Course: MC591 Robotics

Topic: Introduction to robotics

The Copperbelt University

School of Engineering
Mechanical Department

January 2022 For internal use only

Learning outcomes
On completing this lecture, students should be able to:
• Determine the degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• Determine the degrees of freedom of a robot
• Explain the importance of capacity and speed in manipulator design
• Calculate the reach and stroke of various manipulators
• Explain repeatability, precision and accuracy.
• Calculate the repeatability, precision and accuracy of a manipulator
Content
1. Configuration space
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
3. Degrees of a robot
4. Capacity and speed
5. Reach and stroke
6. Repeatability, precision and accuracy
1. Configuration space
• A robot is mechanically constructed by connecting a set of bodies, called links, to each other using various
types of joints. Actuators, such as electric motors, deliver forces or torques that cause the robot’s links to
move. Usually an end-effector, such as a gripper or hand for grasping and manipulating objects, is attached
to a specific link. All the robots considered in this book have links that can be modeled as rigid bodies.
• Perhaps the most fundamental question one can ask about a robot is, where is it? The answer is given by the
robot’s configuration: a specification of the positions of all points of the robot.

• Would you manage to label every point of the robot and specify where
each point lies in space? If you could, that would be its configuration.
• Since the robot’s links are rigid and of a known shape, only a few numbers
are needed to represent its configuration. Therefore, when asked to provide
a robot’s configuration only a few representative points are enough to
to describe its configuration.
• The n-dimensional space containing all possible configurations of the robot is
called the configuration space (C-space). The configuration of a robot is
represented by a point in its C-space.
1. Configuration space
• Can you determine the configuration of a door?
• It is easy, a door is hinged on one end and swings about the hinge when being
opened or closed. All you need to know the configuration of the door, is the
angular displacement about an axis of rotation passing through its hinged end.

• How about a point on a plane? How would you specify its configuration on the plane?
• We know that a plane can be referenced using x and y-axes. To locate a point on the
plane all we need is an (x,y) coordinates.

• How about a coin? How many numbers do you need to fully specify its configuration
on a plane?
• Firstly, you need to find its position relative to the x- and y- axes using (x,y) coordinates
then determine the orientation of the coin. The face on the coin can point in numerous
directions. Say we measure this angle counterclockwise with x-axis as reference. It means,
we need three numbers to fully specify the configuration of the coin (x, y, 𝜃).
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• The number of degrees of freedom (dof) of a robot is the smallest number of real-valued coordinates
needed to represent its configuration.
• Activity: Determine the number of degrees of freedom for the foregoing door, point and coin configurations.

• Let us dig deeper into the example involving the coin. Say, you mark three points A, B and C on one face as
shown below.

• Let us attach an x-y coordinate frame to the coin’s plane and follow a systematic process of determine the
dof of the coin on a plane.
1. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• Assign the points A, B, and C coordinates (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 ), (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 ) and (𝑥𝐶 , 𝑦𝐶 ).

• If the points could be placed independently anywhere in the plane, the coin would have six degrees of
freedom- two for each of the three points. But, according to the definition of a rigid body, the distance
between point A and point B, denoted d(A, B), is always constant regardless of where the coin is. Similarly,
the distances d(B, C) and d(A, C) must be constant.
• The following equality constraints on the coordinates (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 ), (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 ) and (𝑥𝐶 , 𝑦𝐶 ) must therefore always
be satisfied:
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body

• To determine the number of degrees of freedom of the coin on the table, first choose the position of point A
in the plane.
• We may choose it to be anything we want, so we have two degrees of freedom to specify, namely (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 ).
• Once (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 ) is specified, the constraint d(A, B) = 𝑑𝐴𝐵 restricts the choice of (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 ) to those points on the
circle of radius 𝑑𝐴𝐵 centered at A.
• A point on this circle can be specified by a single parameter, e.g., the angle specifying the location of B on
the circle centered at A.
• Let’s call this angle 𝜃𝐴𝐵 and define it to be the angle that the vector 𝐴𝐵 makes with the x-axis.
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body

• Once we have chosen the location of point B, there are only two possible locations for C: at the intersections
of the circle of radius 𝑑𝐴𝐶 centered at A and the circle of radius 𝑑𝐵𝐶 centered at B.
• That is, make A a centre and describe a circle whereby the radius is 𝑑𝐴𝐶 . Take note of the circle.
• Then let go of point A and hold down point C, describe a circle where the radius is 𝑑B𝐶 .
• Having noted both circles, the point of intersection of the two circles is where both equality
constraints 𝑑𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑B𝐶 place point C.
• Once you have decided where A should be then you have determined the angle at which B should be
relative to the x-axis, C is automatically fixed as there is no freedom to move point C when A and B are
held down. How many degrees of freedom does this coin have on a plane?
• There are two numbers (x,y) needed to specify A, one number 𝜃𝐴𝐵 to locate point B once A has been
defined. If A and B are known, you don’t need any independent variable to specify C – it is a given. Thus,
the coin has three degrees of freedom, specifiable by (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ) .
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• A quick way to determine the degrees of freedom of the foregoing coin is using the following equation:
Degrees of freedom(dof)= (sum of freedoms of the points used to specify an objects configuration)
−(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)
• If you have a system of equations, this could be:
Degrees of freedom(dof)= (number of variables) −(number of independent equations)

• Let us apply the first equation to the coin.

• We labeled the coin with three points A, B, and C whereby each can be independently specified using
two variables (x,y). Meaning there are six freedoms for the three points. The three points can be
constrained relative to each other by specifying the separations ‘d” between them. Three distances “d’
are sufficient to constrain the three points on a plane. Thus, there are three independent constraints.
• dof=6−3=3.
• The same number we found from the intuitive visualisation process we followed earlier.
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• This general rule can also be used to determine the number of freedoms of a rigid body in three dimensions.
• For example, assume our coin is no longer confined to the table. Let’s locate it in 3D space.

• The coordinates of each point is space can now be specified as (𝑥𝐴 , 𝑦𝐴 , 𝑧𝐴 ), (𝑥𝐵 , 𝑦𝐵 , 𝑧𝐵 ) and (𝑥𝐶 , 𝑦𝐶 , 𝑧𝐶 )
• Point A can be placed freely in space with three degrees of freedom.
• The location of point B is subject to the constraint d(A, B) = 𝑑𝐴𝐵 , meaning it must lie on the sphere of
radius 𝑑𝐴𝐵 centered at A.
• Thus, we have 3-1 = 2 freedoms to specify, which can be expressed as the latitude and longitude for the
point on the sphere.
• Finally, the location of point C must lie at the intersection of spheres centered at A and
B of radius 𝑑𝐴𝐶 and 𝑑𝐵𝐶 , respectively.
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• The location of point B is subject to the constraint
d(A, B) = 𝑑𝐴𝐵 , meaning it must lie on the sphere of radius
𝑑𝐴𝐵 centered at A.
• Thus, we have 3-1 = 2 freedoms to specify, which can be
expressed as the latitude and longitude for the point on
the sphere.
• Point B can be specified on the surface of the sphere by
latitudes and longitudes ( two dof).
• How can we locate the third point, C?

•
2. Degrees of freedom of a rigid body
• In the general case the intersection of two spheres
is a circle, and the location of point C can be
described by an angle that parametrizes this circle.
• Point C therefore adds 3 - 2 = 1 freedom. Once the
position of point C is chosen, the coin is fixed in
space.
• In summary, a rigid body in three-dimensional
space has six freedoms, which can be described by
the three coordinates parametrizing point A, the
two angles parametrizing point B, and one angle
parametrizing point C, provided A, B, and C are
noncollinear.
• Can you use the formula?
• dof=9-3=6.
•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot
• Consider once again the door example, consisting of a single rigid body connected to a wall by a hinge joint.
From the previous slides we know that the door has only one degree of freedom, conveniently represented
by the hinge joint angle 𝜃.
• Without the hinge joint, the door would be free to move in three-dimensional space and would have six
degrees of freedom. By connecting the door to the wall via the hinge joint, five independent constraints are
imposed on the motion of the door, leaving only one independent coordinate 𝜃.
• Can you determine via intuitive visualisation what the five constraints imposed on the door are?
• Alternatively, the door can be viewed from above and regarded as a planar body, which has three degrees of
freedom. The hinge joint then imposes two independent constraints, again leaving only one independent
coordinate (θ). The door’s C-space is represented by some range in the interval [0, 2π) over which θ is allowed
to vary.
• In both cases the joints constrain the motion of the rigid body, thus reducing the overall degrees of freedom.
This observation suggests a formula for determining the number of degrees of freedom of a robot, simply by
counting the number of rigid bodies and joints.
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot • Every joint connects exactly two links; joints that
simultaneously connect three or more links
are not allowed.
• The revolute joint (R), also called a hinge joint,
allows rotational motion about the joint axis.
• The prismatic joint (P), also called a sliding or
linear joint, allows translational (or rectilinear)
motion along the direction of the joint axis.
• The helical joint (H), also called a screw joint,
allows simultaneous rotation and translation
about a screw axis.
• Revolute, prismatic, and helical joints all have one
degree of freedom.
• The cylindrical joint (C) has two degrees of
freedom and allows independent translations and
rotations about a single fixed joint axis.
• The universal joint (U) is another two-degree of-
freedom joint that consists of a pair of revolute
joints arranged so that their joint axes are
orthogonal.
• The spherical joint (S), also called a ball-and-
socket joint, has three degrees of freedom and
functions much like our shoulder joint.
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot
• A joint can be viewed as providing freedoms to allow one rigid body to move relative to another. It can also be
viewed as providing constraints on the possible motions of the two rigid bodies it connects. For example, a
revolute joint can be viewed as allowing one freedom of motion between two rigid bodies in space, or it can be
viewed as providing five constraints on the motion of one rigid body relative to the other.
• Generalizing, the number of degrees of freedom of a rigid body (three for planar bodies and six for spatial
bodies) minus the number of constraints provided by a joint must equal the number of freedoms provided by
that joint .
• The number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism with links and joints can be calculated using Grübler’s
formula, which is an expression of the following equation.
• 𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 𝑚 𝑁 − 1 − 𝐽 + σ𝐽𝑖=1 𝑓𝑖
•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot
• Consider a mechanism consisting of N links, where ground is also regarded as a link. Let J be the number of
joints, m be the number of degrees of freedom of a rigid body (m = 3 for planar mechanisms and m = 6 for
spatial mechanisms), 𝑓𝑖 be the number of freedoms provided by joint i, and 𝑐𝑖 be the number of constraints
provided by joint i, where 𝑓𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖 = m for all i. Then Grubler’s formula can be derived as follows.

• Degrees of freedom(dof)= (sum of freedoms of the points used to specify an objects configuration)
−(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠)

•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot

•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot

Fig(a) Fig(b)
• Find the number of degrees of freedom for the following planar mechanisms [6 Marks].
Degrees of freedom for mechanism in fig(a):
N=4 links (The ground include!)
J=4 Joints
m=3 (as the body is planar)
𝑓𝑖 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 ∗ 4 − 1 − 4 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 ∗ −1 + 4 = −3 + 4 = 1
Therefore, the mechanism has one degree of freedom.
•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot

Fig(a) Fig(b)
Find the number of degrees of freedom for the following planar mechanisms [6 Marks].
Degrees of freedom for mechanism in fig(b):
N=4 links (The ground include!)
J=4 Joints (3 revolute and one prismatic joint)
m=3 (as the body is planar)
𝑓1 = 1 , 𝑓2 = 1, 𝑓3 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓4 = 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑓.
𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 3 ∗ 4 − 1 − 4 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 ∗ −1 + 4 = −3 + 4 = 1
Therefore, the mechanism has one degree of freedom.
•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot

Fig(c)
Find the number of degrees of freedom for the following planar mechanisms [4 Marks].
Degrees of freedom for mechanism in fig(b):
N=4 links (The ground include. A revolute joint connects base (link 0) to link 1, then prismatic joint 1 connects link
1 to link2 in the vertical direction, prismatic joint 2 connects final link 4 to the vertical link 3)
J=3 Joints (1 revolute and 2 prismatic joint)
m=6 (as the body is spatial)
𝑓1 = 1 , 𝑓2 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓3 = 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑓.
𝑑𝑜𝑓 = 6 ∗ 4 − 1 − 3 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 6 ∗ 0 + 3 = 0 + 3 = 3.
Therefore, the mechanism has three degrees of freedom. Can you identify them from the diagram?
4. Capacity and speed
• The load capacity of a manipulator depends upon the sizing of its structural members, power-transmission
system, and actuators. The load placed on actuators and drive system is a function of the configuration of the
robot, the percentage of time supporting a load, and dynamic loading due to inertial- and velocity-related
forces.
• Load carrying capacity varies greatly from a few hundred Kgs (3-400 Kgs) to a few grams (0.2-0.5 Kgs).
• An obvious goal in design has been for faster and faster manipulators. High speed offers advantages in many
applications when a proposed robotic solution must compete on economic terms with hard automation or human
workers. For some applications, however, the process itself limits the speed rather than the manipulator. This is
the case with many welding and spray-painting applications.
• An important distinction is that between the maximum end-effector speed and the overall cycle time for a
particular task. For pick-and-place applications, the manipulator must accelerate and decelerate to and from the
pick and place locations within some positional accuracy bounds. Often, the acceleration and deceleration
phases take up most of the cycle time. Hence, acceleration capability, not just peak speed, is very important.
• The maximum tool speed also varies substantially from a few mm/s to a few m/s.
5. Reach and stroke
• The reach and stroke of a robot are rough guides to its work envelope.
• Horizontal reach
Defined as maximum radial distance of the wrist mounting
flange from the vertical axis about which the robot rotates.

• Horizontal Stroke
This is the total radial distance the wrist can travel.

• Vertical reach
The maximum elevation above the work surface that the wrist
mounting flange can reach.

• Vertical Stroke
The total vertical distance that the wrist can travel.
6. Repeatability, precision and accuracy
• Repeatability: the ability to position the tool in a previously taught position repeatedly (depends on gear
backlash and link rigidity).

•
6. Repeatability, precision and accuracy
• Precision: a measure of a spatial resolution with which the tool can be positioned (i.e. the minimum possible
distance the robot can move in one direction).

• B -denotes the next closest position to which the tool can move.

• Accuracy is a measure of the ability of a robot to position itself on an arbitrary and previously undefined point
in space. A simple bound can be placed on the error (i.e. inaccuracy) in terms of the precision.
6. Repeatability, precision and accuracy
• Accuracy is a measure of the ability of a robot to position itself on an arbitrary and previously undefined point
in space. A simple bound can be placed on the error (i.e. inaccuracy) in terms of the precision.

• The largest acceptable error in attempting to position the robot between A and B is the distance between 𝑋1
and B, or 𝑋1 and A .
• 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ≤ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
6. Repeatability, precision and accuracy
Precision in a cylindrical robot
• The horizontal precision depends on the radial precision δr and the angular precision rδφ.

• Total horizontal precision can be found by:

• Precision is worst at maximum reach when r = Rmax (i.e. r = horizontal reach)

• Whereas the best precision can be attained at minimum reach when r = Rmin (i.e. Η. Reach - Η. Stroke).
6. Repeatability, precision and accuracy
Precision in a cylindrical robot
• If δz is the vertical precision of the robot, then the overall precision is: δ𝑂 = (𝛿𝑟)2 +(𝑟𝛿𝜑)2 +(𝛿𝑧)2
• This is the worst case because of r = Rmax .

• Precision can be specified for each individual joint of the robot and is then expressed as the load shaft
precision.

• Where n is the number of bits of the D/A converter.

• 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 are maximum and minimum joint positions.
• Incremental encoders give another method to find precision. If the encoder has k slots and d emitter/detector
pairs then the incremental lead shaft position is:

• Where m is the is the gear ratio (m:1), and

7. Tutorial
1. A cylindrical-coordinate robot has a vertical reach of 480mm and a vertical stroke of 300mm. How far do
parts have to be raised so as to be reachable? [4 Marks]
2. What is the worst-case overall precision of a cylindrical robot with a maximum reach of 400mm, maximum
stroke 150mm, a minimum angular displacement of 0.15 degrees, radial precision 0.5mm, and vertical
precision 0.3mm. When would the manipulator have overall precision of a) 1mm, b) 0.9mm, and c) 0.8mm?
[6 marks]

3. What is the minimum number of axes a robot needs to insert and tighten four nuts on four vertical bolts on a
metal plate as shown in the figure opposite? The nuts are supplied through a vertical spring-activated feeder.
Explain the action of each axis. How does the situation change if the nuts were to be placed on a metal plate
which is on a vertical plane? [6 Marks]
7. Tutorial
4. A cylindrical robot is driven by 3 digital-to-analog converters (DACs), each converter has 4-bits. The base of
the robot has a range of 360 degrees. The radial axis has a horizontal reach and stroke of 300mm and 200mm
respectively. The vertical axis has vertical reach and stroke of 480mm and 360mm respectively. Evaluate:
a) The volume of the work envelope
b) The vertical precision
c) The radial precision
d) The angular precision about the base.
e) The horizontal precision.
f) The total precision.
g) What would happen if we double the number of bits in the DACs?

[8 Marks]

5. An incremental shaft encoder with 12 slots and 2 emitter-detector pairs is used to measure the angular velocity
of a high-speed motor shaft. The precision of the load shaft is measured and found to be 0.05 degrees/count.
Determine the gear ratio between the motor shaft and the load shaft. [2 Marks]
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot
•
6. Find the number of degrees of freedom for the following
planar mechanisms [6 Marks].

•
3. Degrees of freedom of a robot
•
7. Find the number of degrees of freedom for the following
planar mechanisms [4 Marks].