
sensors, humidity sensors, accelerometers, and many others. These
sensors conNnuously generate data that is recorded over Nme. The raw
data may contain noise, errors, and inconsistencies.
2. Data Cleaning:
Data cleaning is the process of idenNfying and correcNng errors or
inconsistencies in the raw data. This can involve removing outliers, filling in
missing values, and correcNng measurement errors. Cleaning ensures that
the data is reliable and accurate.
3. Data Transforma/on:
Data transformaNon involves converNng the data into a more suitable
format for analysis. This may include converNng Nmestamps to a
standardized format, resampling data to a consistent Nme interval, or
normalizing data to make it scale-invariant.
4. Feature Engineering:
Feature engineering is the process of selecNng, creaNng, or transforming
variables (features) that are relevant to the analysis task. For sensor data,
this could involve calculaNng staNsNcs (e.g., mean, standard deviaNon)
over Nme intervals, creaNng Nme-based features, or extracNng paTerns
and trends.
5. Data Reduc/on:
In cases where the sensor data is voluminous, data reducNon techniques
may be applied to reduce the dimensionality of the data while retaining its
essenNal informaNon. This can help improve the efficiency of analysis and
modelling.
6. Data Integra/on:
In IoT systems, data from mulNple sensors or sources may need to be
integrated and aligned for a holisNc view of the system. This oWen involves
synchronizing Nmestamps and handling data from various sources.
7. Handling Noisy Data:
Sensor data can be prone to noise due to various factors like
electromagneNc interference, signal degradaNon, or sensor malfuncNons.
Techniques like smoothing, filtering, and staNsNcal methods can be used to
reduce noise.
8. Anomaly Detec/on:
IdenNfying anomalies or unusual paTerns in sensor data is essenNal, as
these anomalies can be indicaNve of problems or issues. Anomaly
detecNon algorithms can be applied to recognize deviaNons from expected
behaviour.

NUMERICAL

Suppose we have collected temperature data from a temperature

sensor over a week, and the data contains some missing values.
Your goal is to pre-process the data by filling in the missing values
and calcula>ng the daily average temperature.

Timestamp Temperature (°C)

2023-10-01 08:00 25.5
2023-10-01 12:00 26.3
2023-10-01 16:00 27.1
2023-10-02 08:00 25.8
2023-10-02 12:00 26.6
2023-10-02 16:00 26.2
2023-10-03 08:00 25.9
2023-10-03 12:00 (missing)
2023-10-03 16:00 26.7

To preprocess the data:

• Fill in the missing value for 2023-10-03 12:00 by interpolaNng
between adjacent values.
• Calculate the daily average temperature for each day.
• Transform the data into the following format:
Date Daily Average Temperature (°C)
2023-10-01 26.3
2023-10-02 26.2
2023-10-03 26.3

This processed data is now ready for further analysis, such as trend
analysis or anomaly detecNon.
 SST-ASSIGNMENT

Name: Shubh Arora Roll No: 2020UEI2802 Branch: EIOT

Question: How do smart sensors differ from traditional sensors?

Answer: A Smart sensor is embedded with a Digital Motion Processor or DMP. A smart sensor can
accept input from external sources and use pre-built functions to detect a specific combination of
inputs. A regular sensor does not include a DMP. It accepts external inputs and does not perform any
functions itself. The manufacturer then does process and calculations.

The following are the key differences between smart sensors and traditional sensors:

Differentiating
Factors Smart Sensors Traditional Sensors

Embedded processing capabilities, can Limited or no processing capabilities,

Data Processing process and provide pre-processed data. mainly produce raw data.

Can transmit data wirelessly or through

wired connections to other devices or Typically operate in isolation without
Connectivity systems. connectivity to other devices or systems.

Often integrated into IoT networks, enabling Operate independently without integration
Integration seamless data sharing and analysis. into larger networks or systems.

Capable of adapting to changing

environments and adjusting parameters or Lack the ability to adapt and operate
Autonomy thresholds. under fixed settings and parameters.

Perform advanced analytics like predictive Limited capability for complex data
maintenance, anomaly detection, and analysis, primarily provide raw
Analytics trend analysis. measurements.

Designed to be energy-efficient, with

Power features like sleep modes and low-power May consume more power and require
Efficiency processors. frequent replacements or recharging.

Some smart sensors include user Generally, lack user interfaces and require
interfaces for direct interaction and additional systems for interaction and
User Interface feedback. feedback.
 Numerical

Question:
Suppose in an industrial setting, 8 traditional sensors have been replaced with 8 smart sensors.
The average power consumption of each traditional sensor was 15 watts, and the average power
consumption of each smart sensor is 8 watts. The sensors are operational for 10 hours each day.
Calculate the total energy saved per day by using the smart sensors instead of the traditional
ones.

Answer:

First, let's find the total energy consumption per day for both the traditional and smart sensors.

For traditional sensors:

Total power consumption = Power consumption per sensor × Number of sensors

= 15 watts/sensor × 8 sensors = 120 watts

Total energy consumption per day = Total power consumption × Operational time

= 120 watts × 10 hours = 1200 watt-hours or 1.2 kilowatt-hours

(kWh)

For smart sensors:

Total power consumption = Power consumption per sensor × Number of sensors

= 8 watts/sensor × 8 sensors = 64 watts

Total energy consumption per day = Total power consumption × Operational time

= 64 watts × 10 hours = 640 watt-hours or 0.64 kilowatt-hours (kWh)

Now, let's find the energy saved per day by using smart sensors instead of traditional sensors:

Energy saved per day = Energy consumption of traditional sensors - Energy consumption of smart
sensors

= 1.2 kWh - 0.64 kWh = 0.56 kilowatt-hours (kWh)

Therefore, by using smart sensors instead of traditional ones, the industrial setup saves 0.56 kilowatt-
hours of energy per day.
2020UEI2804
Sahil Kumar Yadav
EIOT

Smart Sensors and Technologies

Assignment

Q. Explain DC Homes.
Ans:-

DC Homes:
Direct Current (DC) Homes are residential properties that utilize direct current electricity for
their power needs. Most homes are connected to the electrical grid and use alternating
current (AC), which is the standard for electricity distribution. However, in certain situations,
homes may be designed or retrofitted to operate on DC power.

DC power allows for more efficient transmission and use of electricity within the home. This
is because DC devices do not require AC-DC conversion which leads to power losses.
Solar panels and batteries provide DC power directly, so a DC home can efficiently store and
utilize solar energy. There is no extra conversion required to use DC from the panels.
DC homes still need an inverter to supply AC power for appliances and devices that require
AC. But the inverter output can be optimized for only these loads.
Wiring is slightly simpler with DC since there is no need to worry about alternating phases.
DC circuits are also intrinsically safer.

● Off-Grid and Renewable Energy: DC homes are often associated with off-grid or
renewable energy systems, such as solar panels and wind turbines. These systems
generate DC electricity, and it may be more efficient to store and use this DC power
directly in the home without converting it to AC.
● Energy Efficiency: Some appliances and devices, especially electronic gadgets and
LED lighting, operate on DC power. Using DC power directly can eliminate the
energy losses associated with converting DC to AC and back again when using
traditional AC-powered homes.
● Energy Storage: DC homes may incorporate energy storage solutions like batteries
to store excess energy for use during periods when renewable sources are not
generating electricity, such as at night or on cloudy days.
● Specialized Applications: DC homes can also be relevant in specialized applications,
like in remote areas, marine environments, or in experimental or research settings.
● Safety and Electrical Codes: It's important to ensure that DC homes are designed
and installed in accordance with safety and electrical codes to prevent electrical
hazards.
Numerical

Q:-
A homeowner is considering transitioning their home to operate on direct current (DC)
electricity to improve energy efficiency. The home currently uses alternating current (AC), but
they have installed solar panels that generate DC electricity. They want to compare the
energy losses associated with the conversion of DC to AC in their current setup with the
energy efficiency of using DC power directly. Here are the details:

The solar panels generate 10,000 watts of DC power.

The inverter used to convert DC to AC has an efficiency rating of 90%.
The home consumes an average of 8,000 watts of power during the day.
Calculate the energy efficiency of the DC system and compare it to the energy losses in the
AC system.

Ans:-

Energy Efficiency of the DC System:

Solar panels generate 10,000 watts (DC).

Inverter efficiency is 90%.
The home consumes 8,000 watts (DC).
Energy Efficiency = (Power Out / Power In) * 100
Energy Efficiency = (8,000 watts / 10,000 watts) * 100
Energy Efficiency = 80%

Energy Losses in the AC System:

Solar panels generate 10,000 watts (DC).

Inverter efficiency is 90%, so it converts 9,000 watts to AC.
The home consumes 8,000 watts (AC).
Energy Losses = Power In - Power Out
Energy Losses = 9,000 watts (AC) - 8,000 watts (AC)
Energy Losses = 1,000 watts (AC)

In this scenario, when using DC power directly, the energy efficiency of the system is 80%. In
contrast, when converting DC to AC using an inverter, there are energy losses of 1,000 watts
(AC). Therefore, using DC power directly in this case is more energy-efficient.
 Assignment
Ankit kumar pathak
2020UEI2806
AIM : Explain the RF energy harvesting system using a block diagram

A Radio Frequency (RF) energy harvesting system is a technology that

captures and converts RF electromagnetic energy, typically in the form of radio
waves, into electrical energy that can be used to power various electronic devices.
These systems are commonly used in applications where it is challenging or
impractical to use traditional batteries or power sources. Here's an explanation of an
RF energy harvesting system using a block diagram:

Block Diagram of an RF Energy Harvesting System:

1. Antenna:
- The system begins with an antenna designed to receive RF signals from the
environment. This antenna captures radio waves, which carry RF energy in the form
of electromagnetic radiation.

2. RF Rectifier:
- The captured RF signal is typically in the form of an alternating current (AC)
voltage. To convert this AC signal into a usable direct current (DC) signal, an RF
rectifier is used. The RF rectifier rectifies the AC signal, transforming it into a
pulsating DC signal.
3. Matching Network:
- A matching network is employed to ensure that the impedance of the antenna
and the RF rectifier are properly matched. This helps maximize the power transfer
efficiency between the antenna and the rectifier.

4. Voltage Regulator:
- The pulsating DC output from the RF rectifier is not a stable voltage. To make it
usable for powering electronic devices, a voltage regulator is employed. The voltage
regulator smooths and stabilizes the DC voltage to a level suitable for the target
application.

5. Energy Storage:
- The regulated DC voltage can be used to power devices directly, but it's often
necessary to store energy for later use, especially if the harvested RF energy is
intermittent. Energy storage devices such as capacitors or batteries can be
connected to store surplus energy for use when the RF signal is weak or absent.

6. Load:
- The load represents the electronic devices or components that need power from
the harvested energy. These could be sensors, microcontrollers, communication
modules, or other low-power electronics. The regulated and stored energy is
provided to the load to power it.

7. Control and Monitoring Circuitry:

- To manage the RF energy harvesting system efficiently, control and monitoring
circuitry can be integrated. This circuitry may include microcontrollers or energy
management systems that optimize energy harvesting, storage, and usage based
on the load's requirements and the available RF energy.

8. Feedback Loop:
- A feedback loop can be included to adjust the impedance matching and the
energy harvesting process based on the strength and characteristics of the incoming
RF signals. This ensures that the system operates at peak efficiency in varying RF
environments.

The RF energy harvesting system continuously monitors the incoming RF signals,

converts them into usable electrical energy, and stores excess energy for future use.
This technology is particularly valuable in IoT (Internet of Things) applications,
remote sensors, and other low-power electronic devices where a constant power
supply is essential, and replacing or recharging batteries is inconvenient or
impossible.

Question Example : Let's work through a simple numerical example of an RF

energy harvesting system. In this example, we'll consider the following
parameters:

- RF Signal Power (Prf) = 10 µW (microwatts)

- Rectifier Efficiency (ηrect) = 70%
- Load Resistance (Rload) = 100 ohms
- Antenna Gain (Gantenna) = 2 dB (decibels)
- Operating Frequency (f) = 900 MHz
- Available RF Power Density (Pdensity) = 1 µW/cm² (microwatts per square
centimeter)
- Antenna Area (Antenna) = 10 cm²

We will calculate the harvested power and the voltage across the load.

1. Calculate the Effective Area (Aeff) of the Antenna:

- The effective area of the antenna is calculated by converting the gain from
decibels to a linear scale and dividing the available power density by it.
- Gain (Gantenna) in linear scale = 10^(Gantenna/10) = 10^(2/10) = 10^(0.2) ≈
1.585
- Aeff = (Pdensity / Gantenna) * Aantenna = (1 µW/cm² / 1.585) * 10 cm² = 6.32
µW

2. Calculate the Power Captured by the Antenna (Pcaptured):

- Pcaptured = Prf * Aeff = 10 µW * 6.32 ≈ 63.2 µW

3. Calculate the DC Power After Rectification (Pdc):

- Pdc = ηrect * Pcaptured = 0.70 * 63.2 µW ≈ 44.24 µW

4. Calculate the Voltage Across the Load (Vload):

- Vload = sqrt(Pdc * Rload)
- Vload = sqrt((44.24 µW) * (100 ohms)) = sqrt(4424 µW*ohms) = sqrt(0.004424
mW*ohms) = sqrt(0.004424) mV ≈ 2.1 mV

So, in this example, the harvested power from the RF energy harvesting system is
approximately 44.24 µW, and the voltage across the load is approximately 2.1 mV.
Keep in mind that this is a simplified example, and real-world RF energy harvesting
systems may have additional factors to consider, such as losses in matching
networks, fluctuations in RF signal strength, and more complex antenna designs.
Actual harvested power may vary depending on these factors.
 ASSIGNMENT
Smart Sensors in IoT Appliactions
Name: ROHIT
Roll No.: 2020UEI2807
Branch: EIOT

Question: What is the significance of real-time data in IoT applications?

Answer: The significance of real-time data in Internet of Things (IoT) applications is a complex and
multifaceted topic that spans various industries and sectors. In this comprehensive explanation, we
will explore the importance of real-time data in IoT applications in detail, examining its role in
decision-making, automation, response times, predictive maintenance, user experience, security,
environmental monitoring, resource management, and more.

Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) represents a paradigm shift in the way we collect, process, and utilize
data. IoT refers to a network of interconnected physical devices, sensors, and other objects embedded
with electronics, software, and network connectivity, enabling them to collect and exchange data.
These devices span a wide range of applications, including smart homes, industrial automation,
healthcare, agriculture, transportation, and more.
At the core of IoT lies data, and the real-time nature of this data is of paramount significance. Real-
time data in IoT applications refers to the continuous flow of information from sensors, devices, and
endpoints to data processing and decision-making systems. This real-time data has far-reaching
implications for a multitude of IoT use cases, each with its unique set of benefits and challenges.

Immediate Decision-Making
One of the most compelling reasons for the significance of real-time data in IoT applications is the
ability to make immediate and informed decisions. In various domains, such as manufacturing,
healthcare, and transportation, rapid decision-making is essential for operational efficiency and safety.
In industrial IoT, for instance, sensors continuously monitor the condition of machinery, production
processes, and environmental variables. Real-time data from these sensors allows manufacturers to
react promptly to fluctuations in temperature, pressure, or other critical factors. When a sensor detects
an anomaly, it can trigger automated responses, such as adjusting equipment settings to maintain
product quality, or alerting maintenance teams to prevent breakdowns.

Faster Response Times

Real-time data in IoT applications translates to faster response times. Whether it's in smart cities or
logistics, the ability to respond rapidly to changing conditions is a key advantage.
In a smart city context, real-time data is collected from various sources, including traffic cameras,
environmental sensors, and public transportation systems. This data can be used to optimize traffic
flow, reduce congestion, and improve safety. For example, traffic management systems can reroute
vehicles in real-time to avoid accidents or construction zones, leading to smoother traffic flow and
reduced travel times.

Enhanced Automation
Automation is a fundamental concept in IoT, and real-time data is a critical enabler of automation.
Real-time data allows IoT systems to operate autonomously, making decisions and taking actions
without human intervention.
A prime example is self-driving cars. These vehicles rely on a constant stream of real-time data from
sensors, cameras, lidar, and radar to navigate safely. When a self-driving car encounters obstacles,
pedestrians, or changing road conditions, it uses real-time data to make split-second decisions for
steering, braking, and accelerating. This automation is built on the foundation of instantaneous and
accurate data.

Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance is an essential use case in IoT applications across industries, and real-time
data is at the heart of its effectiveness. Predictive maintenance involves using real-time data to predict
when equipment is likely to fail, allowing organizations to perform maintenance tasks proactively.
In manufacturing, machinery and equipment are equipped with sensors that continuously monitor
their condition. Real-time data, such as vibration patterns, temperature, and oil quality, is collected
and analyzed to detect early signs of equipment degradation. When certain thresholds are met or
anomalies are detected, maintenance alerts are triggered. This preemptive approach reduces
downtime, minimizes maintenance costs, and extends the life of critical assets.

Monitoring and Tracking

Real-time data is instrumental in monitoring and tracking applications within logistics and supply
chain management. The ability to track the location and status of goods, vehicles, and assets in real-
time provides numerous benefits.
In the context of logistics, real-time data is collected from GPS devices, RFID tags, and other sensors
to continuously track the movement of goods and vehicles. This information is used to optimize
routes, predict delivery times, and provide real-time updates to customers. It also helps in asset
tracking, ensuring that valuable equipment or inventory is not misplaced or stolen.

Data Accuracy
Real-time data ensures that the information used for decision-making is up-to-date and accurate. This
is a crucial aspect of many IoT applications, especially in areas where precision and correctness are
paramount, such as healthcare.
In healthcare, IoT devices continuously monitor patients' vital signs, medication delivery, and other
health-related metrics. Real-time data is used to provide healthcare professionals with immediate
feedback on a patient's condition. For example, a sudden drop in a patient's heart rate or oxygen
saturation level can trigger alarms that alert healthcare staff to respond quickly. The accuracy and
timeliness of this data can be a matter of life and death in critical situations.

Improved User Experience

In consumer-oriented IoT applications, real-time data significantly enhances the user experience.
Smart home systems, for example, use real-time data to provide convenience and energy efficiency to
users.
In a smart home, real-time data is collected from various sensors and devices, such as motion
detectors, thermostats, and lighting controls. This data is used to automate processes like adjusting the
thermostat based on occupancy or controlling lighting and security systems. The immediate
responsiveness of these systems enhances user comfort and energy savings.

Security and Surveillance

Real-time data is critical for security and surveillance applications, where continuous monitoring and
quick responses to incidents are essential.
In security systems, such as surveillance cameras and access control systems, real-time data is
analyzed to detect unusual or suspicious activities. When a security breach or unauthorized access is
detected, real-time alerts are generated, allowing security personnel to take immediate action. This is
vital for protecting physical assets, public safety, and critical infrastructure.

Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is a domain where real-time data is of paramount importance. IoT systems
are extensively used to track and respond to environmental changes, such as air quality, weather
conditions, and natural disasters.
For example, air quality monitoring systems continuously measure pollutants in the atmosphere and
transmit this data in real-time to central servers. When pollution levels exceed safety thresholds, alerts
can be sent to authorities and the public to take necessary precautions. Similarly, real-time data is
crucial in tracking weather conditions and issuing timely warnings for events like hurricanes,
tornadoes, or wildfires.

Improved Resource Management

Real-time data in IoT applications contributes to resource optimization. Whether it's managing water,
energy, or other utilities, real-time data helps make efficient and sustainable choices.
Smart grid systems, for instance, rely on real-time data from various sensors and smart meters to
monitor and balance energy supply and demand. This data is used to adjust electricity generation and
distribution in real-time, ensuring that power is delivered efficiently and reliably. It also facilitates the
integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, by predicting their output and
adapting the grid accordingly.
Challenges of Real-Time Data in IoT
While real-time data in IoT applications offers numerous advantages, it also presents challenges that
need to be addressed:
1. Data Volume and Velocity: The sheer volume and velocity of real-time data generated by IoT
devices can overwhelm traditional data processing systems. Organizations need to invest in scalable
infrastructure and advanced data processing technologies to handle this data efficiently.
2. Data Quality and Reliability: Real-time data must be accurate and reliable, as decisions are made
based on this data. Ensuring data quality is crucial, and mechanisms for error detection and correction
are essential
3. Data Security and Privacy: Real-time data can be sensitive, especially in healthcare and security
applications. Protecting this data from unauthorized access and ensuring privacy compliance is a
critical concern.
4. Latency: Achieving low latency in data processing and communication is vital for real-time
applications. Delays in data transmission or processing can lead to suboptimal outcomes, especially in
safety-critical scenarios.
5. Interoperability: IoT ecosystems often involve diverse devices and protocols. Ensuring
interoperability and standardization in real-time data exchange can be challenging but is essential for
seamless integration.

Conclusion
Real-time data is the lifeblood of IoT applications, empowering them with the ability to make
immediate decisions, respond rapidly to changing conditions, and automate critical processes. Its
significance extends across various industries and use cases, from manufacturing and healthcare to
smart cities, logistics, and environmental monitoring.
The real-time nature of IoT data is integral to predictive maintenance, improving user experiences,
enhancing security and surveillance, and optimizing resource management. However, it also
introduces challenges related to data volume, quality, security, latency, and interoperability that
organizations and technology providers must address.
As the IoT landscape continues to evolve, the importance of real-time data will only grow, enabling
more intelligent, efficient, and responsive systems that benefit both individuals and society as a
whole.
NUMERICAL
Scenario: Smart Grid for Energy Management
In this scenario, you have to explore the impact of real-time data in a smart grid system, where real-
time data is crucial for optimizing energy distribution and minimizing costs.
Given data:-
Key Parameters:
1. Number of Households: 10,000 households connected to the smart grid.
2. Energy Consumption: The average daily energy consumption per household is 30 kWh.
3. Energy Cost: The cost of energy is $0.15 per kWh.
4. Energy Generation: The smart grid integrates renewable energy sources like solar panels and wind
turbines.
5. Real-Time Data: The smart grid uses real-time data from sensors and weather forecasts to optimize
energy distribution and adapt to renewable energy fluctuations.

Case 1: Traditional Grid

In this case, we consider a traditional grid without real-time data optimization.
- Energy distribution is static and not responsive to changes in demand or renewable energy
generation.
- Energy is distributed uniformly to all households.
- Some households experience energy shortages or overages due to variations in demand and
renewable energy generation.

Case 2: Smart Grid with Real-Time Data

In this case, the smart grid utilizes real-time data to optimize energy distribution.
- Sensors monitor energy demand in real-time and adjust energy distribution accordingly.
- Weather forecasts predict the expected solar and wind energy generation for the day.
- The system uses real-time data to allocate more energy to households with high demand or
supplement energy from renewable sources when available.

Solution:
Let's compare the two cases:
Case 1 (Traditional Grid):
- Energy consumption per household: 30 kWh per day.
- Total daily energy consumption for all households: 10,000 households * 30 kWh/household =
300,000 kWh.
- Total daily energy cost: 300,000 kWh * $0.15/kWh = $45,000.

Case 2 (Smart Grid with Real-Time Data):

- Energy consumption per household: 30 kWh per day.
- Total daily energy consumption for all households: 10,000 households * 30 kWh/household =
300,000 kWh.
- Real-time data optimizes energy distribution and reduces energy wastage.
- Total daily energy cost: $40,000 (due to reduced wastage and better allocation of renewable energy).

Savings and Benefits:

- Savings per day: $45,000 (Case 1) - $40,000 (Case 2) = $5,000.
- Annual savings: $5,000/day * 365 days = $1,825,000.

Conclusion:
In this complex numerical example, the use of real-time data in a smart grid system leads to
substantial cost savings and efficiency improvements. The smart grid's ability to adapt to real-time
demand and renewable energy generation data results in annual savings of $1,825,000. This illustrates
the economic and environmental benefits of utilizing real-time data in IoT applications, particularly in
sectors where energy management and sustainability are critical concerns.
Name : Samyak
Roll no: 2020UEI2809
Smart Sensor for IoT assignment

Q 1. How do smart sensors contribute to energy efficiency in IoT devices?

Smart sensors play a pivotal role in the broader landscape of the Internet of Things (IoT),
offering a multitude of benefits that extend beyond mere data collection and transmission. In
particular, their ability to enhance energy efficiency is a subject of great significance, as it
directly addresses the challenges of sustainability and resource conservation in an
increasingly connected world.

Optimized Resource Utilization:

Smart sensors, equipped with various environmental and contextual sensors, allow IoT
devices to sense and respond to their surroundings. By continuously monitoring factors such
as light, temperature, humidity, and occupancy, these sensors enable the devices to make
informed decisions. For instance, smart thermostats can adjust heating and cooling based
on real-time temperature and occupancy data. This minimizes energy wastage, ultimately
leading to energy conservation.

Predictive Maintenance:
Predictive maintenance is a key application of smart sensors. They can monitor the
performance of various machines and systems, such as industrial machinery or HVAC
systems. By detecting deviations from expected performance, they can predict when
equipment is likely to fail. This enables timely maintenance, preventing catastrophic
breakdowns and improving energy efficiency by avoiding the inefficient operation of failing
systems.

Energy-Efficient Lighting:
Smart lighting systems use sensors to detect natural light levels and occupancy. This data is
then used to adjust the brightness or turn off lights when natural light is sufficient or when no
one is present in the room. In addition, color temperature adjustments can enhance energy
efficiency by creating the right ambiance while minimizing energy consumption.

Optimized Traffic Management:

Smart sensors integrated into traffic management systems can help optimize traffic flow and
reduce congestion. This leads to reduced fuel consumption, lower emissions, and improved
energy efficiency in transportation systems. For example, smart traffic lights can adapt to
real-time traffic conditions, reducing unnecessary idling and congestion.

Precision Agriculture:
In agriculture, smart sensors can monitor soil conditions, weather, and crop health. This data
is used to optimize irrigation, fertilizer application, and other farming processes. By applying
resources precisely where and when they are needed, energy consumption is minimized
while maximizing crop yields.

Efficient Waste Management:

Smart sensors are used in waste management to optimize the collection of trash. Sensors in
waste bins can signal when they are full, enabling garbage trucks to make more efficient and
targeted collections. This reduces fuel consumption and emissions, contributing to energy
efficiency in the transportation sector.

Intelligent Building Management:

Smart sensors in building management systems monitor factors like temperature, humidity,
and occupancy. They enable HVAC and lighting systems to adjust in real time to provide
comfort and energy savings. For example, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems
can reduce their operation when a building is unoccupied or when weather conditions allow
for natural ventilation.

Energy Harvesting:
Some smart sensors are equipped with energy harvesting capabilities, such as solar panels
or kinetic energy generators. These sensors can generate their own power, reducing the
need for battery replacements or external power sources. This not only enhances their
sustainability but also contributes to overall energy efficiency by reducing the energy
required for maintenance.

Data-Driven Insights:
Smart sensors collect and transmit vast amounts of data to IoT devices and cloud platforms.
Advanced analytics and machine learning algorithms can analyze this data to identify
patterns and trends. This, in turn, can lead to actionable insights for optimizing energy usage
and identifying areas where energy efficiency improvements can be made.

Demand Response Programs:

Smart sensors are integral to demand response programs, allowing utilities to manage
electricity consumption during peak demand periods. By providing real-time data on energy
usage, these sensors enable dynamic pricing and load shedding, encouraging consumers to
reduce their energy consumption during high-demand times.

Improved Consumer Awareness:

In residential settings, smart sensors provide homeowners with detailed insights into their
energy consumption. Smart meters, for instance, can break down energy use by appliance,
helping consumers make informed choices about when and how they use electricity. This
heightened awareness can lead to more energy-efficient behaviors and reduced energy bills.

Energy-Efficient Supply Chain:

Smart sensors are crucial in supply chain management, helping businesses track the
location, condition, and status of goods. This not only reduces losses due to damage or theft
but also optimizes transportation and logistics, minimizing energy usage and environmental
impact.

Reduced Water Consumption:

In addition to energy conservation, smart sensors contribute to water conservation. They are
used in smart irrigation systems to monitor soil moisture and weather conditions, allowing for
precise watering of plants. This minimizes water wastage and, indirectly, the energy used for
water distribution.
Enhanced Security:
Smart sensors are also integral to security systems in both residential and industrial settings.
They detect intrusions, fires, and environmental hazards. These systems can alert
authorities or initiate automated responses, preventing accidents and emergencies that
might otherwise result in significant energy consumption.

Green Supply Chain:

Smart sensors are increasingly used to track and monitor the environmental impact of
products and materials throughout their supply chain. This transparency can lead to more
sustainable sourcing decisions, reducing the carbon footprint of products and promoting
energy efficiency in the production and transportation of goods.

In summary, smart sensors are not just data collectors; they are enablers of intelligent
decision-making. As the Internet of Things continues to evolve, the importance of smart
sensors in advancing energy efficiency will only become more pronounced. They are the
unsung heroes of a greener and more efficient world.

Q 2. A smart temperature sensor in an IoT system measures the temperature in a room

every 15 minutes. It consumes 1.5 milliwatts (mW) of power during each measurement, and
its sleep mode consumes 0.1 milliwatts. Calculate the average power consumption of this
sensor over the course of a day.

Solution:
To calculate the average power consumption, we need to consider the active and sleep
periods throughout the day.

Active Period Power Consumption:

The sensor takes measurements every 15 minutes, which means it's active for 15 minutes
every hour.
Active power consumption per hour = 15 minutes * 1.5 mW = 22.5 mW

Sleep Period Power Consumption:

The sensor is in sleep mode for the remaining 45 minutes of each hour.
Sleep power consumption per hour = 45 minutes * 0.1 mW = 4.5 mW

Total Daily Power Consumption:

Now, let's calculate the total daily power consumption by considering 24 hours in a day.
Total daily power consumption = (Active power consumption per hour + Sleep power
consumption per hour) * 24 hours
Total daily power consumption = (22.5 mW + 4.5 mW) * 24 hours
Total daily power consumption = 27 mW * 24 hours
Total daily power consumption = 648 mW or 0.648 watts

So, the average power consumption of the smart temperature sensor in this IoT system over
the course of a day is 0.648 watts.
Ques-Write the dynamic properties of smart sensors.
Submitted by-Jai Sahota(2020UEI2811)

Dynamic properties of sensors refer to their ability to respond to changing input conditions,
such as variations in pressure, temperature, light, sound, or other environmental factors.
These properties are crucial in applications where real-time data acquisition and
responsiveness are essential, such as in control systems, automation, and monitoring.
Understanding these dynamic properties is vital for designing, selecting, and utilizing sensors
effectively in various fields including aerospace, automotive, industrial automation,
healthcare, and environmental monitoring.
● Response Time: Response time is a critical dynamic property of a sensor. It quantifies
how quickly a sensor can react to a change in the measured parameter. It is typically
measured as the time taken for a sensor to reach 90% of its final output after a step
change in the input. Fast response times are essential in applications where rapid
changes need to be detected and acted upon promptly. For instance, in automotive
airbag systems, response time is crucial for ensuring the airbag deploys in a collision.

● Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies a sensor can effectively

respond to. It is especially important in applications that involve rapidly changing
signals, like in vibration analysis or audio processing. A high bandwidth sensor can
capture a wide range of frequencies, allowing for accurate representation of dynamic
events.
● Overload Capacity: Overload capacity is the ability of a sensor to withstand and
accurately measure values beyond its nominal range. Sensors with good overload
capacity are less likely to be damaged by sudden spikes in input, making them
suitable for applications with unpredictable or fluctuating conditions.

●
● Hysteresis: Hysteresis is a characteristic exhibited by some sensors where the output
value depends not only on the current input but also on past inputs. In other words, the
output may differ for the same input depending on whether the input is increasing or
decreasing. Hysteresis can introduce inaccuracies in measurements and is a critical
consideration in applications where precision is paramount.

● Linearity: Linearity refers to the relationship between the input and output of a sensor.
A sensor is considered linear if the output is directly proportional to the input over a
specified range. Non-linearities can introduce errors in measurements, especially
when dealing with a wide range of input values.

● Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a measure of how much the output of a sensor changes in

response to a given change in the input. It is usually expressed in terms of output per
unit change in the measured parameter. High sensitivity sensors are capable of
detecting small changes in the input and are essential in applications where precision
is crucial.

●
● Drift: Drift refers to the gradual change in sensor output over time when the input
remains constant. It can be caused by factors like temperature variations, aging of
components, or environmental conditions. Minimizing drift is crucial in applications
that require stable and accurate long-term measurements.
● Noise and Interference: Sensors are susceptible to various forms of noise and
interference, which can introduce inaccuracies in measurements. This can be thermal
noise, electromagnetic interference, or other environmental factors.
 Mahit Govil
2020UEI2813
SSIoT – Assignment
(Q) – An s-band RFEH system having Dielectric resonator antenna (DRA), is
given ZL= 20-j300 and ZA=300+j100 under connecting DRA received power -
2dbm of matched power (PR). What is the DC Output voltage of RFEH system
operated at 2.4 GHz?

ZL = 20 - j300 ohm
ZA = 300 + j100 ohm
Zeff = ZL + ZA
= 320 – j200 ohm
| Zeff | = sqrt(3202 + 2002 )
=377.36 ohm

PR = -2 dbm
-2 = 10 log (P/10-3)
P = 0.631 mW

Now,
P = V2 x | Zeff |
V = sqrt ( P / | Zeff | )
V = 0.001293 V
V = 1.3 mV (Ans)
Numerical: -

Soln.) Rθ = 1000 (1 + 0.004θ) Ω

For 1°C rise in temperate
Rθ = 1000[1 + 0.004] = 1004 Ω
Voltage at node A,
VA = (-5)(10) / (10+10) = -2.5 V
Using virtual grand concept,
VA = VB = -2.5 V
Apply KCL at node B,
I1 = I2
⇒ VB – (-5) / 1000 = V0 – VB/1004
⇒ (VB + 5)1004 = 1000 (V0 - VB)
⇒ (2.5) (1004) = 1000 (V0 + 2.5)
⇒ V0 = 0.01 V = 10 mV
Sensitivity = 10 mV/°C. (Ans)
 Submitted By: Sindhu Roy 2020UEI2814 EIOT 7 Sem

Extraction, Selection and Classification methods.

Extraction, selection, and classification are three fundamental processes in data

analysis and machine learning. These methods are often used in various fields,
including data mining, natural language processing, and image recognition, among
others. Here's an overview of each of these methods:

1. Data Extraction:
- Definition: Data extraction involves gathering relevant information from a raw dataset
or source. This step is crucial because it sets the stage for subsequent analysis.
- Methods:
- Web scraping: Extracting data from websites by parsing HTML or other structured
data formats.
- Data preprocessing: Cleaning and transforming data to make it suitable for
analysis. This may involve handling missing values, normalizing data, and dealing with
outliers.
- Feature extraction: In machine learning, selecting or deriving important features
from the raw data to reduce dimensionality or highlight relevant information.
- Text parsing: Parsing and tokenizing text data into words or phrases for natural
language processing tasks.

2. Feature Selection:
- Definition: Feature selection is the process of choosing a subset of the most relevant
features or variables from the extracted data to reduce dimensionality, improve model
performance, and decrease computational complexity.
- Methods:
- Filter methods: Statistically evaluating each feature's relevance to the target
variable, e.g., using correlation, mutual information, or chi-squared tests.
- Wrapper methods: Evaluating feature subsets using a machine learning model and
selecting the best-performing subset (e.g., forward selection, backward elimination, or
recursive feature elimination).
- Embedded methods: Features are selected as part of the model training process.
For example, decision trees and random forests can provide feature importances.

3. Classification:
- Definition: Classification is the task of assigning a label or category to a given input
based on its characteristics or features. It is a supervised machine learning technique.
- Methods:
 - Logistic Regression: A linear model used for binary classification tasks.
- Decision Trees: Tree-like structures used for both binary and multi-class
classification by making decisions based on feature values.
- Support Vector Machines (SVM): Constructs a hyperplane that best separates
different classes.
- K-Nearest Neighbors (K-NN): Assigns the class based on the majority class among
its k nearest neighbors.
- Naive Bayes: Based on Bayes' theorem, this method is often used for text
classification tasks.
- Neural Networks: Deep learning models, such as convolutional neural networks
(CNNs) for image classification and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) for sequential
data.

These methods are often used in combination, with data extraction providing the raw
material, feature selection optimizing the feature space, and classification algorithms
making predictions or categorizations based on the selected features. The choice of
methods depends on the specific problem, dataset, and the goals of the analysis or
machine learning task.

Q. You have a dataset of 50 student records with two features: the number of
hours they studied and the score they received on a test. You want to build a
model to predict whether a student will pass or fail the test based on these
features.
​ Extraction-> You convert the data into a feature matrix where each row
represents a student and the two columns represent the number of hours
studied and the test score.
​ Selection-> After analyzing the data, you decide to keep only the "number
of hours studied" as the feature for classification.
​ Classification-> You train a binary classifier using Logistic Regression on
the selected feature to predict whether a student will pass (1) or fail (0) the
test.
A: What is the dimension of the feature matrix after the extraction step?
B: After feature selection, you are left with only one feature, which is the "number
of hours studied."
C: If the Logistic Regression classifier predicts that a student who studied for 4
hours will pass the test, what will be the predicted class label (1 or 0)?
Answer:
 A: The feature matrix after the extraction step will have 50 rows (representing 50
student records) and 2 columns (representing the number of hours studied and the test
score).
B: After feature selection, you are left with only one feature, which is the "number
of hours studied."

C: If the Logistic Regression classifier predicts that a student who studied for 4
hours will pass the test, the predicted class label will be 1, indicating a "pass" outcome.
 Assignment
NAME: ANIKET KUMAR
ROLL NO: 2020UEI2816
BRANCH: EIOT (VII Sem)

Q. What is the importance of security in IoT smart sensor networks?

Security is paramount in IoT (Internet of Things) smart sensor networks due to the
unique challenges and vulnerabilities they present. These networks consist of a
multitude of interconnected devices that collect, process, and transmit data, often
in critical applications like healthcare, industrial automation, and smart cities. The
importance of security in IoT smart sensor networks can be summarized through
several key points: data protection, privacy preservation, prevention of
cyberattacks, ensuring device integrity, regulatory compliance, and safeguarding
against the potential for unauthorized access and control.

1. Data Protection: IoT sensor networks handle sensitive and valuable data.
Security measures are essential to protect this data from theft or tampering.
2. Privacy Preservation: Many IoT sensors are deployed in private or public
spaces. Robust security helps ensure data privacy and prevent unauthorized
surveillance.

3. Prevention of Cyberattacks: IoT devices can be targets of cyberattacks,

including DDoS attacks and intrusion attempts. Security mechanisms are
necessary to mitigate these threats.

4. Ensuring Device Integrity: Device authenticity and integrity must be verified to

prevent the introduction of rogue devices into the network.

5. Regulatory Compliance: Various industries have strict regulations regarding

data security and privacy. Complying with these regulations is both a legal
requirement and a trust-building measure.

6. Safeguarding Against Unauthorized Access and Control: Security measures

are crucial to prevent unauthorized access and control of IoT devices, which could
lead to safety hazards or data breaches.

These points emphasize that security in IoT smart sensor networks is not just a
matter of data protection but extends to privacy, resilience against attacks,
regulatory adherence, and overall system reliability. As IoT continues to proliferate
in various domains, addressing these security challenges becomes increasingly
vital to ensure the technology's safe and effective use.

Numerical:

Question: A company deploys a smart sensor network for monitoring

environmental conditions in a manufacturing facility. Over a year, the sensors
collect and transmit an average of 1,000,000 data points daily. If there is a security
breach leading to unauthorized access to just 1% of this data, how many data
points could potentially be compromised?

Answer
To find out how many data points could potentially be compromised due to
unauthorized access, we'll calculate 1% of the daily data collected and then
extrapolate it for a year.

Daily Data Points = 1,000,000

Unauthorized Access Percentage = 1%

Now, let's calculate the number of data points potentially compromised each day:

Compromised Data Points = (1% / 100) * 1,000,000 = 0.01 * 1,000,000 = 10,000

data points
To determine the annual potential compromise:

Annual Compromised Data Points = Compromised Data Points per Day * Number
of Days in a Year
Annual Compromised Data Points = 10,000 * 365 = 3,650,000 data points

So, in this scenario, a security breach leading to unauthorized access could

potentially compromise 3,650,000 data points over the course of a year. This
highlights the critical importance of security in IoT smart sensor networks to
protect against data breaches and maintain the integrity and privacy of sensitive
information.
 Smart sensors in Home Automation.
Himanshu.
2020UEI2820.

Smart sensors play a crucial role in home automation by providing the ability to monitor and control various aspects of
your home environment. They enable automation systems to react to changes and events, making your home more
efficient, convenient, and secure. Here are some ways smart sensors can help in home automation:

1. Security:
- Motion Sensors: Motion sensors can detect movement in and around your home, triggering alarms, turning on lights,
or activating surveillance cameras when unexpected activity is detected.
- Door and Window Sensors: These sensors can alert you if a door or window is opened, enhancing your home's security.

2. Energy Efficiency:
- Occupancy Sensors: These sensors can detect if a room is occupied and adjust lighting, heating, or cooling accordingly
to save energy when rooms are unoccupied.
- Light Sensors: Light sensors can adjust artificial lighting based on natural light levels, ensuring you use just the right
amount of energy for illumination.

3. Temperature and Climate Control:

- Thermostats: Smart thermostats can use temperature and humidity sensors to regulate heating and cooling systems,
optimizing energy consumption and providing comfortable living conditions.
- Humidity Sensors: These sensors help maintain the ideal humidity level, preventing mold and improving indoor air
quality.

4. Smoke and Gas Detection:

- Smoke and Carbon Monoxide Detectors: These sensors can detect harmful gases and smoke, triggering alarms and
notifying you in case of an emergency.

5. Water Leak Detection:

- Water Leak Sensors: Placed near sinks, toilets, or appliances, these sensors can detect leaks and shut off the water
supply to prevent damage.

6. Lighting Control:
- Light Sensors: These sensors can adjust lighting levels based on ambient light, reducing energy consumption and
creating the right atmosphere.
- Color Temperature Sensors: Adjust the color temperature of your lights to match the time of day, enhancing your
circadian rhythm and overall well-being.

7. Voice and Gesture Control:

- Smart sensors can be used to enable voice and gesture control of various devices and systems in your home, making
it more convenient to interact with your automation setup.

8. Smart Appliances:
- Sensors in appliances like refrigerators, ovens, and washing machines can provide data for automation, such as
optimizing energy use and alerting you to maintenance needs.
9. Security and Surveillance:
- Smart cameras with motion and image sensors can provide video feeds and alerts based on detected activity.

10. Health and Wellness:

- Sensors can monitor air quality, track your sleep patterns, and measure other environmental factors that impact your
health and well-being.

11. Remote Monitoring and Control:

- With the help of smartphones or other devices, you can monitor and control your home systems remotely, providing
peace of mind and convenience.

12. Customization and Integration:

- Smart sensors can be integrated into automation platforms and customized to suit your specific needs, allowing for
personalized automation rules and scenarios.

Smart sensors are a fundamental component of home automation, providing the data needed to make informed decisions
and execute automated actions, ultimately enhancing your home's comfort, efficiency, and security.
 - Numerical Scenario using Smart Thermostat
Let's consider a smart thermostat in a home that uses temperature sensors to regulate heating and cooling. Determine how
much energy and cost savings can be achieved compared to a conventional thermostat.
Information:
The home's heating system consumes 10,000 kJ (Kilojoules) of energy per hour.
The smart thermostat uses temperature sensors to optimize heating, reducing energy consumption when the home is
unoccupied.
The cost of energy is ₹7 per 1,000 kJ.
The smart thermostat operates for 8 hours a day on average.
Calculate the energy consumption and cost savings for the smart thermostat compared to a conventional thermostat.

- Solution:

- Conventional Thermostat:
Energy consumption per hour = 10,000 kJ
Energy consumption per day (8 hours) = 10,000 kJ/hour * 8 hours = 80,000 kJ/day
Cost per day = (80,000 kJ/day / 1,000) * ₹7 = ₹560/day
- Smart Thermostat:
Assuming it reduces energy consumption by 20% due to temperature optimization:
Reduced energy consumption per day = 80,000 kJ/day * 0.20 = 16,000 kJ/day
Cost per day = (16,000 kJ/day / 1,000) * ₹7 = ₹112/day
- Calculating the annual cost savings:
Annual cost savings = (Cost per day with a conventional thermostat - Cost per day with a smart thermostat) * 365 days
Annual cost savings = (₹560/day - ₹112/day) * 365 days = ₹179,400.00
So, in this scenario, the smart thermostat with temperature sensors can save the homeowner ₹179,400.00 annually in heating
costs by optimizing energy consumption based on occupancy and temperature conditions.
 NAME: JIGYASA
ROLL:2020UEI2822
SUBJECT: SMART SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGY(SST)

QUESTION 1) How does the concept of "sensor calibration" apply to ensuring data accuracy in
IoT smart sensor networks? (2822)

Ans.) The concept of "sensor calibration" can apply to ensuring data accuracy in IoT smart
sensor networks in the following ways:

1. Measurement Error Reduction: Calibration reduces sensor measurement errors, ensuring

accurate data.

2. Offset and Gain Correction: Calibration adjusts offset and gain for accurate readings.

3. Environmental Compensation: Sensors are calibrated to account for environmental factors

like temperature.

4. Long-Term Stability: Calibration maintains sensor performance over time.

5. Uncertainty Reduction: Calibrated sensors provide data with lower uncertainty.

6. Traceability: Calibrated data is traceable to established standards.

7. Consistency: Calibration ensures sensors in a network provide consistent data.

8. Validation and Certification: Calibration validates sensor accuracy and may lead to
certification.

9. Data Quality: Calibrated sensors enhance data quality for IoT applications.

10. Cost Savings: Calibration reduces rework and incorrect decisions, leading to cost savings.

*Question*:

A temperature sensor in an IoT environmental monitoring system is known to have an offset

error of -1.5°C and a gain error of 10%. If the actual temperature is 25°C, calculate the
calibrated temperature reading.

Solution*:

1. *Offset Correction*:
- Offset error = -1.5°C
 - Offset-corrected reading = Actual temperature + Offset error
- Offset-corrected reading = 25°C + (-1.5°C) = 23.5°C

2. *Gain Correction*:
- Gain error = 10%
- Gain-corrected reading = Offset-corrected reading × (1 + Gain error)
- Gain-corrected reading = 23.5°C × (1 + 0.10) = 23.5°C × 1.10 = 25.85°C

So, the calibrated temperature reading is 25.85°C.

 NAME: JIGYASA
ROLL:2020UEI2822
SUBJECT: SMART SYSTEM AND TECHNOLOGY(SST)

QUESTION 1) How does the concept of "sensor calibration" apply to ensuring data accuracy in
IoT smart sensor networks? (2822)

Ans.) The concept of "sensor calibration" can apply to ensuring data accuracy in IoT smart
sensor networks in the following ways:

1. Measurement Error Reduction: Calibration reduces sensor measurement errors, ensuring

accurate data.

2. Offset and Gain Correction: Calibration adjusts offset and gain for accurate readings.

3. Environmental Compensation: Sensors are calibrated to account for environmental factors

like temperature.

4. Long-Term Stability: Calibration maintains sensor performance over time.

5. Uncertainty Reduction: Calibrated sensors provide data with lower uncertainty.

6. Traceability: Calibrated data is traceable to established standards.

7. Consistency: Calibration ensures sensors in a network provide consistent data.

8. Validation and Certification: Calibration validates sensor accuracy and may lead to
certification.

9. Data Quality: Calibrated sensors enhance data quality for IoT applications.

10. Cost Savings: Calibration reduces rework and incorrect decisions, leading to cost savings.

*Question*:

A temperature sensor in an IoT environmental monitoring system is known to have an offset

error of -1.5°C and a gain error of 10%. If the actual temperature is 25°C, calculate the
calibrated temperature reading.

Solution*:

1. *Offset Correction*:
- Offset error = -1.5°C
 - Offset-corrected reading = Actual temperature + Offset error
- Offset-corrected reading = 25°C + (-1.5°C) = 23.5°C

2. *Gain Correction*:
- Gain error = 10%
- Gain-corrected reading = Offset-corrected reading × (1 + Gain error)
- Gain-corrected reading = 23.5°C × (1 + 0.10) = 23.5°C × 1.10 = 25.85°C

So, the calibrated temperature reading is 25.85°C.

 SSIOT Assignment
2020UEI2823
Bob Anugrah Murmu
21. Differentiate between wired and wireless sensor networks (2823)
Wired Sensor Network
Definition A wired sensor network is a network of
sensors that is connected to each other
and the cloud or server using a PoE (Power
over Ethernet) cable that provides both
power and data transmission. This type of
sensor requires cabling to be run from the
server room to the sensor location
Flexibility Wired sensors are often less flexible in
terms of placement, as they require a
physical connection to the network. This
may limit the number of possible locations
where sensors can be placed or limit the
ability to move sensors as needed.
These sensors also may limit the mobility
of the equipment or machinery they are
connected to as the sensors are connected
by a physical cable.
Cost Wired installations can sometimes require
infrastructure changes and may not make
sense for companies for shorter lease
terms, which usually refers to a 3-5 year
period. This can be cost-ineffective in the
long term.
Signal Wired sensors are physically connected to
a network using cables, which makes it
secure against hacking and unauthorized
access. A person must physically access the
sensor to tamper with it, which is
challenging in cabled networks. Wired
networks can be physically secured, with
access controlled by network
administrators. This makes it easier to
control who has access to the data
collected by the sensors and to monitor for
any suspicious activity. Since these sensors
Wireless Sensor Network
A wireless sensor network is a network of
wireless sensors that uses a wireless
communication protocol such as WiFi or
Bluetooth for data transmission, and a battery
pack to provide power. A wireless sensor
network doesn’t require cabling to be run.
One of the biggest benefits of wireless sensors is
that they do not require any physical cabling to
transmit data. Since these sensors are attached
to magnets, they can be placed anywhere, from
open area spaces (like collaboration areas), to
meeting rooms, phone booths, desk areas and
café spaces.
As a result, this flexibility lends itself to
scalability, and wireless sensors can easily be
scaled up or down depending on the needs of a
particular environment. Additional sensors can
be added as needed without requiring
significant infrastructure changes or the
installation of additional cabling.
The up front costs are significantly less for
wireless sensor network because a cable does
not need to be run.
Additionally, these sensors require little
maintenance, making them more cost-effective
than their wired counterparts in the long-run.
Wireless sensor network rely on radio waves to
transmit data, and other devices that use the
same frequency range, such as Wi-Fi routers,
Bluetooth devices, and cordless phones, can
cause Radio Frequency Interference, or RFI.
Wireless signals can be blocked or weakened by
physical obstacles, such as walls, metal surfaces,
or other electronic devices. In some cases, if the
wireless sensor is located in a spot where the
signal is weak, the data may be corrupted or lost
altogether.
 transmit data over a closed circuit, it is
challenging for unauthorized parties to
intercept the data.

Wired sensors provide precise and

accurate data transmission because they
are not subject to interference from other
devices, weather conditions or physical
obstructions.

Numerical: A pressure sensor measures 44 psi just before the sudden change of 70 psi. The sensor
measures 52 psi at a time 4.5 sec after the change. The sensor time constant (in sec) is…?

Pinitia l= 44psi
P(t = 4.5sec) = 52 psi
Pfinal=Pinitial + 70 = 114 psi
We know the relation
P(t) = Pfinal+(Pinitial−Pfinal)e−t/τ
P(t = 4.5sec) = 114 + (44 − 114)e−4.5/τ
52 = 114 + (−70)e−4.5/τ
62/70 = e-4.5/τ
ℓn(62/70)=−4.5/τ
τ=−4.5ℓn(62/70)
τ=37 sec
 Assignment
Smart Sensor Technology
Roll no: 2020UEI2824
Rohit Kumar
Piezoelectric Sensor
A piezoelectric sensor is a type of sensor that utilizes the piezoelectric effect to convert mechanical
stress or pressure into an electrical signal. The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials
that generates a voltage when subjected to mechanical deformation, and vice versa. This makes
piezoelectric sensors useful for various applications, such as pressure sensing, vibration detection,
and even as sensors in musical instruments.

How Piezoelectric Sensors Work:

When mechanical stress is applied to a piezoelectric material, it causes a displacement of positive and
negative charge within the material. This displacement generates an electric potential difference or
voltage. The magnitude of the generated voltage is proportional to the applied mechanical force or
pressure. Conversely, if an electrical voltage is applied to the piezoelectric material, it can cause
mechanical deformation or movement.

Here's a basic diagram illustrating the working principle of a piezoelectric sensor:

Piezoelectric Sensor Diagram

In this diagram, a piezoelectric crystal is placed between two metal plates. When mechanical stress is
applied to the crystal, it generates a voltage difference between the metal plates, which can be
measured as an electrical signal.

Theory:

The mathematical relationship between the mechanical stress (force) and the voltage generated by a
piezoelectric sensor is given by:
V=d.F

Where:
V is the generated voltage.
d is the piezoelectric coefficient, which is a material-specific constant.
F is the applied force or mechanical stress.
Numerical
Suppose you have a piezoelectric sensor with a piezoelectric coefficient (d) of 0.8 V/N (volts per
newton). You apply a dynamic force to the sensor that varies with time according to the following
function:
F(t) = 3t2 + 4t + 5
where F(t) is the force in newtons at time t in seconds.
You want to calculate the voltage generated by the sensor at a specific time t, let's say t =2.5 seconds.

Solution:

Using the formula:

V = d.F

Where

d is 0.8 V/N(given)

F(t) = 3t2 + 4t + 5

You can calculate the voltage (V) at t = 2.5 seconds as follows:

V(2.5) = 0.8V/N.(3(2.5)2 + 4(2.5) + 5)

V(2.5) = 27V

So, at t = 2.5 seconds , the piezoelectric sensor generates a voltage of 27 volts when subjected to the
varying forced described by F(t).
Abhishek Kumar Shah (2020UEI2825)
Smart Sensors Technologies for IoT Applications (EIECE52)
Assignment Topic: They Key difference between Active and Passive smart sensors and how
they are used in IoT applications

Smart Sensors: Smart sensor goes beyond just measuring things; it can process data, communicate with other devices
and provide useful information or take actions based on the data it collects.
Smart sensors can be classified to the way they interact with the environment and how they are powered, i.e. they can be
classified based on whether they are active or passive in nature.
Characteristics of Smart Sensors includes, Data Processing, Communication, Integration, Self-Calibration,Energy,
Efficiency, Data Logging, and other Advanced Features like AI-ML integration.

Characteristic Active Smart Sensors Passive Smart Sensors

Require an external power source to Do not require an external power

Power Requirement operate source

Emits some form of energy and then

measures the reflected or scattered Detects and measures some form of
energy to detect and measure changes in energy in the environment
Energy Emission the environment

Mode of Measure the response or changes in Measure the energy emitted by

Measurement the emitted signal objects in their surroundings

Environmental May cause interference or Typically do not cause interference or

Impact disturbance in some cases disturbance

Typically lower power consumption,

Typically higher power consumption making them suitable for battery-
Power Consumption due to active emission powered applications

Often more complex due to signal Generally less complex in terms of

Complexity generation and processing circuitry and operation

Motion detection, temperature

Distance measurement, mapping, measurement, light sensing, sound
Use Cases object detection recording, radiation monitoring

PIR sensors, thermopiles,

Ultrasonic sensors, LiDAR, radar, photodetectors, microphones,
Examples active infrared sensors radiation dosimeters
Use cases for Active Smart Sensors:
✓ Ultrasonic Distance Measurement (Active): Active ultrasonic sensors emit high-frequency sound waves and
measure the time it takes for the sound waves to bounce back. These sensors are commonly used in automotive
parking assist systems, where they help drivers gauge the distance between their vehicle and obstacles.
✓ LiDAR for Autonomous Vehicles (Active): LiDAR sensors emit laser beams and measure the time it takes for the
laser light to reflect off objects. In autonomous vehicles, LiDAR used for 3D mapping of the surrounding
environment, helping vehicles navigate and avoid collisions.

Use Cases for Passive Smart Sensors

✓ Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors for Motion Detection (Passive): PIR sensors detect changes in the thermal
radiation (heat) emitted by moving objects. They are commonly used in motion-activated lighting systems, home
security systems, and occupancy sensors.
✓ Ambient Light Sensors in Smartphones (Passive): Passive photodetectors such as photodiodes are used in
smartphones to adjust screen brightness based on the surrounding light levels. This improves visibility and
conserves battery life.

A thermistor is a passive temperature sensor whose electrical resistance varies with temperature.The beta thermistor
equation describes and model the relationship of electrical resistance with temperature. The equation can be expressed as:
1 1
𝛽(𝑇−𝑇 )
𝑅(𝑇) = 𝑅𝑇𝑜 ∗ 𝑒 𝑜 where,

• R(T) is the resistance of the thermistor at temperature T,

• 𝑅𝑇𝑜 is the resistance of the thermistor at a reference temperature To,
• β is the material constant or beta coefficient that characterizes the thermistor's temperature-resistance relationship,
• T is the current temperature at which the resistance is being measured. To , the reference temperature at which the
resistance 𝑅𝑇𝑜 is known.

The beta thermistor equation is commonly used for NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) thermistors, where
resistance decreases as temperature increases.
Question: Let us consider a semiconductor thermistor. The resistance at T=100°C is 1 KQ at T=100°C, andAt T=0°C it is
100 KQ. Calculate the resistance at T=40°C.
Solution: The semconductor thermistor is characterized by the following relationship:
1 1
β(𝑇−𝑇 )
R(T) = 𝑅𝑇𝑜 ∗ 𝑒 𝑜

To calculate B, let us replace in the above equation T=100°C=373K and To=0°C=273K, and the resepctive reistance
values. From the equation β is calculated:
𝑅(𝑇)
𝑙𝑛 𝑅 1
𝑇0 ln(100)
β= 1 1 = 1 1 = 4689𝐾
− −
𝑇 𝑇𝑜 373 273

Once β is known, and considering as reference temperature To = 0°C it is possible to calculate the resistance at any
temperature. At T=40°C=313K we get:
1 1
4689(313−273)
R(T) = 100 ∗ 𝑒 = 11𝐾Ω

Consider that the choice of To is arbitrary and it only requires the knowledge of the resistance 𝑅𝑇𝑜 at To , It is easy to
verify that the same result is obtained choosing to=100°C.
Harshit Kapoor(2020UEI2826)- EIOT SST ASSIGNMENT

Smart sensors play a crucial role in traffic management in smart ci3es by providing real-3me
data and insights that help improve traffic flow, safety, and overall urban mobility. Here are
some ways in which smart sensors contribute to traffic management in smart ci3es:

1. Traffic Monitoring and Data Collec3on:

Smart sensors, such as cameras, lidar, radar, and in-road sensors, monitor traffic condi3ons
and collect data on vehicle count, speed, and conges3on. This data helps authori3es
understand traffic paEerns and make informed decisions.

2. Real-3me Traffic Informa3on:

Smart sensors provide real-3me traffic informa3on to drivers through various plaJorms,
such as mobile apps and electronic road signs. This helps drivers choose less congested
routes, reducing traffic jams and travel 3mes.

3. Adap3ve Traffic Signals:

Traffic lights equipped with smart sensors can adjust their signal 3ming in real-3me based
on traffic condi3ons. This dynamic control op3mizes traffic flow, reduces wai3ng 3mes, and
minimizes idling, which, in turn, lowers fuel consump3on and emissions.

4. Parking Management:
Smart sensors in parking lots and on-street parking spaces can indicate available spots to
drivers, reducing the 3me spent searching for parking. This decreases conges3on and
emissions caused by circling vehicles.

5. Incident Detec3on and Response:

Sensors can quickly detect accidents, breakdowns, or other incidents on the road.
Automated alerts and real-3me informa3on enable faster response by emergency services
and traffic management authori3es.

6. Environmental Impact Reduc3on:

Smart sensors can help reduce the environmental impact of transporta3on by promo3ng
efficient traffic flow, thus minimizing fuel consump3on, greenhouse gas emissions, and air
pollu3on.

7. Pedestrian Safety:
Sensors can detect the presence of pedestrians at crosswalks and intersec3ons. This
informa3on can be used to trigger pedestrian-friendly signal 3mings, improving safety and
encouraging more people to walk in the city.

8. Data Analy3cs and Predic3ve Modeling:

Traffic data collected by sensors can be analyzed to iden3fy long-term traffic trends and
paEerns. This informa3on is valuable for city planners and policymakers when making
decisions about infrastructure improvements and expansion.

9. Public Transporta3on Management:

 Smart sensors can track buses, trams, and trains in real-3me, allowing for beEer
management of public transporta3on services. This can lead to improved scheduling and
more efficient public transit systems.

10. Enforcement and Compliance:

Smart sensors, such as license plate recogni3on cameras, can help enforce traffic rules and
regula3ons, leading to safer roadways and beEer traffic management.

11. Emergency Response Planning:

Traffic data from smart sensors can be crucial for emergency response planning. It helps
authori3es plan for and manage evacua3on routes and emergency response strategies
during disasters or emergencies.

In summary, smart sensors are integral to the development of smart ci3es by providing data-
driven insights and real-3me control over traffic management. By op3mizing traffic flow,
enhancing safety, and reducing environmental impact, smart sensors contribute to crea3ng
more efficient, sustainable, and livable urban environments.

Numerical based on the ques3on

Certainly, here's a numerical example related to traffic management:

Scenario: Conges3on Reduc3on through Road Widening

Suppose you have a road segment in a city that experiences significant traffic conges3on
during peak hours. To alleviate this conges3on, the city government plans to widen the road.

Given Data:

1. Exis3ng road width: 2 lanes in each direc3on.

2. Average vehicle speed during peak hours on the exis3ng road: 20 miles per hour (mph).
3. Traffic flow during peak hours: 1,000 vehicles per hour per lane in each direc3on.

Objec3ve:

Calculate the poten3al reduc3on in traffic conges3on by widening the road to accommodate
an addi3onal lane in each direc3on.

Solu3on:

First, let's calculate the current traffic capacity of the road and the resul3ng conges3on:

1. Current traffic capacity per lane during peak hours: 1,000 vehicles per hour
2. Current total traffic capacity of the road: 2 lanes * 1,000 vehicles per hour per lane =
2,000 vehicles per hour
Since the exis3ng traffic flow is 2,000 vehicles per hour, this means the road is opera3ng at
full capacity during peak hours, which leads to conges3on and a speed of 20 mph.

Now, let's consider the road widening project, which will add one more lane in each
direc3on:

1. New road width: 3 lanes in each direc3on.

2. The average vehicle speed on the widened road: This will depend on the new capacity and
traffic flow.

To calculate the new traffic capacity and speed on the widened road:

1. New traffic capacity per lane during peak hours: 1,000 vehicles per hour
2. New total traffic capacity of the widened road: 3 lanes * 1,000 vehicles per hour per lane
= 3,000 vehicles per hour

Now, let's consider the new traffic flow on the widened road:

1. New traffic flow during peak hours: 2,500 vehicles per hour

With the addi3onal lane, the road can now accommodate 3,000 vehicles per hour. Since the
new traffic flow is 2,500 vehicles per hour, the road operates below full capacity, leading to
reduced conges3on.

To find the new average vehicle speed on the widened road, you can use the formula:

New Average Speed = (New Total Traffic Capacity) / (New Traffic Flow)

New Average Speed = 3,000 vehicles per hour / 2,500 vehicles per hour = 1.2 (or 120%)

The new average vehicle speed on the widened road is 120% of the previous speed:

New Average Speed = 20 mph * 1.2 = 24 mph

So, aher widening the road, the average vehicle speed during peak hours is es3mated to be
24 mph, which is an improvement over the previous 20 mph, indica3ng a reduc3on in traffic
conges3on.
Name: Mukesh Kumar Mandal
Roll : 2020UEI2827
Sub: Smart Sensor for IOT

Q. Describe the principles of data analytics in IoT sensor applications.

Ans . Principles of Data Analytics in IoT Sensor Applications

Data analytics in Internet of Things (IoT) sensor applications is a multifaceted process that
revolves around collecting, analyzing, and deriving insights from the massive amount of data
generated by IoT sensors. To effectively harness the potential of IoT, a set of fundamental
principles are crucial to guide this complex analytical journey.

1. Data Collection and Preprocessing: This is the foundational step in data analytics. IoT
sensors continuously collect data from various sources, such as temperature sensors, motion
detectors, or environmental monitors. The principle of data collection involves capturing and
aggregating this data, while preprocessing focuses on cleaning, transforming, and structuring it
for analysis. It is essential to address issues like missing values, outliers, and data consistency
before meaningful analysis can occur.

2. Real-time Processing: IoT sensor data is often time-sensitive, requiring real-time processing
and analysis. Real-time processing ensures that decisions can be made promptly based on the
incoming sensor data. For instance, in a smart home, real-time processing of motion sensor
data can trigger actions like turning on lights or adjusting thermostat settings when motion is
detected.

3. Data Storage: IoT applications generate an enormous volume of data. Effective data storage
mechanisms are necessary for archiving and accessing this data. Databases, data lakes, and
cloud-based storage services play a pivotal role in ensuring that data is readily available for
historical analysis, reporting, and compliance purposes.

4. Data Visualization: Data visualization tools transform complex sensor data into graphical
representations such as charts, graphs, and dashboards. Visualization makes it easier for
humans to interpret and derive insights from the data. It enables users to understand trends,
anomalies, and patterns quickly. For example, a manufacturing facility may use real-time
dashboards to monitor machine performance, helping operators react to issues more efficiently.

5. Descriptive Analytics: Descriptive analytics is concerned with summarizing historical data to

provide insights into what has happened. It involves generating key performance indicators
(KPIs) and visualizing trends in the data. Descriptive analytics aids in understanding past
performance and identifying areas for improvement. An example is using historical sensor data
to analyze past energy consumption patterns for optimizing resource allocation.
6. Predictive Analytics: Predictive analytics leverages historical data and advanced statistical
or machine learning models to make predictions about future events, trends, or behaviors. This
principle enables organizations to anticipate future conditions, such as predicting equipment
failures, customer behavior, or even environmental changes.

7. Prescriptive Analytics: Prescriptive analytics goes a step further by providing

recommendations for actions based on predictive insights. It guides decision-making by offering
actionable suggestions to optimize outcomes. In healthcare, for instance, prescriptive analytics
can recommend personalized treatment plans for patients based on sensor data and medical
history.

8. Machine Learning and AI: Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) are essential for
building models that can automatically detect patterns, anomalies, or make predictions based
on IoT sensor data. These advanced techniques enable automation and enhance the analysis
of sensor data, allowing for the discovery of complex patterns and insights that might be
challenging for traditional analytics.

These principles collectively provide the foundation for effective data analytics in IoT sensor
applications. By following these principles, organizations can derive meaningful insights, make
informed decisions, and optimize processes in various domains, including healthcare,
manufacturing, smart cities, and more. The effective application of data analytics in IoT sensor
applications holds the promise of significant advancements in various fields, enhancing
efficiency, sustainability, and quality of life.

For example:
In a smart agriculture setting, IoT sensors, including soil moisture and weather sensors,
continually collect data. Data preprocessing involves removing outliers and calibrating soil
moisture measurements. Real-time processing detects abrupt changes, such as sudden
weather shifts, triggering automated irrigation adjustments to optimize crop growth. Data is
securely stored in a cloud-based database, and a visual dashboard displays real-time sensor
data. Descriptive analytics summarizes past weather patterns and irrigation levels, while
predictive models forecast future weather conditions. Prescriptive analytics recommends
irrigation schedules based on predictive insights. Machine learning identifies disease patterns in
crops, aiding in early pest control. Security measures, like encryption, protect data integrity and
ensure privacy.
Numerical Question:

Ques.
A PC based data acquisition system is considered for a K type thermocouple. Two
limit designs will have to be evaluated.
Design a) a cheap and less accurate design with:
● 4-bit A/D converter;
● standard electronic reference junction block with a temperature uncertainty of ∀ 0.570 C
at 0 C;
● standard thermocouple with ∀ 2.30 C error limit.
 Prakhar Tripathi
2020UEI2828
EIOT
ASSIGNMENT: SMART SENSOR IN IoT TECHNOLOGY

Q- How are smart sensors used in energy management for buildings?

Smart sensors play a crucial role in energy management for buildings by providing real- me data
and enabling more efficient control of energy-consuming systems. These sensors are designed to
monitor various aspects of a building's environment, including temperature, humidity, occupancy,
ligh ng, and energy consump on.

1. HVAC (Hea ng, Ven la on, and Air Condi oning) Control: Smart sensors can measure
temperature and occupancy levels within a building. They adjust HVAC systems accordingly to
maintain comfort while minimizing energy waste. For example, if a room is unoccupied, the HVAC
system can reduce or shut off hea ng or cooling to save energy.
2. Ligh ng Control: Smart sensors can detect natural light levels and occupancy. They can
automa cally adjust ar ficial ligh ng to op mize energy use. When a room is vacant or has
sufficient natural light, the lights can be dimmed or turned off.
3. Energy Monitoring: Sensors can track electricity and water consump on in real me. This data
allows building managers to iden fy energy inefficiencies and take correc ve ac ons, such as
reducing peak energy demand or iden fying malfunc oning equipment.
4. Window and Blinds Control: Sensors can adjust window shades or blinds based on the posi on
of the sun to reduce heat gain and minimize cooling needs.
5. Energy Management Systems (EMS): Smart sensors are integrated into EMS, enabling
centralized control and automa on of various building systems. These systems can op mize energy
consump on throughout the day and in response to changing environmental condi ons.

Numerical Example:
Q-)
Imagine a commercial building with a daily HVAC energy consump on of 600 kWh when it
operates for 12 hours per day, using 50 kW of power. By implemen ng occupancy-based control
with the help of smart sensors, the building can reduce HVAC opera on to 8 hours per day,
maintaining comfort.
Calculate the monthly energy and cost savings resul ng from this op miza on, assuming a 30-day
month and an energy cost of $0.10 per kWh.

Solu on:
Ini al HVAC energy consump on per day = 50 kW * 12 hours = 600 kWh Energy consump on a er
op miza on per day = 50 kW * 8 hours = 400 kWh
Monthly energy savings = (600 kWh - 400 kWh) * 30 days = 6,000 kWh
Assuming an energy cost of $0.10 per kWh, the monthly cost savings would be: Cost savings =
6,000 kWh * $0.10 = $600
 MANYA BANSAL
2020UEI2829
SMART SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES FOR IOT APPLICATIONS
ASSIGNMENT

How can smart sensors help in waste management in urban areas?

Smart sensors play a pivotal role in revolutionizing waste management in urban areas by
offering real-time data collection, analysis, and efficient resource allocation. Their
implementation can significantly enhance the overall efficiency and sustainability of waste
management systems.

1. Real-time Monitoring:
Smart sensors enable real-time monitoring of various aspects of waste management, such as
waste collection, transportation, and disposal. These sensors are installed in waste bins,
vehicles, and disposal sites, continuously collecting data about the fill levels, temperature, and
other relevant parameters.

2. Fill-Level Monitoring:
One of the most critical functions of smart sensors is to monitor the fill levels of waste bins.
When a waste bin reaches a predetermined fill level, the sensor triggers an alert to waste
management authorities. This information allows for optimized collection routes, reducing
unnecessary pickups and saving resources.

3. Environmental Parameters:
Smart sensors can also measure environmental factors such as temperature and humidity. This
data is valuable for ensuring proper waste disposal and preventing potential hazards like fires,
gas emissions, or leakage.
4. Route Optimization:
With data from sensors, waste management companies can optimize collection routes. This
reduces fuel consumption and minimizes greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to a more
sustainable waste management process.

5. Predictive Analysis:
Smart sensors can analyze historical data to predict waste generation patterns. These
predictions help authorities allocate resources more efficiently and respond to changing
demand.

6. Cost Reduction:
By optimizing routes, reducing labor and fuel costs, and preventing overflows and environmental
hazards, smart sensors significantly cut the operational costs of waste management.

7. Public Engagement:
Smart sensors can connect to mobile apps and websites, allowing residents to check the fill
levels of waste bins in real-time. This information encourages responsible waste disposal and
helps citizens plan their waste disposal more effectively.

Smart sensors used for waste management :

● Ultrasonic Fill-Level Sensors:

These sensors use ultrasonic waves to measure the distance from the sensor to the
waste material in a bin. They can accurately determine the fill level of a container by
measuring the time it takes for the ultrasonic signal to bounce back.

● Temperature and Humidity Sensors:

These sensors are used to monitor environmental conditions within waste bins and at
disposal sites. They help detect conditions that may lead to issues such as fires, gas
emissions, or leakage, enabling timely intervention to prevent potential hazards.

Examples: DHT22, AM2302.

● GPS Sensors:
GPS sensors are integrated into waste collection vehicles to provide real-time location
data using satellite signals. This data is crucial for route optimization, tracking vehicle
movements, and ensuring efficient waste collection and disposal.

Data Transmission

● Wireless Communication Modules:

These modules facilitate the wireless transmission of data collected by sensors to a
central system or the cloud. Common communication technologies include GSM/3G/4G,
LoRa, etc.
Numerical:
An ultrasonic sensor is placed at the top of a waste bin. The sensor emits a sound wave
that travels downward to the waste material and bounces back. If it takes 6 milliseconds
for the sound wave to travel from the sensor to the waste material and back. The total
depth of the bin is 1.2 meters. Calculate the fill percentage of the waste bin.
(Assume the speed of sound in air to be 343 m/s)

Answer:
We know that the time taken by the sound wave to travel down and back to the sensor
is:

Time (t) = 2 * Distance (d) / Speed of Sound (v)

0.006 seconds = 2 * d / (343 m/s)

This gives, Distance (d) = 1.029 meters

Now, calculating the fill percentage:

Fill Percentage = (Distance (d) / Total Depth) * 100

Fill Percentage = (1.029 meters / 1.2 meters) * 100 ≈ 85.75%

The waste bin is approximately 85.75% filled.

Tanmay Gupta
2020UEI2832
EIOT

ASSIGNMENT: SMART SENSOR IN IoT TECHNOLOGY

Q-Write the names of various sensors used to monitor ambient environment, connect the
sensors with data acquisition system. Use machine learning model for data analysis for
ambient environment parameters with the help of block diagram. Explain the process of
features extraction, selection and classification.?

Sensors for Ambient Environment Monitoring:

Various sensors can be used to monitor different parameters of the ambient environment. Some
common sensors include:

● Temperature Sensor: Measures the temperature of the environment.

● Humidity Sensor: Measures the moisture content in the air.
● Light Sensor (Luminance Sensor): Measures the intensity of light in the environment.
● Gas Sensors (e.g., CO2, CO, VOCs): Detect specific gases in the atmosphere.
● Noise Level Sensor (Microphone): Measures the ambient noise level.
● Air Quality Sensors: Measures air pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, NO2, etc.
● Motion Sensors (e.g., PIR): Detects movement or presence in the environment.
● Pressure Sensor: Measures atmospheric pressure.
● Wind Speed and Direction Sensor: Measures wind conditions.
● Rain Gauge: Measures precipitation levels.

Data Acquisition System:

A Data Acquisition System (DAS) collects data from the sensors. It typically consists of:

● Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): Converts analog sensor readings into digital

signals.
● Microcontroller/Processor: Controls the ADC, interfaces with sensors, and processes
data.
● Memory Storage: Stores the acquired data.
● Communication Interface: Enables data transmission to a central processing unit (e.g.,
a computer).

Machine Learning Model:

A machine learning model is used for data analysis. This model is trained to recognize patterns
in the collected data and make predictions or classifications. In this case, it can be used to
predict or classify various ambient environment parameters.
Block Diagram:

Sensors

Data Acquisition System (DAS)

Processing Unit

Machine Learning Model

Features Extraction:
Temporal Features: Statistics like mean, median, standard deviation over time intervals.
Frequency Domain Features: Obtained via techniques like Fourier Transform to understand
periodic patterns.
Statistical Features: Variance, skewness, kurtosis, etc.
Spatial Features (if applicable): For sensor arrays, features might be extracted based on spatial
distribution.

Features Selection:
Univariate Methods: Selecting features based on their correlation with the target variable.
Recursive Feature Elimination (RFE): Iteratively removing the least important features.
Principal Component Analysis (PCA): Reducing dimensionality by projecting data onto
lower-dimensional space.

Classification:
Supervised Learning: If you have labeled data (e.g., Normal vs. Anomalous conditions).
Common algorithms: Random Forest, Support Vector Machines, Neural Networks.
Unsupervised Learning: If you don't have labeled data (e.g., clustering similar data points).
Common algorithms: K-means Clustering, DBSCAN.
Numerical Example:

Q-) Imagine a commercial building with a daily HVAC energy consumption of 600 kWh when it
operates for 12 hours per day, using 50 kW of power. By implementing occupancy-based control
with the help of smart sensors, the building can reduce HVAC operation to 8 hours per day,
maintaining comfort. Calculate the monthly energy and cost savings resulting from this
optimization, assuming a 30-day month and an energy cost of $0.10 per kWh.

Solution:

Initial HVAC energy consumption per day = 50 kW * 12 hours = 600 kWh Energy consumption
after optimizaƟon per day = 50 kW * 8 hours = 400 kWh Monthly energy savings = (600 kWh -
400 kWh) * 30 days = 6,000 kWh Assuming an energy cost of $0.10 per kWh, the monthly cost
savings would be: Cost savings = 6,000 kWh * $0.10 = $600
 Assignment:Role of Smart Sensors in Optimizing Supply Chain Management

Submitted by:

Deepak Singh Nouhawar

2020UEI2833

Introduction
In today's fast-paced business environment, efficient supply chain management is

crucial for organizations to remain competitive and meet customer demands. Smart

sensors play a pivotal role in achieving this efficiency. They provide real-time data and

insights that enable companies to monitor, track, and optimize various aspects of their

supply chain. This assignment will delve into the significance of smart sensors in supply

chain management, followed by a discussion on their key applications. Additionally, a

set of numerical questions and their solutions will be provided to reinforce the

understanding of this topic.

Significance of Smart Sensors

Smart sensors are devices equipped with advanced technologies like IoT (Internet of

Things), AI (Artificial Intelligence), and connectivity protocols. They can collect and

transmit data in real time, making them invaluable tools for optimizing supply chain

management. Here are some key roles they play:

​ 1) Real-Time Monitoring: Smart sensors provide instant visibility into the

movement, condition, and location of goods within the supply chain. This

ensures that stakeholders can respond promptly to any disruptions or deviations

from the planned course.

 ​ 2) Improved Inventory Management: By constantly monitoring stock levels and

conditions, smart sensors help in preventing overstocking or stockouts. This

leads to reduced carrying costs and ensures products are available when needed.

​ Enhanced Quality Control: They can monitor environmental conditions like

temperature, humidity, and light, ensuring that sensitive products (such as

pharmaceuticals or perishable goods) remain within specified parameters.

​ 3) Predictive Analytics: Smart sensors can analyze historical data to predict

future trends and demand patterns. This helps in making informed decisions

regarding procurement, production, and distribution.

Applications of Smart Sensors in Supply Chain Management

​ 1) Transportation and Logistics: Smart sensors are used in vehicles and

containers to track their location, monitor driving behavior, and ensure proper

handling of goods.

​ 2) Warehouse Management: They are deployed to monitor inventory levels, track

the movement of goods within warehouses, and optimize storage space.

​ Cold Chain Management: Smart sensors play a critical role in maintaining the

integrity of temperature-sensitive goods during transit and storage.

​ Asset Tracking: They are used to monitor the location and condition of valuable

assets, preventing loss or theft.

​ 3) Customer Experience: Smart sensors enable companies to provide accurate

and real-time information to customers regarding the status and location of their

orders.

​
​ Numerical Question:

​ A company uses smart sensors to monitor the humidity levels of its warehouse

where sensitive electronic components are stored. The acceptable humidity

range is between 30% and 50%. The smart sensor recorded a humidity level of

55%. Calculate the deviation from the acceptable range.

​ Solution:

​ Deviation = |Recorded Humidity - Acceptable Range Midpoint|

​ Midpoint of Acceptable Range = (30% + 50%) / 2 = 40%

​ Deviation = |55% - 40%| = 15%

​ The recorded humidity level deviates by 15% from the acceptable range.

​
 Assignment: Differentiation between Wi-Fi, LoRa, and NB-IoT

Submitted by :- Sameer Shreyas

Roll No. : - 2020UEI2837

Introduction

In the realm of wireless communication technologies, Wi-Fi, LoRa, and NB-IoT represent three
distinct approaches, each tailored to specific applications. This assignment aims to differentiate
between these technologies, highlighting their key features, use cases, and numerical aspects.

1. Wi-Fi Technology

Wi-Fi, short for Wireless Fidelity, is a widely used wireless communication technology that
allows devices to connect to a local area network (LAN) wirelessly. Here are some key
characteristics of Wi-Fi:

● Frequency Band: Typically operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands.
● Data Transfer Rate: Offers high data transfer rates, ranging from several Mbps to Gbps.
● Range: Provides a relatively short-range coverage of up to 100 meters indoors.
● Power Consumption: Relatively higher power consumption compared to LoRa and
NB-IoT.
● Use Cases: Well-suited for high-bandwidth applications like video streaming, gaming,
and internet browsing.

2. LoRa (Long Range) Technology

LoRa is a low-power, long-range wireless communication technology designed for applications

requiring low data rates and extended battery life. Key characteristics of LoRa include:

● Frequency Band: Operates in the unlicensed ISM band, with frequencies varying by
region.
● Data Transfer Rate: Offers lower data transfer rates, typically ranging from 0.3 to 50
Kbps.
● Range: Provides exceptional long-range coverage, up to 15-20 kilometers in ideal
conditions.
● Power Consumption: Demonstrates low power consumption, making it suitable for
battery-operated devices.
● Use Cases: Ideal for applications like remote monitoring, smart agriculture, and asset
tracking.

3. NB-IoT (Narrow Band Internet of Things)

NB-IoT is a cellular communication technology designed specifically for connecting IoT devices.
It focuses on providing deep indoor coverage, extended battery life, and low device cost. Here
are the key characteristics of NB-IoT:

● Frequency Band: Operates in licensed frequency bands, typically utilizing 900 MHz.
● Data Transfer Rate: Offers data rates ranging from 160 to 250 Kbps, making it suitable
for low to moderate bandwidth applications.
● Range: Provides coverage of up to 18-20 kilometers, with excellent indoor penetration.
● Power Consumption: Demonstrates low power consumption, enabling long battery life
for devices.
● Use Cases: Well-suited for applications like smart metering, smart parking, and asset
tracking.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Wi-Fi, LoRa, and NB-IoT represent distinct wireless communication technologies,
each tailored to specific applications based on factors such as range, data rates, and power
consumption. Understanding the strengths and limitations of each technology is crucial in
selecting the most suitable option for a given IoT application.

Numerical Problem:

Scenario:

Consider a scenario where a set of IoT devices need to transmit data over a distance of 5
kilometers. The devices will be deployed in an environment where power efficiency is crucial.

Specifications:

​ Wi-Fi:
● Data Transfer Rate: 10 Mbps
● Power Consumption for Transmission: 0.1 Watts
● Power Consumption in Standby: 0.01 Watts
​ LoRa:
● Data Transfer Rate: 1 Kbps
● Power Consumption for Transmission: 0.005 Watts
● Power Consumption in Standby: 0.0001 Watts
​ NB-IoT:
● Data Transfer Rate: 100 Kbps
● Power Consumption for Transmission: 0.02 Watts
● Power Consumption in Standby: 0.001 Watts
Questions:

​ Calculate the time taken for each technology to transmit 1 MB of data over a distance of
5 kilometers.
​ Determine the total energy consumption (in Watt-hours) for transmitting 1 MB of data
using each technology.

Solutions:

1. Time Taken for Transmission:

Wi-Fi: Time (seconds) = Data Size (bits) / Data Transfer Rate (bits per second)

Time (seconds) = 1,000,000 bits / 10,000,000 bits per second = 0.1 seconds

LoRa: Time (seconds) = Data Size (bits) / Data Transfer Rate (bits per second)

Time (seconds) = 8,000,000 bits / 1,000 bits per second = 8000 seconds

NB-IoT: Time (seconds) = Data Size (bits) / Data Transfer Rate (bits per second)

Time (seconds) = 1,000,000 bits / 100,000 bits per second = 10 seconds

2. Energy Consumption:

For this calculation, we'll use the formula: Energy (Watt-hours) = Power (Watts) x Time (hours).

Wi-Fi: Energy (Watt-hours) = (0.1 Watts + 0.01 Watts) x (0.1 seconds / 3600 seconds per hour) =
2.778 x 10^-6 Wh

LoRa: Energy (Watt-hours) = (0.005 Watts + 0.0001 Watts) x (8000 seconds / 3600 seconds per
hour) = 0.0111 Wh

NB-IoT: Energy (Watt-hours) = (0.02 Watts + 0.001 Watts) x (10 seconds / 3600 seconds per
hour) = 5.56 x 10^-5 Wh

These calculations illustrate the energy consumption for transmitting 1 MB of data using Wi-Fi,
LoRa, and NB-IoT over a 5-kilometer distance.
Title: Advancements in Miniaturization and Sensing Technologies and Their Influence
on IoT Smart Sensors

Name : Sourav Marwaha

Roll No. : 2020UEI2839

Introduction

In recent years, the field of sensor technology has witnessed remarkable progress,
primarily driven by advancements in miniaturization and sensing technologies. This has
revolutionized the Internet of Things (IoT) landscape, enabling the development of more
efficient and versatile smart sensors.

Advancements in Miniaturization

Miniaturization of sensors has been a pivotal development. The shrinking of sensor

components and the integration of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have
allowed for the creation of sensors with reduced form factors without compromising on
performance.

One notable example is the miniaturization of accelerometers. Traditional

accelerometers were bulky and limited in applications. However, with the advent of
MEMS, accelerometers have become compact and capable of measuring acceleration
in multiple axes.

Sensing Technologies

Another critical advancement lies in sensing technologies. Traditional sensors were

often single-purpose and had limited capabilities. However, modern sensors employ a
variety of technologies, including optical, acoustic, thermal, and chemical, allowing for a
wider range of applications.

For instance, optical sensors have made significant strides. Infrared sensors, for
instance, are now capable of precise temperature measurements and have found
applications in industries such as manufacturing and healthcare.
Influence on IoT Smart Sensors

The integration of these advanced sensors into the IoT ecosystem has been
transformative. IoT smart sensors are now capable of collecting and transmitting a vast
array of data with unprecedented accuracy and efficiency. This data can be utilized for
real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and data-driven decision-making.

Moreover, the reduced size of sensors has enabled their deployment in previously
inaccessible or constrained environments. This has led to breakthroughs in fields like
environmental monitoring, healthcare, and industrial automation.

Question:

A smart agriculture system uses soil moisture sensors to monitor the moisture content in

a field. The sensor provides a voltage output ranging from 0V (completely dry soil) to 5V

(saturated soil). The system is calibrated such that 2.5V corresponds to an optimal soil

moisture level.

If a particular sensor reading is 3.2V, what is the corresponding soil moisture level?

Solution:

Given:

● Voltage output from the sensor = 3.2V

● Range of sensor output: 0V (dry) to 5V (saturated)
● Optimal soil moisture level corresponds to 2.5V

Step 1: Determine the Proportional Relationship

Since the sensor output is directly proportional to the soil moisture level, we can set up a

proportion:
Step 2 : Interpret the Result

The soil moisture level corresponding to a sensor reading of 3.2V is approximately 1.6V.

This indicates that the soil is drier than the optimal level.

Please let me know if you need any further assistance!

Conclusion :

The advancements in miniaturization and sensing technologies have played a pivotal

role in shaping the capabilities of IoT smart sensors. Their ability to gather precise data
in real-time has revolutionized various industries and opened up new avenues for
innovation. As technology continues to advance, we can expect even more
sophisticated sensors to emerge, further expanding the possibilities of IoT applications.
 SSIOT Assignment
Aditya Khulbe 2020UEI2843

Question: Explain what is Scada with its advantages and disadvantages

SCADA, stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition, is a system used for monitoring
and controlling various industrial processes and infrastructure. It is commonly employed in
industries such as manufacturing, energy, water treatment, transportation, and more. SCADA
systems are integral for real-time data acquisition, control, and visualization of processes.

Advantages of SCADA:
1. Real-time Monitoring: SCADA systems provide real-time data, allowing operators to
monitor the status of processes and equipment, which is essential for making informed
decisions and responding quickly to issues.
2. Remote Control: SCADA systems enable remote control of processes and equipment,
reducing the need for on-site personnel. This can lead to cost savings and increased
safety.
3. Data Acquisition: SCADA systems collect and store historical data, making it valuable
for analysis, troubleshooting, and performance optimization.
4. Enhanced Efficiency: With the ability to monitor and control processes, SCADA can help
improve overall operational efficiency, reduce downtime, and increase productivity.
5. Integration: They can integrate with various sensors, PLCs (Programmable Logic
Controllers), and other control devices, allowing for seamless coordination among
different components of a system.
6. User-Friendly Interfaces: SCADA software typically offers user-friendly interfaces that
make it easier for operators to monitor and control systems effectively.
7. Security Features: Many SCADA systems have robust security measures to protect
against unauthorized access and cyber threats.

Disadvantages of SCADA:

1. Initial Costs: Implementing a SCADA system can be expensive, involving costs for
hardware, software, and integration with existing systems.
2. Complexity: Setting up and configuring a SCADA system can be complex, requiring
expertise in programming and system integration.
3. Vulnerability to Cyberattacks: SCADA systems are susceptible to cyber threats, as they
are often connected to the internet. Without strong cybersecurity measures, they can be
targets for hackers.
4. Maintenance and Upkeep: SCADA systems require regular maintenance, updates, and
technical support to ensure they operate effectively and securely.
 5. Compatibility Issues: Integrating SCADA with existing legacy systems can be
challenging, as older equipment may not easily communicate with modern SCADA
software.
6. Scalability: Expanding or modifying a SCADA system can be complicated and costly,
depending on the initial design.
7. Dependence on Power and Connectivity: SCADA systems rely on a stable power

Numerical example of a SCADA system monitoring and controlling the temperature in a

chemical processing plant:

Scenario: Chemical Processing Plant

Let's consider a chemical processing plant that uses a SCADA system to monitor and control the
temperature in a reactor vessel.

Parameters:
- Setpoint Temperature: 200°C
- Current Temperature: 195°C
- Heating Element Power: 80%
- Cooling System Power: 20%

SCADA Operations:
The SCADA system continuously reads the current temperature in the reactor vessel and adjusts
the heating element and cooling system to maintain the temperature at the setpoint.

Sample SCADA Actions:

1. The SCADA system checks the current temperature, which is 195°C, and compares it to the
setpoint of 200°C.
2. Since the current temperature is 5°C below the setpoint, the SCADA system sends a signal to
increase the heating element's power to 85% to raise the temperature.
3. The SCADA system also decreases the cooling system's power to 15% to reduce cooling.
4. The temperature is monitored continuously, and the SCADA system adjusts the heating and
cooling systems as needed to maintain the temperature at the setpoint.

Result:
The SCADA system successfully maintains the temperature in the reactor vessel at the desired
setpoint of 200°C by adjusting the heating and cooling systems in response to real-time
temperature measurements. This ensures the chemical reaction proceeds as intended without
overheating or cooling below the desired temperature, improving process efficiency and safety.
 DAKSH NARULA

EIOT – 1

2020UEI2844

Smart Sensor Technologies in IOT

QUESTION)

Enhancing Agricultural Yield with Smart Sensors in Precision Farming

ANSWER)

Precision farming is a revolu onary approach that leverages technology to op mize various aspects
of agriculture, with the ul mate goal of enhancing agricultural yield. At the core of this
transforma on are smart sensors, which play a pivotal role in providing real- me data and insights to
farmers, enabling them to make informed decisions. In this essay, we will explore the significance of
smart sensors in precision farming and their role in increasing agricultural produc vity.

I. Real- me Monitoring for Informed Decision Making

Smart sensors are the eyes and ears of modern farms. They con nuously monitor and collect data on
cri cal parameters such as soil moisture, temperature, humidity, and light levels. This real- me
informa on allows farmers to gain a precise understanding of the condi ons on their fields.

II. Data-driven Decision Making

The data collected by smart sensors is a valuable resource for data-driven decision-making. This data
is transmi ed to a central system or the farmer's device, where it is processed using advanced
analy cs and machine learning algorithms. These algorithms extract insights and provide
recommenda ons for precise ac ons.

III. Op mized Irriga on

A key applica on of smart sensors in precision farming is the op miza on of irriga on. Soil moisture
sensors, for example, measure the water content in the soil. This data enables farmers to apply water
only when and where it is needed, preven ng over-irriga on or under-irriga on, which can both lead
to reduced yield.
IV. Efficient Fer liza on

Smart sensors also play a vital role in efficient fer liza on. By assessing soil nutrient levels, these
sensors allow farmers to apply fer lizers precisely where and when they are needed. This not only
reduces the cost of fer lizers but also minimizes the risk of nutrient runoff, which can be detrimental
to the environment.

V. Pest and Disease Management

Smart sensors are not limited to monitoring soil and weather condi ons. Some sensors can detect
early signs of pest infesta ons or diseases by monitoring plant health and growth pa erns. Early
detec on empowers farmers to take swi ac on, mi ga ng poten al damage to their crops.

VI. Climate and Weather Monitoring

Smart sensors track weather condi ons, including temperature, humidity, and wind speed. This
informa on helps farmers make decisions related to plan ng and harves ng mes, as well as
prepare for extreme weather events. For instance, monitoring temperature levels can help protect
crops from frost damage.

VII. Crop Health Monitoring

Smart sensors assess crop health through metrics such as chlorophyll levels, leaf temperature, and
canopy cover. Early detec on of issues allows for correc ve measures, maximizing crop yield.

VIII. Reduced Resource Waste

A significant advantage of precision farming with smart sensors is the reduc on of resource waste.
Precise monitoring and management of factors like irriga on and fer liza on help farmers avoid
overusing resources like water and chemicals. This conserves resources, saves costs, and reduces the
environmental impact of agriculture.

IX. Remote Management

Many smart sensor systems are accessible remotely through smartphones or computers, allowing
farmers to monitor and control opera ons from anywhere. This remote access enhances opera onal
efficiency.
X. Data Accumula on and Historical Analysis

Over me, data from smart sensors can be accumulated and analyzed to iden fy trends and
pa erns. Historical data informs long-term decisions such as crop rota on planning and soil health
improvement strategies, which significantly impact yield and sustainability.

XI. Scalability

Smart sensor systems can be scaled to suit the needs of different farms, from small family opera ons
to large commercial enterprises. This adaptability promotes widespread adop on of precision
farming technologies.

In conclusion, smart sensors are the backbone of precision farming, enhancing agricultural yield
through improved resource management, op mized crop condi ons, and data-driven decision-
making. They provide real- me informa on and insights that empower farmers to take precise and
efficient ac ons, ul mately increasing produc vity while reducing the environmental footprint of
agriculture. The adop on of smart sensors in agriculture demonstrates the transforma ve power of
technology in addressing the challenges of a growing global popula on and a changing climate.

**Question:**

Imagine you are a farmer who has implemented smart soil moisture sensors in your precision farming system.
These sensors report that the moisture level in your field is currently 15% lower than the optimal range for your
crops. The area of your field is 5 acres. Each acre requires 1,000 liters of water to bring the moisture level back
to the optimal range. Calculate the total amount of water, in liters, that you need to apply to your field to ensure
your crops receive the right amount of moisture.

**Answer:**

To calculate the total amount of water needed for your 5-acre field, you can use the following formula:

Total Water Required = Area of the Field (in acres) x Water Requirement per Acre

Total Water Required = 5 acres x 1,000 liters per acre

Total Water Required = 5,000 liters

So, you need to apply a total of 5,000 liters of water to your field to bring the soil moisture level back to the
optimal range for your crops and enhance agricultural yield using smart sensors.
Karuna Kumari
2020UEI2846
EIOT

Advantages of Wireless Sensors in IoT Networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) offer a number of advantages for IoT

networks, including:
1. Ease of installation and deployment: WSNs are typically much easier to
install and deploy than wired sensor networks, as they do not require any
cables or wires to be run. This can be a significant advantage in difficult-
to-reach or hazardous locations.
2. Scalability: WSNs can be easily scaled up or down to meet the needs of a
particular application. This makes them ideal for use in a wide range of
IoT applications, from small-scale home automation systems to large-
scale industrial monitoring systems.
3. Flexibility: WSNs can be deployed in a variety of configurations,
depending on the specific needs of the application. This makes them very
flexible and adaptable to different environments.
4. Cost-effectiveness: WSNs can be more cost-effective than wired sensor
networks, especially for large-scale deployments. This is because the cost
of installing and maintaining WSNs is typically lower than the cost of
installing and maintaining wired sensor networks.
5. Real-time monitoring: WSNs can provide real-time monitoring of data,
which is essential for many IoT applications. This allows users to quickly
identify and respond to problems as they occur.
6. Energy efficiency: WSNs are typically very energy-efficient, which
makes them ideal for use in battery-powered IoT devices.
7. Increased reliability: WSNs are often more reliable than wired sensor
networks, as they are not 7. susceptible to cable breaks or other physical
damage.
8. Improved security: WSNs can be more secure than wired sensor
networks, as they are more difficult to tap or intercept.
Ques: What is the average time it takes for a wireless sensor network,
consisting of 100 sensor nodes distributed across a large field, to collect and
transmit soil moisture data from all nodes when each sensor node can measure
and transmit data once every 10 minutes, and the network operates
continuously?

Ans: Data Collection and Transmission Rate per Sensor Node:

 Data transmission frequency per sensor node: once every 10 minutes.

 Data transmission per hour per sensor node = 60 minutes / 10 minutes = 6
times per hour.
Total Data Transmission Rate for the Entire Network:

 Number of sensor nodes: 100

 Total data transmissions per hour for the network = Data transmission
frequency per node * Number of nodes
 Total data transmissions per hour for the network = 6 times per hour *
100 = 600 times per hour.
Average Time for Data Transmission Across the Entire Network:

 To find the average time for the entire network to collect and transmit
data, we need to invert the data transmission rate:
 Average time per data transmission across the network = 1 / Total data
transmissions per hour
 Average time per data transmission across the network = 1 / 600 hours =
1/600 hours.
Converting this to minutes:
Average time per data transmission across the network = (1/600) * 60 minutes =
0.1 minutes or 6 seconds.
So, in this example, it takes an average of 6 seconds for the entire wireless
sensor network to collect and transmit soil moisture data from all 100 sensor
nodes, given their data transmission rate and continuous operation. This
efficient data collection enables timely and accurate irrigation management in
the smart agriculture system.
Smart Sensor in Internet of Things Assignment
By-Akshat Jain(2020UEI2847)

The communication requirements of an IoT (Internet of Things) system typically include:

1. Connectivity: IoT devices need a reliable way to connect to the internet or a local network. This can be
achieved through various technologies like Wi-Fi, cellular, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, or others, depending
on the specific use case.

2. Data Transfer: IoT devices must be able to send and receive data efficiently. This includes the ability to
transmit sensor data, commands, and updates to and from the devices.

3. Low Power: Many IoT devices are battery-powered, so communication protocols and methods need to
be power-efficient to prolong device battery life.

4. Security: IoT systems should have robust security measures in place to protect data, devices, and
networks from unauthorized access and cyberattacks.

5. Scalability: IoT systems often involve a large number of devices, so the communication infrastructure
must be scalable to handle increasing device counts.

6. Real-time or Delayed: Depending on the application, IoT systems may require real-time
communication for tasks like remote control or monitoring, or delayed communication for periodic data
reporting.

7. Data Format: Devices should communicate using standardized data formats and protocols to ensure
interoperability and compatibility.
8. Data Rate: The required data transfer rate depends on the application. Some IoT systems may transmit
small amounts of data infrequently, while others may require high data rates for tasks like video
streaming.

9. Reliability: Communication should be reliable, ensuring that data is not lost during transmission,
especially for critical applications.

10. Bandwidth: Consider the available network bandwidth, as IoT devices should not congest the
network or cause performance issues.

11. Latency: For applications where low latency is crucial, such as autonomous vehicles or industrial
automation, minimizing communication delay is essential.

12. Over-the-Air (OTA) Updates: IoT systems often require the capability to remotely update device
firmware or software for maintenance and security reasons.

These requirements can vary significantly depending on the specific IoT application, whether it's in
healthcare, agriculture, smart cities, industrial automation, or other domains. The choice of
communication technologies and protocols will be tailored to meet these requirements effectively.
 ASSIGNMENT
Smart sensor technologies for IoT applications

Name-Yash
Roll no-2020UEI2850

Q1)What is the role of actuators in conjunction with smart sensors in IoT?

Ans)
Actuators play a crucial role in the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, working in
conjunction with smart sensors to enable a closed-loop system. While smart sensors
gather data from the environment, actuators take action based on that data. Here's how
they work together:

a)Data Acquisition by Smart Sensors:

- Smart sensors are devices that can collect data from the physical world. These
sensors can measure various parameters such as temperature, humidity, light,
motion, and more.
- The collected data is often sent to a central processing unit or a cloud-based
platform for analysis.
b)Data Analysis and Decision Making:
- The central processing unit or cloud-based platform analyzes the data received
from the sensors. This analysis may involve identifying patterns, trends,
anomalies, or specific conditions that require action.
c)Decision Triggering:

-Based on the analysis, decisions are made regarding what action, if any, needs to
be taken. These decisions could range from simple responses to complex automated
processes.

d)Actuation:
- Actuators are devices that can carry out physical actions in response to a
command or a set of conditions. They convert the digital signals or commands
into physical movements or changes in the environment.
e)Feedback Mechanism:
 - The closed-loop system often includes a feedback mechanism. After an actuator
takes a specific action, the sensors continue to monitor the environment to
ensure that the desired outcome has been achieved. If not, adjustments can be
made, creating a continuous feedback loop.

Q2)In a smart home security system, a motion sensor detects movement outside the
house and triggers an alert. The central processing unit (CPU) analyzes the data and
sends a command to an actuator, which is a smart camera with a motorized
pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) feature. The camera needs to adjust its position to focus on the
detected motion.

Assume the following:

-The initial position of the camera is facing north.
-The motion is detected in the west, and the camera needs to turn 90 degrees to the left
to focus on the movement.
-The camera's PTZ feature allows it to turn 30 degrees per action.
Questions:
a) How many actions does the camera's motorized PTZ feature need to take to adjust
its position to focus on the detected motion?
b) If each action takes 8 seconds to complete, what is the total time required for the
camera to reposition itself.

Ans)
a)The camera needs to turn 90 degrees, and each action turns it by 30 degrees.
Therefore, the camera needs 90 degrees / 30 degrees per action = 3 actions.
b)If each action takes 8 seconds to complete, the total time required is 3 actions * 8
seconds/action = 24 seconds
 Smart Sensor for IOT Applications Megha
2020UEI2851

Q: What are the considerations for selecting the right sensor for an IOT application?
Selecting the right sensor for an IoT (Internet of Things) application is crucial to ensure accurate
and reliable data collection. Here are some key considerations to keep in mind:
1.Type of Measurement: Identify the specific parameter or parameters you need to measure
(e.g., temperature, humidity, pressure, motion, light). The type of sensor will depend on the
nature of the data you want to collect.
2.Accuracy and Precision: Consider the required level of accuracy and precision for the
application. Some applications may require highly accurate sensors, while others may tolerate a
lower level of precision.
3. Range:Ensure that the sensor's measurement range aligns with the expected range in the
application. Choosing a sensor with a suitable range is essential for accurate and meaningful
data.
4.Resolution: Resolution refers to the smallest detectable change in the measured quantity.
Higher resolution sensors provide more detailed and accurate data. Consider the resolution
needed for a specific application.
5. Sampling Rate: Determine how frequently one needs to collect data. Some applications may
require real-time monitoring, while others may only need periodic measurements. Choose a
sensor with an appropriate sampling rate as per the requirements.
6.Power Consumption: IoT devices are often powered by batteries, and power consumption is
a critical factor. Select sensors that are energy-efficient to ensure longer battery life or consider
alternative power sources like solar energy.
7.Communication Protocol: Choose sensors that use communication protocols compatible
with the IoT network. Common protocols include MQTT, CoAP, and HTTP. Ensure that the
sensor can seamlessly integrate with the application’s IoT platform.
8.Environmental Conditions: Consider the environmental conditions in which the sensor will
operate. Some sensors are designed for specific conditions (e.g., high humidity, extreme
temperatures). Ensure that the sensor can withstand the environmental factors of your
application.
9.Size and Form Factor: The physical size and form factor of the sensor may be crucial,
especially in applications with limited space or those requiring a discreet installation.
10. Cost: Evaluate the cost of the sensor and consider your budget constraints. Keep in mind
that the cost should be balanced with the required performance and features.
11.Reliability and Longevity: Choose sensors from reputable manufacturers known for
producing reliable and durable products. Long-term availability and support are essential,
especially for applications with a long deployment lifespan.
12.Security:Security is crucial in IoT applications. Ensure that the sensor has security features
to protect data integrity and privacy, especially if the sensor is part of a networked system.

By carefully considering these factors, one can select a sensor that meets the specific needs of
the IoT application and ensures the accuracy and reliability of the collected data.
NUMERICAL
You are developing an IoT-based system to monitor the temperature in a pharmaceutical
storage facility. The required temperature accuracy is ±0.5°C, and you need to calculate the
total power consumption over a 24-hour period to ensure the system's energy efficiency.

Ans: Considerations:

1.Temperature Accuracy Requirement:- ±0.5°C

2. Sampling Rate:Every 10 minutes
3.Temperature Range: -20°C to 25°C
4.Power Consumption per Sample:0.01 watts
5.Number of Sensors: 20 sensors distributed across the storage facility

Calculation:

The total power consumption per hour per sensor can be calculated as follows:

Power per Hour per Sensor = Power per Sample * Samples per Hour / Sensor Efficiency
Where:
- Power per Sample = 0.01 watts
- Samples per Hour =60 / Sampling Rate = 6 samples
- Sensor Efficiency is a factor accounting for any additional power requirements for the sensor
system therefore let's assume it 1 .

Power per Hour per Sensor =0.01 watts * 6 / 1 = 0.06 watts

Now, to find the total power consumption for all 20 sensors over 24 hours:

Total Power Consumption = Power per Hour per Senso * Number of Sensors * Hours of
Operation

Total Power Consumption} = 0.06 * 20 * 24 = 28.8 watt-hours

Therefore, the total power consumption for the IoT temperature monitoring system with 20
sensors over a 24-hour period is 28.8 watt-hours
Name: Shubham Rana
Rollno : 2020UEI2853

TITLE: How can smart sensors contribute to air quality monitoring in urban areas.

ir quality is a critical concern in urban areas due to the adverse effects of air pollution on public
health and the environment. Monitoring and improving air quality are essential goals for
sustainable urban development. Smart sensors are playing an increasingly vital role in achieving
these objectives. This article explores how smart sensors contribute to urban air quality
monitoring and the numerous benefits they offer.

The Role of Smart Sensors in Urban Air Quality Monitoring:

​ Real-time Data Collection (Data Accuracy):

● Smart sensors can continuously collect data on various air quality parameters such
as particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3). Real-time data ensures
that changes in air quality are promptly detected and acted upon.
​ Wide Coverage and Scalability:
● Smart sensors can be strategically placed throughout urban areas, providing broad
coverage for monitoring. They are scalable, allowing cities to expand their sensor
networks as needed.
​ Data Integration and Analysis:
● Smart sensors are often connected to central databases or platforms, enabling
efficient data integration and analysis. This allows for the development of air
quality indices and the identification of pollution sources.
​ Early Warning Systems:
● Smart sensors can trigger alarms or notifications when air quality levels become
hazardous. This feature is crucial for public health and safety.
​ Environmental Planning and Policy Support:
● Data from smart sensors can inform urban planning and policy decisions, enabling
cities to implement measures to reduce pollution, such as traffic management,
industrial regulations, and green infrastructure development.
​ Community Engagement:
● Access to real-time air quality data empowers citizens to make informed decisions
about outdoor activities, contributing to individual health and community
well-being.
Challenges and Considerations:

​ Data Quality Assurance:

● Maintaining the accuracy and reliability of sensor data requires regular calibration
and maintenance.
​ Data Privacy and Security:
● The collection of data from smart sensors raises concerns about privacy and data
security, which must be addressed in the implementation of these systems.
​ Cost of Implementation:
● The initial investment in smart sensor networks can be high. However, long-term
benefits in terms of health, environment, and economic savings often justify the
expense.
Smart Sensor for IoT Applications Tushar Garg
2020UEI2854
Autonomous vehicles, often referred to as self-driving cars, driverless cars, or robotic cars, are
vehicles that can operate and navigate on the road without direct human intervention. These
vehicles use a combination of advanced technologies, sensors, computer systems, and artificial
intelligence to perceive their surroundings, make decisions, and control their movements. The
concept of autonomous vehicles represents a significant leap in the field of transportation and
has the potential to transform how we travel. Here are the key components and concepts
associated with autonomous vehicles:
1. Sensors: Autonomous vehicles are equipped with various sensors, including radar, lidar,
cameras, ultrasonic sensors, GPS. These sensors continuously gather data about the
vehicle's environment, pedestrians, other vehicles, road signs and road conditions.
2. Computer Systems: The data collected by sensors is processed by onboard computer
systems. These systems use complex algorithms and artificial intelligence to interpret
the sensor data, create a detailed map of the vehicle's surroundings, and make real-time
decisions about the vehicle's actions.
3. Mapping and Localization: Autonomous vehicles rely on highly detailed, up-to-date maps
to understand their position and the layout of the roads. They use GPS and other data to
localize themselves within these maps.
4. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence: Machine learning and AI algorithms play a
critical role in recognizing and predicting the behavior of other road users and
responding to a wide range of driving scenarios. These algorithms improve over time as
they learn from experience and data.
5. Control Systems: The control systems of autonomous vehicles manage the acceleration,
braking, and steering to ensure safe and efficient driving. These systems continuously
adjust the vehicle's movements based on the data from sensors and the AI's
decision-making process.

The concept of autonomous vehicles has the potential to revolutionize transportation by

reducing traffic accidents, increasing mobility for those unable to drive, and improving the
efficiency of transportation systems.

Sensors in IoT:

Sensors play a crucial role in the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem by collecting data from the
physical world and enabling devices to interact with the digital realm. These devices can range
from everyday objects like thermostats and streetlights to more complex systems like industrial
machines and autonomous vehicles. Role of sensors:
1. Data Collection: Sensors are the eyes and ears of IoT devices. They detect and
measure physical phenomena such as temperature, humidity, light, pressure, motion,
sound, and various environmental factors. They then convert this data into electronic
signals that can be processed by IoT devices.
2. Environmental Sensing: Environmental sensors are used to monitor conditions in various
settings. For instance, temperature and humidity sensors in a smart home system can
 control the heating and cooling, while air quality sensors can trigger ventilation
adjustments when pollutant levels rise.
3. Machine Monitoring: In industrial IoT, sensors are instrumental in monitoring machines
and equipment. Vibration sensors, for example, can detect anomalies in rotating
machinery, helping to prevent costly breakdowns. Pressure sensors can monitor the
integrity of pipelines.
4. Security and Surveillance: Sensors like motion detectors, door/window contact sensors,
and video cameras are commonly used in IoT security and surveillance applications.
These sensors can trigger alarms or send alerts when unusual activity is detected.
5. Healthcare: In healthcare IoT, sensors can monitor vital signs, track patient movements,
and provide real-time data for doctors and nurses. For example, wearable fitness
trackers use sensors to measure heart rate, steps taken, and sleep patterns.
6. GPS and Location Services: GPS sensors are widely used in IoT applications for
tracking the location of assets, vehicles, and people. These sensors provide real-time
location data, which is useful for navigation, logistics, and geofencing.
7. Predictive Maintenance: Sensors in machinery and equipment can provide real-time data
that is analyzed to predict when maintenance is needed, reducing downtime and
maintenance costs.
8. Remote Control and Automation: Sensors enable automation by providing input to
control systems. For example, a temperature sensor in a smart thermostat can trigger
the air conditioning system to turn on or off based on the desired temperature setting.

Overall, sensors are the foundation of the IoT, as they bridge the physical and digital worlds,
enabling devices to gather, transmit, and act upon real-time data. Their versatility and wide
range of applications make them integral components of IoT ecosystems.

NUMERICAL
A car is equipped with a speed sensor that measures the rotational speed of the wheels. The
sensor produces 1000 pulses per revolution. The diameter of the wheels is 0.65 meters.
Calculate the current speed of the car in kilometers per hour based on the data provided.

Ans: Pulse per revolution: 1000

Diameter of the wheels: 0.65 meters
The formula to calculate the distance covered in one pulse (i.e., per revolution) is given by the
circumference of the wheel:
Distance per Pulse = 𝛑 * Diameter of the wheel
Distance per Pulse =𝛑 * 0.65

The formula to calculate the speed of the car in kilometers per hour is given by:
Speed (km/h) = Distance per Pulse * Pulses per Second * 3600 / 1000
Assuming the car is moving at a constant speed and the speed sensor produces 10 pulses per
second (1000 Hz):
Speed (km/h)=𝛑 * 0.65 * 10 * 3600 / 1000 ≅ 73.47 km/h
 Assignment
Smart Sensor For IOT

Name : Abhimanyu Ahuja

Roll No : 2020UEI2856
Branch : EIOT - 1

Ques : Describe the role of smart sensors in healthcare wearables .

Answer : In healthcare, a smart sensor is a device that is equipped with advanced
technology to monitor, measure, and collect various physiological and environmental
data. These sensors are often integrated into wearable devices, medical equipment, or
within healthcare environments to provide real-time information about a patient's health
status or environmental conditions. They can monitor parameters such as heart rate, blood
pressure, temperature, activity level, and more, allowing for improved healthcare
management, diagnosis, and treatment. Smart sensors play a crucial role in enabling
remote patient monitoring, personalized health insights, and data-driven healthcare
solutions.

Advantages:

1. Real-time Data: Provide continuous, real-time health data.

2. Personalization: Offer personalized insights and recommendations.
3. Remote Monitoring: Facilitate remote patient monitoring.
4. Health Promotion: Encourage healthier behaviors.
5. Research Data: Contribute to medical research and analytics.

Challenges:

1. Data Privacy: Ensuring the security and privacy of health data.

2. Accuracy: Maintaining sensor accuracy and reliability.
3. User Adoption: Encouraging long-term user engagement.
4. Interoperability: Ensuring compatibility with other healthcare systems.
5. Regulatory Compliance: Meeting healthcare regulations and standards.
Numerical

Ques : A research team is developing a new oxygen saturation sensor for healthcare
applications. They are testing its accuracy and precision. During calibration tests, the
sensor's readings are compared to a reference standard, resulting in the following data:

● Reference Oxygen Saturation: 95%

● Sensor Readings (in %): 95.2%, 95.1%, 94.9%, 95.0%, 95.3%

Calculate the sensor's mean absolute error (MAE).

Solution : Mean Absolute Error (MAE) is a measure of accuracy, calculated by finding

the absolute differences between the sensor readings and the reference standard, and then
taking the average of those differences.

MAE = (|95.2% - 95%| + |95.1% - 95%| + |94.9% - 95%| + |95.0% - 95%| + |95.3% -
95%|) / 5

MAE = (0.2% + 0.1% + 0.1% + 0.0% + 0.3%) / 5

MAE = 0.7% / 5

MAE = 0.14%

So, the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of the sensor is 0.14%.

2020UEI2858
Tushar Bhushan
EIOT

Smart Sensors and Technologies

Assignment

Q. How can machine learning and AI enhance smart sensor capabilities in IoT?

Ans:-

Machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) can greatly enhance the capabilities of
smart sensors in the Internet of Things (IoT) by enabling these sensors to process and analyze
data more intelligently, make decisions, and respond in real-time.

● Data Collection: Smart sensors in the IoT ecosystem collect data from various sources,
such as temperature, humidity, motion, sound, or light.
● Data Preprocessing: The raw data collected by these sensors is often noisy and
unstructured. Machine learning algorithms can be used to preprocess and clean the
data, ensuring that it is in a suitable format for analysis.
● Data Analysis: ML and AI models are employed to analyze the data in real-time. These
models can detect patterns, anomalies, and trends in the data, and make predictions
based on historical information. For example, sensors in a smart home can use ML to
identify patterns in energy usage and optimize heating and cooling systems accordingly.
● Decision Making: ML algorithms can make autonomous decisions based on the
analyzed data. For example, a smart sensor in an industrial setting can monitor
equipment health and automatically trigger maintenance or shut down a machine if a
problem is detected.
● Real-time Response: Once a decision is made, the AI system can send commands or
instructions back to the sensors or connected devices, allowing them to adapt or take
action in real-time. This feedback loop enables smart sensors to respond proactively to
changing conditions.
● Data Storage and Cloud Connectivity: Data from the sensors is often transmitted to the
cloud for storage and further analysis. ML and AI models can be run on cloud servers to
perform more advanced analytics and provide insights that can be used for system
optimization.
● User Interface: Users can interact with the system through a user interface (e.g., a
mobile app or a web dashboard) to monitor the status of the connected devices and
make manual adjustments if necessary.
● Machine Learning Model Training: Over time, the system can continuously improve its
performance by retraining ML models with new data. This allows the smart sensor
network to adapt to changing conditions and become more accurate in its predictions
and decisions.
Numerical:-

Q:- An IoT sensor network with 50 nodes monitors manufacturing equipment. Each sensor node
samples vibration data at 100 Hz, generating 5,000 readings per second across the network
To reduce bandwidth costs, an ML model is trained to predict vibration values 10 timesteps
ahead. This allows the sampling rate to be reduced by 10x to 10 Hz without loss of monitoring
performance.
Tell how much of the saving is benign done at a data cost of RS 0.001 per reading.

Ans:-
Without ML, at 100 Hz sampling the daily data transfer is:
50 nodes * 100 samples/sec/node * 3600 sec/hr * 24 hr/day
= 432,000,000 readings/day

With 10 Hz ML-enabled sampling this is reduced to:

50 nodes * 10 samples/sec/node * 3600 sec/hr * 24 hr/day
= 43,200,000 readings/day

This is a 100x reduction in daily data transfer. Over a month this saves:
(432,000,000 - 43,200,000) * 30 days = 12.9 billion readings

Which at a data cost of Rs.0.001 per reading equates to Rs. 12,900 in savings for the business
after deploying the ML model.

So in this example, the ML model reduces sampling rates by 10x with minimal loss of
monitoring accuracy. This provides significant bandwidth cost savings while maintaining overall
sensor network performance.
 SST Assignment
A S Srikar (2020UEI2859)

Que 50. What is the future outlook for smart sensors in IoT applications? (2859)

Ans. The outlook for smart sensors in IoT applications is promising, and there are several
trends indicating potential future advancements. Here are some trends and possibilities for
the future of smart sensors in IoT applications:
1) AI and Machine Learning Integration: Smart sensors are expected to incorporate
more advanced AI and machine learning capabilities, enabling them to make real-
time decisions and even predict future events based on the data they collect. This
integration could lead to more autonomous and intelligent IoT systems. Which can
be used in many fields from smart homes, smart cities, smart grids, etc.
2) Self-sustainable systems using RF energy harvesting leading to minimal human
interaction, reduced service and battery costs, increase in IoT systems in difficult to
reach places such as hot environments in a dessert where continuously coming for
battery replacement of a system can be difficult, or remote places where once the
system is setup then it can continuously run on its own needing minimal human
assisntance.
3) Miniaturization and Increased Efficiency: Smart sensors were expected to become
smaller in size and more energy-efficient, enabling their integration into various
devices and systems without consuming significant power.
4) Advancements in Connectivity: The integration of smart sensors with advanced
communication technologies such as 5G and LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area
Network) was anticipated to improve the data transmission capabilities of IoT
devices, making them more reliable and responsive.
5) Enhanced Data Analytics: There was an increasing focus on developing advanced
data analytics tools and AI algorithms to extract meaningful insights from the data
collected by smart sensors. This trend was expected to enable better decision-
making and predictive maintenance in various industries.
6) Improved Security Measures: With the growing concern over cybersecurity, the
future of smart sensors was expected to incorporate more robust security features to
safeguard data and prevent unauthorized access, ensuring the integrity and privacy
of the information collected and transmitted by IoT devices.
7) Integration of Edge Computing: Integrating edge computing with smart sensors was
seen as a potential development, allowing data processing to occur closer to the data
source. This integration was expected to reduce latency and enhance real-time
processing capabilities, making IoT applications more responsive and efficient.
8) Expansion in Diverse Applications: The use of smart sensors was projected to expand
into various industries, including healthcare, agriculture, manufacturing, and
transportation, among others, providing opportunities for customized and innovative
IoT solutions tailored to specific industry needs.
Numerical question: Consider an IoT-based smart sensor system that monitors the
temperature of an industrial machine. The system uses a thermistor as the temperature
sensing element. The thermistor has a resistance of 10 kΩ at 25°C and a temperature
coefficient of -4% per degree Celsius.
Calculate the resistance of the thermistor at 50°C.

Solution:
Given data: Initial resistance (R25): 10 kΩ (or 10,000 Ω) at 25°C Temperature coefficient (α): -
4% per °C.
To find the resistance at 50°C, we can use the formula for resistance-temperature
relationship:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅25 × 𝑒 𝛼×(𝑇𝑡 −25)

Where,
Rt = Resistance at temperature Tt R25 = Resistance at 25°C
α = Temperature coefficient
Tt = Target temperature in Celsius
Plugging in the values:
𝑅25 = 10,000Ω
𝛼 = −4% = −0.04
𝑇𝑡 = 50℃

𝑅50 = 10,000 × 𝑒 −0.004×25

𝑅50 = 10,000 × 𝑒 −1

𝑅50 = 10,000 × 0.3679

𝑅50 = 3679Ω = 3.679𝑘Ω

So, the resistance of the thermistor at 50°C is 3.679 kΩ.

Bhishek Ranga
2020UEI2849
EIOT

MQTT and SMTP in context of smart sensors

MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): MQTT is a lightweight and efficient messaging protocol
designed for devices with limited resources, making it well-suited for IoT (Internet of Things) applications.
In the context of smart sensors, MQTT enables devices to communicate with each other in a
publish/subscribe model. Here's how it works:

Publish/Subscribe Model:

• MQTT operates on a publish/subscribe messaging pattern. Smart sensors can act as both
publishers and subscribers.

• Publishers: These are the sensors that generate data. They publish data to a specific
"topic," which is like a channel or category.

• Subscribers: Other devices, like a central server or other sensors, subscribe to specific
topics. They receive data only from the topics they are interested in.

Low Overhead:

• MQTT is designed to have minimal overhead, making it suitable for devices with limited
resources.

• This is crucial for smart sensors, which often have constrained processing power, memory,
and bandwidth.

Quality of Service (QoS):

• MQTT supports different levels of Quality of Service.

• QoS 0: The message is delivered at most once, with no confirmation.

• QoS 1: The message is delivered at least once, with confirmation required.

• QoS 2: The message is delivered exactly once by using a four-step handshake.

Real-time Communication:

• MQTT facilitates real-time communication, allowing sensors to send and receive data
quickly.

• This is essential for applications where timely information is critical, such as monitoring and
control systems.

Broker-Based Architecture:

• MQTT uses a broker, a central hub that manages the communication between publishers
and subscribers.

• The broker ensures that messages are routed correctly to the interested subscribers

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP, on the other hand, is a standard protocol for sending
emails. While SMTP is not commonly used directly by smart sensors, it can play a role in certain scenarios
Email Alerts and Notifications:

• While SMTP is not a direct communication protocol for sensors, it can be employed to send
email alerts or notifications.

• For example, if a smart temperature sensor detects a temperature beyond a set threshold,
it might trigger an alert email via SMTP.

Integration with Email Services:

• Some IoT platforms or applications use SMTP to integrate with email services for reporting.

• This allows sensor data to be communicated to stakeholders through email reports.

Human-readable Reports:

• SMTP is text-based, and emails can contain human-readable information. This makes it
suitable for sending detailed reports or alerts to administrators or end-users.

Widely Supported Standard:

• SMTP is a well-established and widely supported standard for email communication.

• Integrating with SMTP allows sensors to leverage existing email infrastructure for
communication.

MQTT is focused on efficient and real-time communication between devices, particularly in IoT
scenarios, whereas SMTP is utilized for sending email notifications, alerts, or integrating sensor
data into email-based reporting systems. The two protocols serve different purposes but can
complement each other in a comprehensive smart sensor network.
Problem Statement: In an industrial IoT setup, you have sensors monitoring machine health.
When a critical issue is detected, an email alert should be sent to the maintenance team using
SMTP. The email should contain relevant details for quick response.
Example:
• Sensor: Machine XYZ
• Issue Detected: High Temperature
• Email Content: "Alert: Machine XYZ Overheating - Temperature: 80°C"
Solution:
1. Upon detecting high temperature, the sensor triggers an SMTP email alert.
2. SMTP server details (server address, port, authentication) are configured in the sensor.
3. The email is sent to the maintenance team's email addresses.
4. The email content includes details about the issue for quick identification and response.
5. Maintenance team receives an email alert promptly.
Kuldeep Yadav

2020UEI2835

EIOT

Assignment

Smart Sensor Technology

How do smart sensors contribute to water quality monitoring in IoT

Smart sensors play a crucial role in water quality monitoring within the Internet of
Things (IoT) ecosystem. They provide real-time data and enable more efficient and
accurate management of water resources. Here are several ways in which smart
sensors contribute to water quality monitoring in IoT:

• Real-time Data Collection: Smart sensors continuously monitor various water

quality parameters, such as pH levels, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and
various contaminants. They transmit this data in real-time to central servers or cloud
platforms, enabling instant access to critical information.
• Remote Monitoring: IoT-enabled smart sensors allow water quality to be monitored
remotely, reducing the need for manual data collection and on-site visits. This is
particularly valuable in hard-to-reach or remote locations.
• Early Detection of Issues: Smart sensors can quickly detect abnormal water quality
conditions, such as chemical spills, bacterial contamination, or changes in pH levels.
Early detection can help prevent waterborne diseases and protect ecosystems.
• Data Integration: Data from various sensors can be integrated with other
environmental and operational data sources, providing a comprehensive view of
water quality and allowing for more informed decision-making.
• Predictive Analytics: By analyzing historical data, smart sensors can help predict
future water quality trends and potential issues, allowing for proactive measures to
be taken.
• Alerting and Alarming: Smart sensors can be programmed to trigger alerts and
alarms when water quality parameters deviate from established thresholds, ensuring
quick responses to critical situations.
• Long-Term Monitoring: Smart sensors are durable and can withstand harsh
environmental conditions, allowing for long-term and continuous monitoring, which
is essential for understanding seasonal and long-term trends.
• Customization: Smart sensors can be customized to monitor specific water quality
parameters relevant to a particular location or application, ensuring they meet the
specific needs of the monitoring project.
• Data Accessibility: Data from smart sensors is often stored in the cloud, making it
easily accessible to various stakeholders, including government agencies, water
utilities, researchers, and the general public.
 Numerical on water quality monitoring in IoT:

Ques: Suppose an IoT-based water quality monitoring system is deployed in a river, and a
smart sensor is continuously monitoring the concentration of a specific contaminant, say,
"Nitrate-Nitrogen" (NO3-N), in milligrams per liter (mg/L). The smart sensor transmits data at
regular intervals. Below is a table representing the NO3-N concentration data collected over
a day:

Time(hours) NO3-N concentration(mg/L)

0 3.2

3 3.5

6 4.1

9 4.2

12 4.3

15 4.0

18 3.8

21 3.6

24 3.4

Solution: To analyze the provided data for the NO3-N concentration in an IoT-based water
quality monitoring system, you can perform various tasks such as calculating average
concentration, identifying trends, and evaluating potential issues.

1. Average Concentration: Calculate the average NO3-N concentration over the 24-
hour period.

Average = (3.2 + 3.5 + 4.1 + 4.2 + 4.3 + 4.0 + 3.8 + 3.6 + 3.4) / 9 = 36.1 / 9 = 4.01
mg/L.

2. Trends and Fluctuations:

• There is a noticeable increase in NO3-N concentration from the beginning
(3.2 mg/L) to the middle of the day (4.3 mg/L).
• After reaching a peak at noon, the concentration gradually decreases in the
afternoon and evening.
3. Potential Issues and Patterns:
• The data suggests diurnal variations in NO3-N concentration, which can be
influenced by factors such as agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and
biological activity.
 • The peak concentration at noon may indicate increased agricultural activity or
the release of pollutants during the daytime.

• The decrease in concentration in the evening might be due to reduced human

activity and biological processes, but it's essential to investigate the causes
further.

4. Quality Assurance:
• In an IoT-based water quality monitoring system, it's crucial to compare these
concentrations to regulatory standards or guidelines to determine whether
the water quality meets acceptable levels. Ensure compliance with local or
national water quality standards.
 Mayank Jain
2020UEI2842
SSIoT – Assignment
(Q) – What is the role of smart sensors in smart grid systems ?

Smart sensors play a crucial role in modernizing and enhancing the functionality of smart grid systems. A
smart grid is an advanced electricity distribution network that leverages digital technology to improve the
efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of energy production and consumption. Smart sensors are
fundamental components of this system, and their role can be broken down into several key aspects:

1. Data Collection and Monitoring: Smart sensors are deployed throughout the grid to collect real-
time data on various parameters, such as voltage, current, power quality, and equipment status.
They continuously monitor the condition of the grid components and electrical assets.
2. Fault Detection and Diagnosis: Smart sensors are capable of detecting abnormal conditions and
faults within the grid. By analyzing the data they collect, they can identify issues like power outages,
equipment failures, or voltage fluctuations. This enables quicker response times for maintenance
and restoration.
3. Remote Control and Automation: Smart sensors are often integrated with control systems,
allowing for remote control and automation of grid devices. This enables the grid operator to
perform tasks such as switching, load balancing, and fault isolation remotely, reducing the need for
physical intervention.
4. Load Management: Smart sensors provide real-time information about electricity consumption
patterns. This data helps utilities and consumers make informed decisions about managing their
energy use. Load management can involve demand response programs, where consumers can adjust
their electricity use during peak demand times.
5. Grid Optimization: Smart sensors assist in optimizing the grid's overall performance. They
provide data that grid operators can use to balance supply and demand more efficiently, reduce
energy losses, and ensure power quality. This leads to energy savings and reduced operational costs.
6. Integration of Renewable Energy Sources: With the growing use of renewable energy sources
like solar and wind, smart sensors help manage the variability of these resources. They can forecast
and monitor renewable generation and adjust grid operations to accommodate the intermittent
nature of renewables.
7. Enhanced Security and Resilience: Smart sensors enhance grid security by detecting and
responding to physical or cyber threats. They also support the grid's ability to recover quickly from
disruptions, thanks to their fault detection and isolation capabilities.
8. Data Analytics and Decision Support: The data collected by smart sensors is analyzed through
advanced analytics and machine learning algorithms. This helps grid operators make informed
decisions, predict maintenance needs, and plan for future infrastructure improvements.
9. Customer Engagement: Smart sensors empower consumers by providing them with information
about their energy consumption and costs. This encourages energy efficiency and allows customers
to make more informed choices about when and how they use electricity.
10. Reduced Energy Theft: Smart sensors can detect unauthorized or illegal electricity consumption,
which helps reduce energy theft and revenue losses for utilities.
11. Environmental Benefits: By optimizing the grid and facilitating the integration of renewable
energy sources, smart sensors contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and environmental
impact.
In summary, smart sensors are a critical component of smart grid systems, enabling them to be more
efficient, resilient, and responsive to changing energy needs. They facilitate data-driven decision-making,
enhance grid reliability, and contribute to a more sustainable energy future.

Numerical :-

Soln.) Rθ = 1000 (1 + 0.004θ) Ω

For 1°C rise in temperate

Rθ = 1000[1 + 0.004] = 1004 Ω

Voltage at node A,
VA = (-5)(10) / (10+10) = -2.5 V

Using virtual grand concept,

VA = VB = -2.5 V

Apply KCL at node B,

I1 = I2

⇒ VB – (-5) / 1000 = V0 – VB/1004

⇒ (VB + 5)1004 = 1000 (V0 - VB)
⇒ (2.5) (1004) = 1000 (V0 + 2.5)
⇒ V0 = 0.01 V = 10 mV
Sensitivity = 10 mV/°C. (Ans)
Monis Raza
2020UEI2818
ASSIGNMENT

Q. What are the challenges of integrating smart sensors in healthcare IoT?

Ans. Integrating smart sensors into healthcare IoT (Internet of Things) systems can offer
numerous benefits, such as improved patient monitoring, real-time data analysis, and more
efficient healthcare delivery. However, it also presents several challenges that need to be
addressed for successful implementation. Some of the key challenges include:

1. Data Security and Privacy: Healthcare data is highly sensitive, and ensuring the security and
privacy of patient information is paramount. Smart sensors generate a vast amount of data, and
protecting this data from breaches or unauthorized access is a significant challenge. Robust
encryption, access controls, and compliance with data protection regulations (such as HIPAA in
the United States) are essential.

2. Interoperability: Smart sensors come from various manufacturers and may use different
communication protocols and data formats. Ensuring these sensors can seamlessly work
together and integrate into existing healthcare systems is a complex task. Standardization
efforts are ongoing to address this issue, but it remains a significant challenge.

3. Scalability: Healthcare IoT deployments may need to scale to accommodate a growing

number of sensors and devices. This involves both technical scalability (e.g., handling increasing
data volumes) and organizational scalability (e.g., expanding infrastructure and resources to
manage and interpret the data).

4. Reliability and Accuracy: In healthcare, accuracy is critical. Smart sensors must provide
reliable and precise data to be clinically useful. Calibration, maintenance, and continuous
monitoring of sensor accuracy are necessary.

5. Power Management: Many healthcare IoT devices are battery-powered. Ensuring these
devices have a sufficient and reliable power source to operate continuously is essential.
Low-power design and energy-efficient communication protocols are vital.

6. Network Connectivity: Reliable network connectivity is essential for transmitting data from
smart sensors to healthcare systems. Poor connectivity can lead to data loss or delayed data
transmission, which can be life-threatening in healthcare scenarios.

7. Regulatory Compliance: The healthcare industry is highly regulated. Ensuring that IoT devices
and systems comply with these regulations is a significant challenge. Manufacturers and
healthcare providers must navigate a complex web of rules and standards.

8. Cost: Implementing IoT systems in healthcare can be expensive, from the cost of the sensors
themselves to the infrastructure required for data management and analysis. Balancing the cost
with the potential benefits is a challenge.

9. Data Overload: The massive amount of data generated by smart sensors can be
overwhelming. Healthcare professionals need tools to sift through this data efficiently, identify
relevant information, and make timely decisions.
Monis Raza
2020UEI2818

10. User Acceptance: Healthcare IoT systems often require the involvement of healthcare
professionals, patients, and caregivers. Ensuring that these stakeholders are comfortable with
and understand the technology is crucial for successful adoption.

11. Ethical and Legal Issue: The use of IoT in healthcare raises ethical and legal questions, such
as data ownership, informed consent, and liability. Addressing these issues is essential to
maintain trust and ensure ethical practices.

12. Patient Safety: Inaccurate or delayed data from IoT sensors can potentially harm patients.
Ensuring patient safety in IoT deployments is a significant challenge, especially in critical care
situations.

Addressing these challenges requires collaboration among healthcare providers, technology

vendors, regulators, and standards organizations. As IoT technology continues to advance, these
challenges will evolve, and healthcare systems will need to adapt to ensure the safe and effective
use of smart sensors in patient care.

NUMERICAL

Q. A hospital is planning to deploy a healthcare IoT system that involves 500 smart sensors
for patient monitoring. Each sensor generates 5 MB of data per hour. If the hospital plans to
store this data for 30 days, and they estimate that each gigabyte (GB) of data storage costs
$10, what will be the total cost for data storage for this IoT deployment?

Solution:

Step 1: Calculate the data generated per day by one sensor:

5 MB/hour * 24 hours/day = 120 MB/day

Step 2: Calculate the data generated per day by 500 sensors:

120 MB/day/sensor * 500 sensors = 60,000 MB/day for all sensors

Step 3: Convert the data to gigabytes (GB) for one day:

60,000 MB/day ÷ 1,024 MB/GB = 58.59 GB/day (approximately)

Step 4: Calculate the total data generated in 30 days:

58.59 GB/day * 30 days = 1,757.7 GB (approximately)

Step 5: Calculate the total cost for data storage:

1,757.7 GB * $10/GB = $17,577

So, the total cost for data storage for this IoT deployment over 30 days would be
approximately $17,577.
Monis Raza
2020UEI2818
Title: What is Zigbee ?

Introduction:
Zigbee is a wireless communication protocol that plays a pivotal role in the realm of Smart
Sensors and the Internet of Things (IoT). It is designed to facilitate low-power, low-data-rate,
and short-range communication, making it an ideal choice for various applications in smart
sensor networks and IoT ecosystems.

Key Features of Zigbee:

1. Low Power Consumption: Zigbee is characterised by its ultra-low power consumption,
making it suitable for battery-operated devices such as sensors. This efficiency ensures
extended device lifespans and minimal maintenance requirements.

2. Mesh Networking: Zigbee supports mesh networking, where each device can act as a
repeater, helping to extend the network's coverage. This self-healing feature improves the
overall reliability and robustness of the network.

3. Low Data Rate: Zigbee operates at low data rates, typically up to 250 Kbps. While this
may seem limited, it is more than sufficient for most smart sensor and IoT applications that
require periodic, small data transmissions.

4. Short Range Communication: Zigbee's short-range communication, typically within a

range of 10-100 metres, is well-suited for localised applications, ensuring that devices within
a specific area can communicate efficiently without interference from nearby networks.

Applications of Zigbee in Smart Sensors and IoT:

1. Home Automation: Zigbee is widely used in smart home applications, enabling various
devices like lights, thermostats, door locks, and sensors to interconnect and communicate
seamlessly. This enhances home automation and energy efficiency.

2. Industrial IoT (IIoT): In industrial settings, Zigbee-based sensors are employed for
monitoring and controlling various parameters, such as temperature, humidity, and machine
status. The mesh networking feature ensures comprehensive coverage across large
industrial spaces.

3. Healthcare: Zigbee is utilised in healthcare for remote patient monitoring, fall detection,
and tracking devices. Its low power consumption is essential for wearable sensors, ensuring
prolonged battery life.

4. Environmental Monitoring: Zigbee-based sensors are employed in environmental

monitoring to measure air quality, pollution levels, and weather conditions. Their low power
consumption makes them suitable for long-term outdoor deployments.
5. Smart Agriculture: Zigbee-enabled sensors are used in agriculture for soil moisture
monitoring, crop health assessment, and livestock tracking. The mesh network capabilities
help cover vast agricultural areas.

Conclusion:
Zigbee is a vital wireless communication protocol in the context of Smart Sensors and the
Internet of Things. Its low power consumption, mesh networking, and short-range
communication features make it an excellent choice for various applications. From smart
homes to industrial settings, healthcare, environmental monitoring, and agriculture, Zigbee
plays a pivotal role in enabling efficient and reliable communication between devices,
contributing to the growth of the IoT ecosystem.

Numerical
Question
You are designing a Zigbee-based sensor network for a smart home application. The Zigbee
standard operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band.

Calculate the following :

1. Calculate the wavelength (in metres) corresponding to the 2.4 GHz frequency.

2. Assume you have a Zigbee device located 10 metres away from the coordinator.
Calculate the propagation delay (in seconds) for a signal to travel from the device to
the coordinator .

3. The Zigbee standard specifies a channel width of 2 MHz. Calculate the number of
available channels in the 2.4 GHz ISM band for Zigbee communication.

Solution

1. The formula to calculate the wavelength (λ) is given by:

λ=c/f
We have:
c = 299,792,458 (m/s)
f = 2.4 GHz = 2.4 x 10^9 Hz

So, the wavelength corresponding to the 2.4 GHz frequency is approximately 0.1248
metres .

2. The propagation delay is calculated as:

Propagation Delay = Speed of Light/Distance

​
 Given:
- Distance = 10 metres
- Speed of Light (c) ≈ 299,792,458 \(m/s\)

Substituting the values into the formula:

So, the propagation delay for a signal to travel from the device to the coordinator, which is
10 metres away, is approximately 3.34 X 10 ^ (-8) seconds.

3. Channel Width:

The number of available channels is calculated as:

Number of Channels = Total Bandwidth / Channel Width

Given:
- Total Bandwidth (available in the 2.4 GHz ISM band) ≈ 83.5 MHz = 83.5 x 10^6 Hz
- Channel Width = 2 MHz = 2 x 10^6 Hz

Since you can't have a fraction of a channel, you have approximately 41 available
channels for Zigbee communication in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
 Assignment
Vineet
(2020UEI2808)

Q. What are some common communication protocols used in IoT sensor networks?
The backbone of IoT ecosystem is connectivity. IoT devices can connect and exchange data with
each other via communication protocols.
It’s important for you to know what the top IoT protocols are, and how they work, if you are looking
to establish an IoT system in your organization. In this article, we will list the top 10 IoT communication
protocols and their characteristics.

What are IoT communication protocols?

IoT communication protocols, also called IoT protocols, are sets of wireless networks and rules that
interconnect IoT devices. IoT protocols allow IoT devices to exchange data between each other.

What’s the best IoT communication protocol?

The best IoT communication protocol depends on the specific requirements and constraints of a
given system. Factor that plays a role in choosing IoT protocols are:

• Geographic locations: This is physical distances between the 2 or more devices that form an ecosystem.
• Power consumption needs: This is the amount of time for which the IoT devices are stayed on
• Physical barriers: These are the barriers that exist between the devices within the IoT ecosystem (e.g.
walls, mountains, skyscrapers, etc.)
• Overall budget: Different protocols cost differently.

Protocols Standard Frequencies Approximate Range Data Rates

Wi-Fi Based on IEEE 802.11 2.4 GHz and 50 to 100 meters 600 Mbps maximum;
(common in homes) 5 GHz bands 150-200 Mbps the most
common
Bluetooth Bluetooth 4.2 core 2.5 GHz 50 to 150 meters 1 Mbps
specificaGon
Zigbee Zigbee 2.0 based on 2.4 GHz 10 to 100 meters 250 Kbps
IEEE802.15.4
MQTT ISO/IEC 20922 -- -- Up to 256 Mbps in size
Cellular GSM/GPRS/EDGE(2G), 900/1800/ 35km max for GSM; 200km max 35-170 Kbps
Data UMTS/HSPA(3G), 1900/2100M for HSPA
LTE(4G) Hz
Z Wave Z-wave Alliance Various 30 meters 0.3 to 50 Kbps
NFC ISO/IEC 18000-3 13.56 MHz 10cm 100-420 Kbps
Lora WAN Lora WAN Various 2.5km (urban environment), 0.3 to 50 Kbps
15km (suburban environment)
Sigfox Sigfox 900 MHz 30-50 km (rural environments), 10-10000 Kbps
3-10 km (urban environments)
1. Wi-Fi
It is one of the IoT communication protocols, best suitable for LAN — a computer network that
interconnects computers within a limited area — environments, allowing for fast data transfer. It uses
internet protocols (IP) to communicate between endpoint devices.

2. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a protocol used for short-range communication and exchanging of small amounts of data for
personal products like smartwatches or wireless speakers.

3. Zigbee
Zigbee’s advantage comes from low power consumption, wireless control, security, and scalability.
Applications such as wireless thermostats and lighting systems are examples of devices using Zigbee for
connection.

4. MQTT
MQTT handles the transfer of light and simple data from sensors to applications and middleware. It
offers a reliable connection and is bandwidth friendly.
5. Z Wave
Z wave is based on low-power radio frequency (RF) communication technology. It’s highly preferable
for smart home products such as lamp controllers, door locks, electronic kettles, etc.

6. Cellular data
Cellular networks are capable of handling large flows of data. Its high connectivity range makes it a
good choice for connecting objects distanced from one another.

7. NFC (Near Field Communication)

NFC uses electromagnetic communication between the antennas of two devices that are located next to
each other. NFC is the technology used in contactless payment at shops today.
8. LoRaWAN
Lora is a long-range, radio-wide network that has low power consumption and is capable of handling
large networks consisting of multiple devices.

9. Sigfox
Sigfox is a long-range network for machine-to-machine (M2M) applications, with less power
consumption than others. That makes it a good choice for connecting remote devices that must run on
batteries for long periods of time without charging batteries.

Q. Suppose we have a smart agriculture system that monitors temperature, humidity,

and soil moisture in a large farm. The system comprises 30 sensor nodes, each equipped
with Zigbee communication modules. These nodes send data to a central server every
15 seconds using the MQTT protocol. Additionally, the system uses CoAP for occasional
configuration updates sent every 2 minutes.
Ans.
1. MQTT Data Transmission Rate:
Data packet size = 150 bytes
Time interval = 15 seconds
Data transmission rate = Data packet size / Time interval
= 150 bytes / 15 seconds
= 10 bytes per second
= 0.01 KBps per node
Total data transmission rate for 30 nodes = 30 * 0.01 KBps = 0.3 KBps
2. CoAP Request Rate:
CoAP requests per minute for configuration updates = 10
CoAP requests per second = 10 / 60
= 1/6 requests per second
3. Zigbee Packets Transmitted in One Hour:
Nodes = 30
Packets per minute per node = 8
Total packets per minute = Nodes * Packets per minute per node = 30 * 8
= 240 packets per minute
Total packets per hour = Total packets per minute * 60
= 240 * 60
= 14,400 packets per hour