THE MINERAL RESOURCES INSTITUTE

DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING ENGINEERING

EMT04204: Occupational Health and Safety in Mining Industry 06 Credits

Sub-Enabling Outcomes:

 Explain safety and health issues related to mining and petroleum industry
 Deploy safety gears for carrying out environmental monitoring work in mining and
petroleum operations
 Describe fire fighting procedures

Prerequisite Module: None

Learning context:
This module will be conducted through Lectures, Tutorials, Audiovisual Demonstrations,
and industrial training visits

Learning Materials:
This course will be taught through using textbooks, manuals, handouts and laboratory
equipment

Integrated Method of Assessment:

Continuous Assessment 40%
End of Semester Examination 60%

References
1. Karmis, M., (1978), “Mine Health and Safety Management.
2. Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Volume III) by International Labour
Organisation (Hardcover - Jan 1, 1998)
3. Hartman, H.L., (1990), “SME Mining Engineering Handbook”, New York Society of
Mining Engineers, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers
4. Kennedy, B.A., (1990), “Surface Mining”, American Publishers Ltd
5. Bourgoyne, A.T.J., (1986)”Applied Drilling Engineering”, SPE Textbook Manufacturers’
own Manuals

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1.0 Safety and Health Issues in Mining and Petroleum Industries
1.1 Definition of Common Terminologies
1.1.1 Hazards
Is the circumstance that increases the likelihood or probable severity (strictness) of a loss. For
example, the storing of explosives in a home basement is a hazard that increases the probability
of an explosion or is a condition with the potential to cause injury, illness, or death of personnel;
damage to or loss of equipment or property; or mission degradation or a hazard is a source of
potential harm. A hazard has three modes: 1. Dormant (there are no people around; there is no
risk) 2. Armed (there is a person or people in the vicinity (surrounding area); there is risk) 3.
Active (human reaction time is too slow to combat the effect of the hazard; it is too late to
prevent the consequences of the hazard)

1.1.2 Accidents
Accident is any event that leads or contributes to any adverse (undesirable) deviation from plan
or accident is an event that is not expected or intended to occur, and it causes a loss of some type
or mining accident means any occupational injury to any person as a result of mining work
within the area of mining activity, for which medical treatment is administered or which results
in loss of consciousness or death.
The type of losses can be classified as follows:
 Injury, illness, disease, and death to people
 Damage to property, equipment, and materials as well as replacement cost
 Time, production, and sales
 Extended costs
Extended costs may include increased insurance or workers compensation cost, reporting of
accidents, travel, investigation, cleanup at the accident site, legal and medical services, more
extensive rehabilitation of the plant, and damage to public image, among others.

1.1.3 Disasters
Disaster is an occurrence causing widespread destruction and distress; a catastrophe (calamity).
Forest fire, Mine fires are generally started by lightning, but also by human negligence or arson
(flammable). They can burn thousands of square kilometers. If a fire intensifies enough to
produce its own winds and "weather", it will form into a firestorm. There are two types of
disasters and these are natural disasters and man-made disasters. The following are examples of
disasters:
Natural disasters:
 Avalanche (is a slippage of built-up snow down an incline)
 Drought (A drought is a long-lasting weather pattern consisting of dry conditions with very
little or no precipitation)
 Earthquake (is a sudden shift or movement in the tectonic plate in the Earth's crust)
 Fire
 Flood
 Volcanic eruption

Man-Made Disasters
 Arson (is the criminal intent of setting a fire with intent to cause damage)
 Terrorism

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 War

1.1.4 Incident
Incident is an occurrence or event that interrupts normal procedure or precipitates (rapid) a crisis
(disaster) or incident is a minor event or condition that is subordinate to another. Include all
events that could have resulted in injury or damage to facilities. This includes what is typically
thought of as near incidents. The potential consequences are the same in a near incident as in a
serious injury.
Types of incidents are near incidents, property damage, illness, first aid injuries, medical
treatment injuries, lost-time injuries and fatalities. The difference between a near incident and a
fatality is pure luck.

1.1.5 Risk
Risk is the likelihood that something will occur, causing injury or damage to the health of
people.
Risk in the context of a mining venture is an alteration of anticipated cash flow caused by an
unforeseen circumstance or event.
The risk analysis formula is Risk = probability x magnitude. That is, if the probability of an
untoward event (such as a prolonged power outage) is one chance in fifty and the cost of the
event (if it occurs) is estimated to be $500,000 then the risk is $10,000. Unfortunately, this
simple analysis is not sufficient for mine evaluation purposes. More sophisticated procedures are
required.

1.2 Safety Rules Used in Mining Operations

1.2.1 Positioning Warning Signs and Barriers
A surface mine often consists of deep trenches or large holes. There is a high risk that a
mineworker or member of the public could fall in. Such workings should be surrounded by a
secure fence or otherwise securely barricaded. Suitable warning signs to forbid unauthorized
entry and subsequent fall of any person should be posted.

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1.2.2 Post Warnings
Ground conditions or any other dangerous condition in the mine that creates a hazard to persons
should be corrected before other work or travel is permitted in the affected area. Until corrective
work is completed a warning sign against entry should be posted. When left unattended, a barrier
should be installed to prevent unauthorized entry.

1.2.3 Travel Ways and Safe Means of Access

Mineworkers often have to use difficult terrain to travel to and from their work places within the
mine (e.g. climbing or walking along steep pit walls and excavations where there may be a
danger of slipping or falling, a slide of material, rock fall, etc.).

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To reduce these hazards, the stability of any pit wall, bench or slope where persons normally
travel to and from their assigned work places should be regularly examined and properly
maintained. Each place in the mine where any person normally works should be provided with
appropriate travel ways.

“Any access exceeding an inclination of 50 degrees from the horizontal should be provided with
fixed stairs or a ladder.”

1.2.4 Stripping of Overburden

Surface mining activities generally start with the removal of overburden, typically loose ground
or decomposed rock. This material is potentially unstable and could easily collapse or slide,
especially when wet. Any excavation of loose ground should therefore not be done by
undercutting or by forming steep slopes. The slope of loose ground or decomposed rock should
be kept at an angle (not more than 45 degrees) that ensures stability.

Vegetation, such as large bushes and trees, should be removed from the overburden before
stripping reaches the roots to prevent hazards due to falling trees.

To prevent loose soil from sliding back into the mine:

 Pit or wall perimeters consisting of soil or unconsolidated material which could create a fall-
of-material hazard, should be stripped back for at least 3m from the top of the pit or quarry
wall; and
 All material from the stripping of overburden should be removed to a safe distance from the
working edge of the mine excavation and be shaped to a safe angle of repose (30 - 40 degrees
from the horizontal).

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1.2.5 Working on Walls and Benches
Falls of rock at the working face, the collapse of the working face and landslides are major risks
in the production areas of surface mines. They are often the cause of serious mining accidents.
The design and layout of the working faces should therefore be such that the danger of material
fall is minimized.

“This can be done by applying a benching (terraced) system instead of having a steep pit wall.”

Any wall, slope or bench, where work is to be performed should be regularly examined for
cracks or other signs of stress or weakness, in particular:
 Prior to commencing any work;
 After blasting;
 After heavy rainfall; and

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 As ground conditions warrant.

“Under no circumstances should any face, side or bench be worked in a way that causes
unsupported overhanging or undercutting.”

“Where the undercutting of a working face is essential, a sufficient means of support (e.g. sturdy
wooden props) should be properly installed to prevent overhanging material from collapsing.”

In any alluvial layer, consisting of sand, clay, pebbles or similar loose material, a single bench
for manual working should normally not exceed 2.5 metres in height. Also the maximum slope
should be less than 45 degrees. When working in solid material or hard, rock the height of a
single bench should not exceed 6 metres for manual working. Also, the slope angle should be
less than 60 degrees from the horizontal. Each terrace floor of a multi-bench system should be
wide enough to allow persons to work and travel freely and safely. A bench width of at least 3
metres is re c o m e n d e d; this also provides some pro t e c t i o n against rock fall.

1.2.6 Scaling
Wherever loose rock or soil at any working face could create danger to persons. It should be
scaled down or supported in a safe manner before other work or travel is permitted in the
affected area. If possible, scaling should be done from the top of the working face downward. All
persons should be removed from below the scaling area.

“Scaling should be carried out from a location which will not expose persons to injury from
falling material.”

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If scaling is performed from below the face, the scaling bar should be of a length and design that
will allow the removal of loose material without exposing the person performing this work to
injury.

1.2.7 Other Work

When digging pits, trenches or other such works, any face or side wall over 1.5 metres high
should be securely supported (e.g. by installing struts) to prevent any falls or slips of the wall
material back into the excavation. When using water monitors to dislodge rock or earth from a
vertical wall, make sure the hose and nozzle are firmly fixed. Stand well back from the wall an
well clear of the debris as it falls and washes away to the pump or sump.

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If any work has to be done manually on a face that is more than 2.5 metres above the ground, the
workers should wear a safety harness or rope that is fastened to a secure anchor well clear of the
top of the face.

Any tunnel or adit being driven into the face for exploration, drainage or any other purpose
should be securely supported as ground conditions warrant. W h e re such underground adits
exceed a length of 6 metres, arrangements should be made to ensure an adequate supply of fresh
air, either by artificial or natural ventilation.

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Inadequate ventilation in underground workings may result in a lack of oxygen and high levels
of carbon dioxide. Thus the atmosphere therein should be regularly checked for O2 and CO2
concentrations. The level of O2 should not fall below 19.5%; the level of CO2 should not exceed
0.5%.

“Unventilated areas underground should be barricaded and signs posted to prevent entry.”

1.2.8 Mine Drainage

Most small mines do not encounter strong groundwater inflow, unless they are close to and
below the level of a river. But they often have problems in dealing with surface water during and
after heavy rainfall. Such surface water can adversely affect the stability of the pit strata, wash
out slopes and terraces, and even flood the mine. Heavy mudflow and slope failure are often
consequences of surface water entering the mine.

“Whenever possible, surface water should be prevented from entering mine workings by digging
ditches to trap the water and conduct it away from the pit.”

Drainage channels should be well away from the edge of the excavation and constructed as to
minimize storm runoff entering the pit. As far as possible mine workings should be arranged so
that water is discharged naturally (e.g. into lower abandoned workings). Channeling incoming
water down the slopes to collection points could also be an effective way to protect the slopes of
surface mines. Where necessary, water pumps should be installed at such collection points.

1.3 Safety Acts and Regulations

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The focus of mine safety and health regulation is always the safety and health of persons at
mines. Thus, compliance with mandatory standards developed pursuant to the Mine Act is the
central responsibility of mine operators and miners. Mandatory standards are the dos and don’ts
of mine safety and health.
The mandatory standards include requirements specific to mines such as those pertaining to roof
support, ventilation, permissible electrical equipment, ground control, hazardous dust control,
and other standards that would be pertinent (applicable) to any heavy industry.
The mandatory standards also impose duties on operators to perform pre-shift or on-shift
examinations of work areas and equipment to eliminate hazards.

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2.0 Safety Gears for Carrying out Environmental Monitoring Work
2.1 Personal Protective Equipment
Not all work place hazards can be fully controlled or eliminated and therefore is always
the need to wear personal protection to protect the user in case an accident occurs.
Normally there will be other practical safety measures put in place, such as plant safety
equipment but the use of personal protective equipment is incorporated into safety
procedures as added protection. However it is not a substitute for hazard control.

Types of Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment can be used in a large variety of applications but they
can be broadly grouped into the following:-
2.1.1 Head protection

There are 3 types of widely used head protection. These are:

1. Caps and Hairnets – are used for scalp protection and prevention and hairnets are used to
protect against hair entanglement and for hygienic purposes in catering services.
2. Bump caps – are used to protect against hitting the head against a fixed object
3. Safety helmet or hard hat - is used to protect against hitting the head against a fixed object
(bump protection) and from falling objects.

Because helmets offer general protection many industrial establishments have a general policy
that safety must be worn at all times at these sites. In Barrick North Mara Gold Project site, hard
hats are compulsory when entering into the high security gate leading into the Process area and
while in the Mining area.

Care of the Safety helmet:

1. Helmets are not allowed to be written or painted on.
2. Helmets must not be left in the sunlight.
3. Do not clean with petrol or any solvents.
4. Do not sit or stand on the hard hat.

2.1.2 Eye and Face Protection

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There are 3 types of Eye and Face protection:
1. Safety glasses
2. Safety goggles
3. Face shied

90% of all eye injuries are preventable, 80% of the injuries occurred when the victims were
not wearing eye protection, and even if they were wearing it, they were not wearing them
correctly.
 In the work place, the most common causes of eye injuries are due to flying particles such as
from a grinding operation, chips of wood drawn out by a planning saw, fragments breaking
from a tool in use or bit of metals blown out by a grinder.
 A second common cause is working with hazardous chemicals. A chemical splash or spray
can severely burn the eye and cause irreparable damage. Solid coarse material such as caustic
soda or even lime can cause damage more than liquids. Even fumes from some chemicals can
damage unprotected eyes.
 A third major cause is the exposure to intense light sources such as arc welding and flame
cutting.

Safety glasses - are used to protect against flying particles, dust, sparks and glare.

Safety goggles - protect against metal chips from grinding operations, wood chips from sawing
penetrations, impact, penetrating and embedded object injuries. Chemical splash or spray into
eye sand flash burns from welding operations. (Shaded type of goggles)

Face Shield - provides protection generally as above in addition to protecting the face. Colored
face shields protect against intense light as in welding and gold smelting. Face shields should
always be used together with safety glasses or goggles.

When Do We Use Eye & Face Protection?

1. When entering into or working in a place where hazards are present. Examples of these
hazards are: Chemicals, solvents, gases, fumes, mist, dust and flying objects
2. When performing jobs like hammering, drilling, chiseling, grinding, milling, turning
and spraying.
3. When entering into or working in a designated area (Safety signs )
4. When it is specified in the safe working procedure.

How Do We Use Eye & Face Protection?

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1. Select the appropriate Eye & Face Protection
2. It must be in good condition (Physical checks i.e. scratches on lenses etc)
3. It must be wear correctly
4. It must fit properly

2.1.3 Respiratory Protection

Air borne contaminants such as fumes, dust, moist, gases, fibres are some of the most common
hazards in the work place. In many cases in order to protect people from the harmful effects of
these hazards it is necessary to use appropriate safety equipment.

Why do we use Respiratory Protection?

We use respiratory protection to protect against hazardous airborne contaminants and prevent
them from being adsorb into the bodies through the respiratory system.

There are 2 types of Respiratory Protective Equipment

1. Air Supplied e.g. SCBA used special raining
2. Air Purifying - Dust masks, Respirators

When do we wear Respiratory Protection?

1. When entering into or working in a place where hazards such as dust, fumes, gases/ mist and
fibres are present.
2. When performing jobs such as spraying, jobs generating dust, working on chemicals
generating fumes etc.
3. When entering into or working in a designated area
4. When it is part of the work procedure.

In the above situations the types and levels of contaminants are known. However, there
are some situations in which the types and levels of contaminants may not be known
such as:

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1. Conducting investigations or corrections
2. Emergencies

How do we use it?

1. Select the appropriate Respiratory Protection
2. Inspect it, It must be in good condition
3. It must be worn correctly
4. It must fit properly

There are two (02) methods to do a fit test:

1. Positive
2. Negative

The "Negative fit test" is commonly used and is done as follows:

 Remove the inhalation canister.
 Cover the inhalation part with your palm and breathe in.
 Hold your breath for 5 seconds. You should be able to feel the mask collapse slightly on your
face. If there is a leak you will feel air coming in through the mask. If it is a particularly bad
fit, you will hear a noise. In such a situation, you should select a mask with a different
contour so that it will fit properly and provide a good seal.

2.1.4 Hearing Protection

There are two (02) types of hearing protection:
1. Ear plugs – wash your hands before use. It plugs the auditory canal.

2. Ear muffs - Completely seals the outer ear.

There are many variations on the above but they all have one thing in common -They are
designed such that each one reduces the sound level getting into the ear by 25db.

When do we use the Hearing Protection?

1. When entering into or working in area where noise levels can result in hearing damage.

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2. When performing jobs that generate large noise such as drilling, hammering, chiseling and
blasting.
3. When entering into or working in designated areas.

How do we use the Hearing Protection?

1. You must select the appropriate hearing protection.
2. You must inspect it. Ear muffs must be inspected for cracks or holes
3. It must be worn correctly.
4. It must fit properly - Ear rings must be removed before putting on ear muffs since they
interfere with the seal.

2.1.5 Hand Protection

About 90% of all hand injuries are caused by human error; human error is the result of
1. Boredom
2. Inattention
3. Distraction
4. Neglecting or altering certain safety features of some machines.

Working around machines

Some causes of hand injuries
1. Pinch point - any area where two (2) moving objects come together whether one is stationery
and the other moving or both are moving.
2. Hot Spots - the hot surfaces of most machines like engines, compressors, welding etc.
3. Rotating machines - like grinders, rollers, V-belts etc.
4. Automatic machines
5. Robotic machines
6. Remote control machines

Working with Chemicals

Require the use of personal protective equipment. Rubber gloves are used when working with
chemicals. Wear the gloves inside the over-sleeve of the raincoat.

Types of Hand Protection

1. Light fabric (cotton) hand gloves
2. Heavy fabric (leather) hand gloves - chrome leather
3. Rubber gloves - For working on chemicals

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 4. Heat resistant hand gloves - for handling hot
objects.

When working on rotating machines, do not wear

gloves. The gloves can be caught into the moving
parts causing the hand to be drawn into the moving
parts.

Jeweler: A ring or watchstrap can draw your hand

into a cutter or pinch point and cause hand injuries.
They can trap solvents and chemicals on your hand
and cause chemical burns.

2.1.6 Foot Protection

Safety footwear provide protection against
1. Crushing and impact injuries
2. Puncture wounds
3. Electrical shock
4. Chemical burns or poisoning

Types of protective footwear

1. Rubber steel capped safety boots - when working on chemicals or wet environment

2. Leather steel capped safety boots when working under dry conditions. Safety shoes may
differ in length but must have a steel toe cap.

2.1.7 Protective Clothing

This includes hand protection, foot protection and apparel and is generally used to provide
protection against:
1. Thermal and chemical burns
2. Contact with hazardous substances and items
3. Hot and cold atmospheric conditions
4. Increases visibility (in some instances, e.g. at night)

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When do we use Protective Clothing?
As with all forms of personal protective equipment, Protective Clothing is used:
1. As specified in a safe working procedure
2. When entering into or working in an area where hazards are present.
3. When entering into or working in a designated area
4. When you think the job requires it.

How do we use Protective Clothing - 4 rules?

1. It must be suited specifically to the job task
2. It must be in good condition
3. It must be worn correctly
4. It must fit properly.

2.1.8 Duty of Care

What is duty of care?
As an employee or employer each one has certain responsibilities to fulfill, to make sure each
one of us are working in a safe environment.

Duty of the Employer

 Responsible to provide and maintain, as far as is reasonable practicable healthy and safe
working environments and work practices.
 Setting out in writing, health and safety policies to all employees in a language they readily
understand.
 Controlling and eliminating hazards and where supply appropriate PPE
 Providing adequate supervision.
 Giving the necessary instructions and training.
 Providing necessary facilities to deal with emergencies.
 Verifying implementation of applicable standards and undertake audits.
 Keeping such records as required by the competent authorities.

Duty of Employees
 Take reasonable care for their safety and the safety of others who may be affected by their
actions.
 Cooperate in the fulfillment of the obligations placed upon their employer.
 Comply with instructions and safety procedures given for their own health and safety as well
as others.
 To use safety and protective equipment correctly.
 To maintain all safety and protective equipment.
 Report all safety hazards.
 Report any accident or injury which arises in the course with their work.

2.1.9 Housekeeping
Characteristic of good housekeeping
1. Keep waste to a minimum

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2. Floors will be well cleaned
3. Equipment is well maintained
4. Storage well organised.

Results of Good Housekeeping

1. Eliminating unnecessary injuries
2. Prevents equipment damage
3. Increase in morale
4. Increase in production

Results of Poor Housekeeping

1. Equipment damage
2. Lost production time
3. Poor Morale
4. Personal Injuries

As an employee you should know how your action affects others and the steps you will take to
make your work place a safe place. Your work place should contain materials only needed for
the job. A build up of rags, wood, paper and wood should not be allowed to accumulate because
they are fire hazards.

Example of Housekeeping Practices

1. Spills should be cleaned immediately to avoid somebody slipping on it. If it cannot be
cleaned immediately cordon off the area and place a warning sign.
2. Rags used to clean oils should be disposed off properly. They should be put in metal
containers and disposed off at the end of each shift.
3. All electric wires must be inspected for faulty wire
4. Never overload an electrical circuit
5. Never store anything on top of circuit boxes
6. Clean all tools and store them (arrange them) in a toolbox after completing a job.
7. Report any safety hazards to your supervisor immediately.
8. Stairs and walkways should be clear of any objects.
9. Cordon off work area, which will be littered with tools as you work.
10. Stored items must be stacked securely and must not obstruct the flow of traffic or personnel
11. Flammable liquids must be in safe care
12. Small amounts of flammable liquids must be stored in a safe place according to safe
working practices procedures.
13. All emergency exits and access to fire extinguishers must be clear from obstruction.
14. Cables lying in pathways must be secured to the ground with tape so that they will not be
tripping hazards.

Always Keep in Mind a Clean Workplace is a Safe Workplace

Seven Rules on Good Housekeeping
1. If you open it, close it.
2. If you unlock it, lock it.
3. If you block it, clear it.

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4. If you borrow it, return it.
5. If you make a mess, clean it up
6. If you use it, take care of it
7. If you see it, take responsibility for it.

Rules on Hand Safety

1. Use the correct tool the right way
2. Clamp down on your work when drilling
3. Do not use your hand as a tool – important
4. Do not use a knife as a screw driver
5. Do not exert too much pressure on tools and particularly on a knife
6. When using a knife, do not cut towards yourself.
7. When using a knife, make sure you have a solid footing.

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3.0 Fire Fighting Procedures
3.1 The Development of Fire
Fire is a chemical reaction brought about by the combining of fuel, oxygen and the application of
sufficient heat to cause ignition.

Definition of combustion: A rapid oxidation processes accompanied by the emission of heat and
light. In order for combustion to take place and to be maintained, three elements must be present
namely:

OXYGEN Approximately 16%

FUEL Solids (Wood, Paper, Plastic, Rubber), Liquids (Gasoline, Kerosene, Paint),
Gasses (Natural gas, Propane, Acetylene)
HEAT Open flame, hot surfaces, Sparks from Grinding or Welding

The "Triangle of Fire" is a simple representation of the three factors necessary for ignition:

Triangle of Fire

When these three (03) factors are brought together a fire will start. By removing any one of
these factors, combustion cannot be sustained and therefore the fire will be
extinguished. Fires can therefore be extinguished by doing one or more of the following:

Removal of the fuel - starvation or deprivation

Trying to remove the fuel or burning matter physically can be very dangerous, always
be careful when trying to remove the burning matter.
In certain cases it could be as simple as closing a valve as in the case of fuel or gas.
Other methods of starvation can be fire breaks, removing the burning material from the
fire.

Removal of heat - cooling

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The method of cooling down a fire is the most common practice of extinguishing a fire
and water is used most of the time. Water can absorb a lot of heat and by turning into
steam it expand and displaces the air (oxygen) needed for combustion.

Removal of oxygen - starvation

The third method of extinguishing fires is to remove the oxygen. This can be done by
throwing sand onto the fire, covering it with a fire blanket or just by simply closing a door
if the fire is inside a room.
These methods form the basis of all successful fire fighting procedures.

1. Ignition Points
Although oxygen is a requirement in fire development, it must be remembered that
some materials can burn without any external supply of oxygen. These are known as
oxidizing agents and are substances which contain excess oxygen in their molecular
structure, oxygen may be partially or completed released on decomposition. Since
oxygen is not principal supporter of combustion, oxidizing agents involved in a fire will:
 Accelerate the development and intensity of a fire
 Increase the combustibility of many substances that do not readily burn in air
 Lower the ignition temperatures of substances such that, materials which readily absorb
oxygen may react with explosive violence.

2. Flash point
This is the minimum temperature at which, in a specific test, the liquid gives off sufficient vapor
to produce a flash on application of the ignition source specified in the test. The higher the flash
point of a liquid the less hazardous it is, for example:
 Liquids with a flash point below 32° C are defined as HIGHLY FLAMMABLE
 Liquids with a flash point of 55° C are regarded as FLAMMABLE
 The material will only burn as long as the source of heat is applied.

3. Ignition or Fire Point

This is the minimum temperature at which flammable liquid gives off sufficient fuel vapor
to ignite upon application of an ignition source, and to sustain combustion after its'
removal.

4. Auto Ignition / Spontaneous Ignition Point

This is the temperature at which a liquid will ignite without the presence of an external
ignition source. This temperature is generally higher than the ignition temperature.
Another practical example of this is where a chip pan overheats and ignites. Auto
ignition temperatures are comparatively high, in the region of 200 – 600° C.

5. Growth
The first stage of a fire can last for minutes or hours depending upon the flammability of
the material first ignited.
Once past this first stage, provided that the supply of fuel and oxygen is maintained,
growth is likely to be rapid. Therefore it is critical to keep fire doors closed at all times, to
prevent oxygen from fuelling the fire and spreading to other rooms.

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However, if the fire occurs in a room where the oxygen supply is not maintained e.g.
where doors and windows are closed, the fire will die down and go out after consuming
the available oxygen supply.
Never open windows and doors if there is a fire in a room, this will fuel the fire with more
oxygen.

3.2 Main Causes of Fire

 Open flames (Fires, Smoking)
 Hot Surfaces (Heaters, stoves)
 Electrical Faults (Overloading, Switching off, Bad maintenance of apparatus)
 Welding and Gas Cutting (Flame, Sparks, Molten metal)
 Mechanical Heat and Grinding (Machining, Sparks)
 Static Electricity
 Chemical Reaction (Lime)
 Friction
 Lightning

3.3 Classes of Fire

Fires are classified by which means it can be extinguisher.

CLASS MATERIAL FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Wood
Paper Water
A
Textiles C02
Solids
Flammable Liquids C02
Petrol Foam
B
Oil Dry Powder
Paint
Class A Or B Where C02
C Electrical Equipment/ Dry Powder
Electricity Is Present
Metals
Sodium Water
D
Magnesium Dry Powder

Fires involving cooking oils Wet chemical

E
and fats Fire blanket

Sand can also be used in all the cases if it is available.

3.4 Colour Coding for Fire Extinguishers

3.4.1 Red -Water
Red colored fire hose reels and hydrant systems are placed closely to fire hazards.
Water is known as the best extinguishing medium due to its great ability to rapidly

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absorb a vast amount of heat. Normally water is more readily available from rivers, dams etc
than most other mediums.
Water must never be used for electrical fires or if you suspect there is electricity
present, as it is a conductor of electricity.

3.4.2 Red with a black band – CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)

It is a gas which smothers the flames by displacing the oxygen in the air. The gas is non toxic,
but can asphyxiate (suffocate, smother, choke) persons in a confined space. It does not conduct
electricity, therefore it is suitable to use on live electrical equipment.

3.4.3 Red with a white band - Dry Powder

Dry powder is highly effective on flammable fires. The powder extinguishes by smothering,
cooling and removal of radiated heat. The powder is non toxic, but breathing in a powder filled
room may be difficult and vision will be minimal.

3.4.4 Cream - Foam

It is classified as high, medium and low expansion foams. It forms a "blanket" over the
surface of the burning liquid and smothers the fire by excluding oxygen.
Because the foam is a mixture of water and chemicals, it should not be used on
electrical fires.

3.4.5 Other
Sand - can be used on almost all fires, as long as it is dry it can also be used on electrical fires.
Blanket - Can be used especially when a fire has just started. Throw the blanket over the flames,
to smother the flames excluding oxygen.
Do not use for covering humans. The blanket retains heat and will stick to burnt flesh, use a
normal blanket instead. Check the color coding in your area, codes can vary from different
countries

3.5 Fire Prevention

Fires can be prevented by following a few basic guidelines:
Good housekeeping
 Sweep rubbish away and remove it daily
 Keep combustible materials away from buildings
 Do not accumulate unwanted waste

Flammable Liquids
 Store flammable liquids in containers designed for the purpose
 Handle them away from combustible sources
 Obey "NO SMOKING" signs in these areas

Electrical
 Rectify electrical faults immediately (Only by qualified personnel)
 Do not overload circuits
 Switch off main switches when appliances are not in use
 Electrical appliances be tested and inspected at regular intervals

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Cutting and Welding
 Strict supervision in areas where welding and other "HOT" work is done
 Stop production in a danger zone where this work is done
 Inspect these areas after work is completed

General
 All personnel be trained to use basic fire fighting equipment
 Fire training should be carried out regularly
 Emergency plans must be pre planned and practiced regularly
 Know your hazards and try to eliminate them

3.6 How to Inspect the Fire Extinguishers

 Know the locations of the fire extinguishers, Hose Reels and Hydrants around your work
area
 Check the plastic seal holding the safety pin in place - has it been tampered with?
 Look at the gauge, is the needle pointing in the Green - Full, Red to the left –Pressure down
 CO2 Extinguisher should be weighed to check the contents
 Report any damage or missing fire extinguishers immediately to the Supervisor

3.7 Action when Discovering a Fire

 when a fire is noticed , sound an alarm
 Contact the ERT Team / Supervisor on shift
 If you are unable to extinguish the flames, wait for help
 Do not be hasty, small mistakes can cost lives
 Disconnect the power supplies, i.e. Air conditioners
 Do not open windows and doors, before you are certain to what is burning
 Use the correct fire extinguisher

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