Lessons for 4808

1.1 Start Here

By the time you complete this study unit, you should be able to define and explain the
following terms:

 Dose, response and dose-response relationship

 Hazard
 Risk
 Risk Assessment and Risk management
 Environmental Management System and Environmental Auditing

1.2 Practical

 Have you ever heard of the expression "A dose of medicine"?

 What does the term dose mean? Write down your understanding of the word.

What do you understand by the word hazard? Write your meaning down.

What is risk? Write your meaning down.

Now proceed to read my definitions of the terms. As you read, try to compare
the definitions presented here with your own definitions.

1.3 Dose

From an environmental perspective, human beings could be exposed to varieties of

compounds that are toxic to their health. However, the extent of exposure determines
the level of harm that might be caused. Hence, the amount of the toxin or
contaminant enters the body as a result of the exposure is referred to as the dose.
Furthermore, the magnitude of the dose is a function of the amount of the chemical in
the medium of contact, the rate of contact with the medium, the route of exposure and
other factors.
There is also a blurred line between dose and Exposure. the same amount of exposure
could result in different doses.

Any condition which provides an opportunity for an external environmental agent to

enter the body is described as exposure. Dose is important in developing standards in
many fields, including health and environmental sciences. Some toxicologists believe
that all substances are poisons and it is the right DOSE that differentiates a poison
from a remedy. This belief led to the development of the safe dose level. To
understand this better, please go to this
link https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1943815X.2011.597769. The
document titled Trends and challenges in risk assessment of environmental
contaminants will give you more understanding of the safe dose level.

There are three kinds of doses:

1. The external dose is also referred to as the intake. A typical example of this
would be the discharge of effluents by a wastewater treatment plant into a
stream. The total amount of contaminant in the effluent (microbes, chemicals
etc) would in this case be the external dose.
2. The internal dose is what is available or absorbed by the system. In the
example above, the contaminants present in the effluent such as exist in
different forms and some are not available for absorption by aquatic species.
The bioavailable form is what is referred to as the internal dose. This is what
organisms are able to take up in their system. Plants for example are exposed
to a number of chemicals in the soils but only the bioavailable fraction of the
chemical is taken up by the plant. This available fraction is what is referred to
as the internal dose.
3. The tissue dose refers to the amount of substance that is present in a specific
tissue. When plants take up contaminants from the soil, these are translocated
to various tissues. If you are able to analyze say the leaves, the amount of
contaminants found in the leaf is what is referred to as the tissue dose. In the
case of humans and plants, when exposed to contaminants, the contaminant
migrates from the route of exposure to various organs like the lungs, heart etc.
These organs also have different abilities to absorb these different
 contaminants. The amount or dose of the substance that is found in a specific
tissue is what causes the tissue to respond in a particular manner.

Dose is influence by magnitude, frequency and duration.

There is also what is known as the threshold dose? What do you think this dose refers
to?

1.4 Response

Response on the other end is the reaction exhibited by the organisms upon exposure
to a pollutant. The response can vary from no effect to death depending on the dose
of the substance to which the organism is exposed.

Response could be adaptive or adverse. Adverse effects include changes in the

morphology, physiology, growth, development, reproduction or life span of an
organism that results in impairment in functional capacity. The major kinds of
responses include.

 Quantal response which refers to response that is either observed or not

observed for each dose.
 Counts which relate to a discrete number of items measured in a single
experiment
 Continuous measure which refer to quantitative measurements associated
with individual subjects and can take any value within a defined range.
 Ordinal measures which could take on one value from as small set of ordered
values e.g, severity grades as used in pollution load index

Response is also species and or tissue specific and varies from one individual to
another in terms of degree.

1.5 Dose -Response relationship

Dose response relationships are used to determine the concentration at which a

chemical can cause detrimental effects. Dose response studies are used to define the
safety or hazardous levels of compounds. it can also be described as the correlative
relationship between the exposure to a chemical and the spectrum of effects caused
by the chemical.

Dose-response relationship rely on the concept that a dose, or a time of exposure (to
a chemical, drug, or toxic substance), will cause an effect (response) on the exposed
organism. Usually, the larger or more intense the dose, the greater the response, or
the effect. This is the meaning behind the statement “the dose makes the poison

All three kinds of doses and the different categories of response can be used in the
evaluation of dose -response relationship. Dose response relationships are expressed
using a graph called the dose response curve. There are two types of dose-response
curves: one that describes the graded responses of an individual to varying doses of
the chemical and one that describes the distribution of responses to different doses in
a population of individuals. The dose is represented on the x-axis. The response is
represented on the y-axis. Can you explain how this differs?

Dose–response relationships vary with age and nutritional status, environmental

influences, functional status of organs of excretion, concomitant disease, and various
combinations of factors. This is for human. What do you think are some of the factors
that could affect dose response relationship in the environmental context? for
example? What will affect the dose-response relationship of a whole river ecosystem
to effluent discharge? what about the plants and fish in the river?

When we read about dose in the previous paragraphs? the phrase threshold dose was
mentioned? did you find out what this dose referred to? It is simply the dose below
which the harmful of adverse effect of a substance are not seen. This dose is very
important in the establishment of maximum acceptable concentrations of substances
in soil, water air and various food substances.

1.6 Hazards

Hazards generally refer to anything that can cause harm. We experience and deal
with hazards everyday of our lives some of which include driving, engaging in sporting
activities etc. However, with experience, and as we grow, we tend to learn about, and
develop the ability to identify hazards. Hazards are grouped into physical
hazards such as electrical hazards (frayed cords, improper wiring),
dangerous/malfunctioning machinery, constant loud noise etc which can cause injury,
illness and death; biological hazards which could result from contact with disease
animals, people with infections, working in hospitals, veterinary laboratories etc
and chemical hazards such as exposure to chemicals at home or workplace.
Examples of these chemicals are liquids like cleaning products, paints, acids, toxic
solvents, vapours and fumes, gases like acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide and
helium.

1.7 Risk and Risk Assessment

Risk is a concept that denotes a potential negative impact to an asset or some

characteristic of value that may arise from some present process or future event. It is
the likelihood or probability that the toxic properties of a chemical will be produced in
population of individuals under their actual conditions of exposure. It is also the
probability that a hazard might result into a disaster. Risks can be reduced or managed
by applying good environmental practice, hence risk management help prevent
disasters. It is the probability that an individual will suffer an adverse effect as a result
of exposure to a hazard.

Risks can be described as known or unknown. Known risks refer to those than can be
uncovered after careful evaluation of a project, business or technical environment.
Known risks can be estimated from historical information or mitigated by management
techniques.

Risk Assessment could be defined as the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of

the risk posed to human health and/or the environment by the actual or potential
presence and/or use of specific pollutants or as a qualitative or quantitative evaluation
of the environmental and/or health risk resulting from exposure to a chemical or
physical agent (pollutant); combines exposure assessment results with toxicity
assessment results to estimate risk or as the overall process of using available
information to predict how often hazards or specified events may occur (likelihood)
and the magnitude of their consequences while Risk management is a structured
approach to managing uncertainty related to a threat. It is also a sequence of human
activities encompassing risk assessment, development of strategies and mitigation of
risk using managerial resources. The strategies include risk avoidance, risk reduction
and others. it gives one an idea of the probability that a person, or an environment will
suffer and what the suffering will be.

Risk assessment addresses three main aspects

1. What can go wrong?

2. How likely is it that something will go wrong
3. If things do go wrong, what are the consequences?

In an endeavor to answer these questions, the process of risk assessment identifies

the hazards and risk factors that can cause harm, it analyses and evaluates the risk
associated with the hazard and determines appropriate ways to eliminate the hazard
or to control the risk when the hazard cannot be eliminated.

Risk assessment is carried out in the following fields

 Physical sciences: geology, physical geography, meteorology, climatology,

hydrology, oceanography
 Life sciences: epidemiology, toxicology, medical geography, biogeography,
ecology, zoology, botany
 Social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology, human geography,
health geography, political science, economics
 Applied sciences:
o Physical: structural engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering
o Life: medicine, nursing, veterinary medicine, forensics
o Social: ergonomics; public health; urban, environmental, and regional
planning; social workers

Examples of risk assessment could include the following

 determining how pesticide affects bees, birds, butterflies in orchard where they
have been applied
 evaluating if a chemical contained in wastewater could cause adverse effects
to an organisms in the same environment
  recommending or rejecting a new pesticide by calculating its potential to
contaminate the soil

The importance of risk assessment include but not limited to the following:

 Create awareness of hazards and risk.

 Identify who may be at risk (e.g., employees, cleaners, visitors, contractors, the
public, etc.).
 Determine whether a control program is required for a particular hazard.
 Determine if existing control measures are adequate or if more should be done.
 Prevent injuries or illnesses, especially when done at the design or planning
stage.
 Prioritize hazards and control measures.
 Meet legal requirements where applicable

Risk assessment is becoming very handy in policy and regulation and is used in the
deigning of several standards and guidelines. For example,

 Societal acceptance levels of various aspects is used in the development of

environmental standards. The acceptance levels are established after careful
risk assessment to establish the levels at which negative effects begin to
manifest.
 Environmental risk assessment is also used for the determination of which
chemicals are to be regulated. In this instance, studies are undertaken to
establish the threshold dose for each contaminant so that the population is
made aware of the dangers of these chemical should those doses be exceeded.
This is actually the foundation of the establishment of maximum acceptable
concentration of hazardous compounds in various environmental materials.
 1.8 Risk Characterization
 Risk Characterization is defined as the qualitative and/or quantitative
description of the nature and often the magnitude of human risk, including
attendant uncertainty. It looks ate the nature and degree of risk under different
exposure conditions to a hazard. Through risk characterization, managers are
able to appropriate risk management options. As a result, risk characterization
 has been described as the bridge between risk assessment and risk
management.
 In the process of risk characterisation, information from exposure and toxicity
assessment are correlated to make statements about risk and the condition
under which this risk may occur. Hazard identification, dose-response
relationship, and exposure assessment are used to determine the probability
that there would be an adverse effect on the environment or human by a
substance In the risk characterisation phase of a risk assessment, modelled or
measured environmental concentrations are compared to toxicity values for
each environmental compartment to identify risk magnitude and probabilities.
Risk characterization is an integral part of risk assessment and is actually the
culminating step of the risk assessment process. This is because, unless you
characterise the assessment, the risk assessment is incomplete.
 Please visit the website; https://clu-
in.org/download/contaminantfocus/sediments/risk-characterization-
handbook.pdf
 On this website, you will find a handbook on risk characterization which
provides a lot of information that will assist you to understand risk
characterization

1.9 Environmental Management system, Environmental Auditing, and Environmental

Risk Assessment

Environmental Management System and Environmental Auditing: Environmental

auditing is the process of checking the compliance of an organisation with
environmental laws and regulations. More recently, it is used as an extremely valuable
tool for assessing organisational environmental management systems, policy, and
equipment. It provides the company with recommendations on how it can improve its
environmental management practices, and reduce the impact that the company is
having on the environment. In addition, improved environmental practices often save
money in the long run. Environmental audits can be conducted internally by staff of
the business concerned, or independently by experts.
Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA): Environmental Risk Assessment evaluates
the likelihood that adverse environmental effects may occur or are occurring as a result
of one or more stressors.

Remarks: It is generally important that you understand the meaning of these

terminologies that are widely used in environmental discussions and issues. These
will serve as the basis or pedestal on which your knowledge or comprehension of other
aspect of this module will be based.

Activity

For further understanding of the conceptual models of hazards read:

EPA (1998) pp 40 – 45. Find in folder under the Additional Resources tab.

 Find the article (Integrated Environmental Management Information Series:

Ecological Risk Assessment) by DEAT in the Additional Resources. Read the
case studies described in DEAT (2002) pp 27 –
33 (http://www.environment.gov.za/) for practical examples of assessment
outcomes, hypotheses, and conceptual model diagrams.
Quiz
1. Explain how the same amount of exposure could result in different doses?
2. Explain how MAGNITUDE, FREQUENCY and DURATION affect the dose to which a
plant, an animal or an individual is exposed to.
3. Explain how THRESHOLD DOSE is used to develop Environmental Standards
4. Read the article on the following website https://toxtutor.nlm.nih.gov/03-
002.html. After reading this article, please try to explain the factors that affect the
response of an organism to exposure to chemicals
5. What are the differences between risk characterization and Risk assessment
6. How can the concept of dose response relationship be applied in the
development of safety standards

Lesson 2

2.1 Aim of the Lesson

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

State the different groups of hazardous chemicals which human and wildlife are prone
to exposure.

 Explain and give examples of sources of both natural and synthetic chemicals.
 Discuss exposure pathway and exposure routes.

2.2 What are Hazardous Chemicals ?

Generally hazardous materials are classified into nine (9) different classes namely

1. Explosives
2. Gases
3. Flammable solids
4. Flammable liquids
5. Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
6. Radioactive material
7. Toxic and infectious substances
8. Corrosives
9. Miscellaneous hazardous materials

Chemicals are used in the production of a variety of products used in our everyday lives
and are therefore widely distributed in the environment. Whereas all hazardous
chemicals are considered as hazardous materials, not all hazardous materials
are chemicals. Chemicals are naturally occurring or manmade gaseous, liquid or solid
substances with a constant chemical composition and characteristic property. New
chemicals are introduced into the market everyday and so the list of chemicals is
dynamic. These chemicals are usually contained in commercial products and many other
materials used in everyday life. Whereas some of them are very useful, all of them could
be toxic if exposure doses exceed the threshold limit. health effects associated with
exposure to chemicals include poisoning, breathing problems, skin rashes, allergic
reactions and cancer among others. The extent of toxicity also varies with the exposure
route, which we will look at shortly. some hazardous chemical cause fires, explosions,
corrosion and hazardous reactions if not properly handled.

Generally chemicals are classified into broad groups based on their properties. Please
consult any basic chemistry text in the library or online to see the different kinds of
chemicals

A variety of Hazardous chemicals are found in the workplace and in our homes.
understanding their classification is necessary since most of them have a negative effect
on human health and may cause harm to property and the environment. Toxic chemicals
generally fall into one or more of the following groups

Radiation and radioactive materials

Radioactive substances are atoms that decay naturally. They can give off alpha particles,
beta particles and gamma radiation which cannot be turned off and so their control is
very difficult. Radioactive materials are used in producing many of the products we use
every day: plastic wrap, radial tires, coffee filters, and smoke detectors. Radioactive
materials are used for diagnostic radiology, radiation medicine, and
radiopharmaceuticals. Radiation hazards also exist wherever radioactive materials are
stored or radioactive waste products are discarded

Heavy metals

Heavy metals” are natural components of the Earth’s crust characterized by a high
atomic mass and high density of at least 5 g cm−3 . Examples include Pb, As, Hg, Cd, Co
Zn, Ag, Cu, Fe, Cr, Ni, Pd, and Pt. Some heavy metals like copper, and zinc are essential
trace elements, with indispensable functions for various biological processes. They also
drive the entire human metabolism. These metals are released into the environment
from both natural and anthropogenic sources such as industrial discharge, automobiles
exhaust, and mining, waste water sewage sludge etc. Their multiple industrial, domestic,
agricultural, medical and technological applications have led to their wide distribution in
the environment; raising concerns over their potential effects on human health and the
environment. Unlike organic pollutants, heavy metals are nonbiodegradable and have
the tendency to accumulate biological tissues. Most of them are known to be potential
carcinogens. Their toxicity depends on several factors including the dose, route of
exposure, and chemical species, as well as the age, gender, genetics, and nutritional
status of exposed individuals.

Solvents and Vapours

Solvents are substances which dissolve solids to produce a solution. Most solvents are
liquids, but they can also be gasses. Examples include, water, ethanol,
toluene, chloroform, acetone, milk. Most solvents are organic in nature. Most solvents
are combustible and often highly volatile. Some produce vapours which are heavier than
air. These are usually found on the floor. Solvents are classified as aqeous (water based)
or organic (hydrocarbon-based). According to Rajeswari, they could be broadly classified
as

 Cyclic hydrocarbons (e.g. Cyclohexane and turpentine)

 Straight or branched chains of hydrocarbon and hydrogen (e .g hexane and
heptane)
 Esters (e.g. Ethylacetate, isopropylacetate)
 Aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene, toulene, xylene
 Alcohols (e.g. Ethanol, isopropanol),
 Ketones (e.g. acetone, methyl ethyl ketone)
 Halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g. Carbon tetrachloride, Chloroform)
 aldehydes (e.g. acetaldehyde, formaldehyde)
 Ethers (e.g. diethyl ether, isopropyl ether)
 Glycols (e.g. Ethylene glycol, hexylene glycol)
 Nitro-hydrocarbons (e.g. Nitroethane, Nitromethane)

Solvents are used in several industrial processes, academic research, and in a large
section of economic activities worldwide. Their generally high vapor pressure allow for
easy dispersion in air, promoting contact with living organisms and the pollution of the
environment. Once released, there are numerous physical and chemical mechanisms
that will control how a solvent will move in the environment.

Dioxins and furans

Dioxins and furans refer to a group of substances with similar chemical structures which
are highly persistent in the environment. There are about 210 different dioxins and
furans. The most toxic of them all is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin or TCDD. The
toxicity of other dioxins and chemicals like PCBs that act like dioxin are measured in
relation to TCDD. Most dioxins and furans are not man-made or produced intentionally,
but are created when other chemicals such as herbicides or products such as paper are
made. They can be produced when products are burned. Dioxins can also be produced
from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions. Most dioxins are
introduced to the environment through the air. Dioxins and furans can cause a number
of health effects. About 90% of people's overall exposure to dioxins is estimated to be
from the diet. Meat, milk products and fish have higher levels of dioxins and furans than
fruit, vegetables and grains.

Pesticides and plant toxins

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as: Any substance or
mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest,
including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage,
transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or
animal feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to animals for the control of
insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies. This use of pesticides is so
common that the term pesticide is often treated as synonymous with plant protection
product.

There are many different types of pesticides grouped according to the specific pests they
kill. For example we have algaecides are used for killing and/or slowing the growth of
algae, Fungicides are used to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust etc.
they are also grouped according to hoe biodegradable they are. They could be
biodegradable which means they can be broken down by microbes and other living
beings or they could be persistent which means they could take months or years to
break down. They could also be classified according to their chemical forms such as
organophosphate, carbamate, organochlorines etc

Though each pesticide is meant to kill a certain pest, a very large percentage of
pesticides reach a destination other than their target. Instead, they enter the air, water,
sediments, and even end up in food. They have been linked with human health hazards,
from short-term impacts such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer,
reproductive harm.

Endocrine disruptive compounds

Endocrine disruptive compounds are exogenous substances or mixtures that alter the
functions of the endocrine system. They are present in household materials such as
plastics, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, metals, additives, canned food containers, plastic
food containers, and personal care products. The list of EDCs is extensive; but those that
have been reported in landfill leachate include the following families of chemicals:
Bisphenol A, phthalates, alkylphenol and heavy metals. Their behavior and fate in the
environment varies greatly with climatic zones, sources, matrix in which the EDCs are
present, chemical structure, its properties (solubility, adsorption) and soil
physicochemical properties, all of which relate to the breakdown rates, potential
distribution and persistence in soil, water and air. Endocrine Disruptive Compounds can
affect the typical functioning of the endocrine system in various ways. EDCs may mimic
natural hormones and bind irreversibly onto a receptor within the cell ‘fooling’ the body
into giving a signal which is stronger than would be obtained with a natural hormone or
making the body to respond at inappropriate times (Carserta et al. 2008).

There are many different kinds of chemicals. The above is a very brief description of some
of those with very negative environmental and human health impacts. Please read widely
on chemicals with environmental and human health impacts

These chemicals could also be classified based on the following:

 Effect on target organs (liver, kidney, hematopoietic system),

 Use (pesticide, solvent, food additive),
 Source of the agent (animal and plant toxins),
 Effects (cancer mutation, liver injury),
 Physical state (gas, dust, liquid),
 Labeling requirements (explosive, flammable, oxidizer),
 Chemistry (aromatic amine, halogenated hydrocarbon), or
 Poisoning potential (extremely toxic, very toxic, slightly toxic)

Each of these category comprise of many different chemicals. Please read about each of
these groups of chemicals and try to identify those among them that are commonly
encountered in our everyday lives.

examples of hazardous compounds include; Petrol, liquefied petroleum gas, welding

fumes, asbestos, flammable liquids, gases, corrosives, chemically reactive or acutely
(highly) toxic substances, paints, drugs, cosmetics, cleaning
chemicals, degreasers, detergents, refrigerant gases, pesticides, herbicides and diesel
fuel. the list could be extensive.

2.3 Sources of Hazardous Chemicals

As a result of technological and industrial development by man over the ages, several
anthropogenic chemicals are released into the environment. Many of these chemicals are
very toxic and hence threaten the lives of man and wildlife. Examples of these chemicals
include organochlorine pesticides such as DDT, Dioxins, phthalate esters, inorganic
metals such as cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As) etc. Unarguably, some chemicals have brought
tremendous benefits to the development and advancement of human societies through
their use in agriculture, healthcare, water and waste water treatment etc, some others are
unfortunately quite damaging to human and wildlife. During the production and
utilization processes, some of these toxic chemicals find their way into the environment
and could be transported several kilometres away from the point of release through air
and water. Major routes of entry of these chemicals into human body include oral
ingestion and absorption through the skin.

By the end of the 1990s, some 100,000 chemicals had been registered in the EU with the
European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances, but very little is known
about the toxicity of the majority of them. Only 14% of the highest production volume
chemicals have enough publicly available data to do even the most basic safety
assessment. To ensure that there is no dangerous contamination, chemicals must be
properly regulated and more safety information needs to be available. These chemicals
impact man and wildlife by causing ailments such as cancer, reproductive problems, and
damage to DNA etc in man while they cause decline and sometimes extinction of some
animal species e.g. decline in Canadian otter and other species have been recorded in
North America and Western Europe.

Natural chemicals are those that are found to exist in nature. A chemical could also be
regarded as naturally occurring if it is an unprocessed chemical. Living organisms
produce or contain millions of organic chemicals e.g. cellulose which is produced by
plants. Natural sources of organic compounds include the fossil fuels, natural gases,
petroleum and coal which are product from the decay of plants and animals. In addition,
all natural water contains a range of inorganic and organic chemicals mostly in trace
quantities. The inorganic chemicals are derived from the rocks and soil through which
water percolates or over which it flows; whereas the organic chemicals are derive from
the breakdown of plant material or from algae and other microorganisms growing in the
water or on sediments. natural chemicals are also produced as waste during various
industrial processes, waste decomposition processes and burning of fuels. Except under
very rare circumstances, the concentrations of naturally occurring chemicals present no
significant hazard. However, their accumulation over time especially in volcanic
environments may cause explosions which could present significant risk to man, property
and the environment. an example of such is the accumulation of carbon dioxide or
sulphur gases in crata lakes. The concentrations of hazardous chemicals produced during
industrial and decomposition processes are however usually above the naturally
occurring concentrations which is why they are regarded as hazardous.

Synthetic chemicals are generally regarded as man-made chemicals. Chemical synthesis

is the purposeful carrying out of chemical reactions in order to get a product or several
products. This occurs by physical and chemical manipulations involving one or more
reactions (Vogel et al., 1996). They are generally made from natural products but the
resulting structure may or may not be found in nature. Major classes of pollutants
(synthetic and natural) include ions (Zn, Pb, Hg), anions (nitrates, phosphates), organic
pollutants such as Hydrocarbons, PCBs, organochlorine pesticides, organophosphates,
pharmaceuticals and gaseous pollutants.

Recommendation

For further understanding of the requirements of the outcomes in study unit 2 above,
you should consult the following:

 The Recommended book "Calculated Risks" by J.V Rodricks.

 Aspects involving pathway and exposure routes, pps.21-27; 39-48.
 Aspects involving natural and synthetic chemicals could be found in pps. 14 - 18.
 Endeavor to read further elsewhere and provide your own explanations on these
concepts in your assignments.

2.4 Effects of hazardous chemical on man and the

environment
Many chemicals are used to improve the quality of life and if properly used, most of
them are harmless to the environment or human health. Most of them however have the
potential to cause harm in certain amounts. the desire to improve the quality of life has
resulted in many of these chemicals being used for various purposes. As a result,
individuals are exposed to these compounds more often than in the previous century.
Evidence from research shows that everyday exposure to chemicals could be playing a
significant role in the onset of health problems. The precise nature of effects is unclear in
some cases but in others, it is glaring. According to the UNEP report “Global Chemicals
Outlook” from September 2012 poisonings from industrial and agricultural chemicals
contribute to more than a million deaths every year worldwide. The harmful effects of
chemical substances depend on the toxicity and the exposure to that chemical. The level
of exposure depends on the concentration of the hazardous chemical and on the period
of contact time. Many substances do not give any warning by odour, even though they
may be present at dangerous concentrations in the workplace air. Health complications
commonly associated with chemicals include cancer, obesity, diabetes, thyroid function,
neurotoxicity, female and male reproductive health, behavioral abnormalities, genetic
mutations, physiological malfunctions etc.

Some of these effects are chronic requiring repeated exposure and involve a delay
between first exposure and appearance of adverse effect, whereas others are acute with
adverse effects appearing immediately after a short exposure. The effects could also be
temporary of permanent. It could also be dermal or systemic. Common chemicals with
health effects include solvents, fumes and gasses, metals, acids and bases, pesticides.
There are many others.
The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) has a lot of information on
the health effects of almost all chemicals. Please visit their website and have a look at the
TOXFAQs for the commonly used chemicals. The website
is https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/index.asp

The impacts of chemicals on the environment are equally devastating. They affect the
atmosphere, soil, vegetation and water and everything therein. During their manufacture,
use and disposal, chemicals are introduced into these different environmental media.
They can be transported by air, and water, and so they are widely distributed on the
earth’s surface. The effects of chemicals on the environment vary. For example, aquatic
organisms are killed by high concentrations of chemicals in lakes, rivers and streams.
Some cause explosions that result in fires which have affected many.

The effect on any specific environmental sector varies with several factors some of which
are natural. Changes in climate, especially changes in temperature is likely to affect the
stability and persistence of some of these chemicals in the environment. This would
affect the effect they will have on different environmental media. Increase or decrease in
precipitation may also affect the concentrations of these chemicals in different
environmental media. Both these climatic variables affect microbial population which are
very important in the breakdown and transformation of some of these chemicals. The
effects that chemicals have on the environment is therefore highly variable and affected
by several factors.

There are several documents online which highlight the impacts of various groups of
chemicals on the environment. Please read broadly on this and try to understand the
following:

 Effects of the different kinds of hazardous chemicals on the environment

 Human factors that influence the effects of these chemicals on human health. This
could include age, gender, weight and race etc)
 Human factors that influence the effect of these chemicals on the environment (use,
disposal)
 Natural factors which determine how an environment may be affected by
hazardous chemicals (climate, environmental media (plant, water, soil, air
2.5 Chemical Exposure and Exposure Routes
Exposure pathway, exposure route and duration of exposure play a significant role in
determining the response of a person to a given dose of any chemical or contaminant. In
some instances, dose-response relationships are directly related to the exposure route.
Figure 1 in additional resources illustrates the links among environmental media,
exposure media and exposure routes. According to Eisenberg and McKone, 1998., The
dispersion of chemicals among environmental media is primarily defined
by chemical and landscape parameters, whereas the transfer of chemicals along
exposure pathways is dependent on both environmental media concentrations and
human activity data (exposure factors).

Exposure pathway

An exposure pathway refers to the specific ways in which people might come in contact
with an environmental contamination or a hazardous substance. It is the link between an
environmental release and the local population. There are five elements of an exposure
pathway. These include the following

Element 1: The contaminant source or release. This refers to the origin of the
contaminant. In other words, where is the contaminant coming from .Contaminant
Sources may include industries, landfills, emission stacks and vents, open burning areas,
spills and many others which may release contaminants into various media.

Which are some of the contaminants released by these sources?

Include a list of other contaminant sources that have not been mentioned here. This is part
of your self study.

Element 2: Environmental fate and transport. This refers to how a contaminant moves
through and is transformed in the environment. Once released to the environment,
contaminants move through and across different media and some degrade
altogether. Knowledge of the fate and transport of contaminants within an
environmental media helps to determine if and how contaminants might move from a
source area to an exposure point. As a risk manager, you may want to know

 How fast contaminants are moving,

 How fast they disperse along the flow path,
 Where contaminants are moving in a particular medium,
 The extent to which natural attenuation of the contaminant is occurring,
 whether the contaminants are entering the food chain.
The fate and transport of chemical contaminants in the environment depend on several
factors which include the chemical and physical factors which affect the behaviour of the
contaminant in the environment such as its solubility, density, vapour pressure etc. it is
also important to understand the propertied of the environmental media where the
contaminant is moving. Site specific factors such as climatic factors, geological and
hydrogeologic conditions especially if soil and groundwater are involved are
important. What are some of the soil properties which affect the movement of chemicals in
the soil?

Element 3: Exposure point or area. This is the specific location(s) where people might
come into contact with a contaminated medium. Possible exposure points include those
described as exposure media in the figure above and include groundwater, soil, surface
water air, food etc. these are the environmental components referred to in figure
1 additional resources. It may be through direct contact with these media or indirectly.
This is especially applicable in the situation of soils. We could drink water directly or use
it to cook. We may access contaminants in water indirectly if they are used to irrigate
crops which we eventually eat. Very few people eat soils but we all consume food grown
on soil. Children will usually play with soil and so they come in direct contact with the
soil through various exposure routes.

Element 4: Exposure route. This refers to the means by which people physically contact
environmental contamination at the exposure point. For a chemical yo affect somebody,
it must enter the body. There are three main exposure route through which chemicals
can gain access into the human body. These are by inhalation, ingestion or dermal
uptake. Gases and vapours are usually inhaled. Tiny particles and droplets in the
atmosphere are also inhaled. The main route of human exposure to these are therefore
inhalation. Ingestion is the major route of exposure. People who mouth breathe can also
ingest significant amount of air pollutants. Dermal uptake refers to skin absorption of
contaminants. This route of exposure is enhanced by broken skin. Dermal exposure route
is influenced by age as the skin absorption factor of an individual differs between adults
and children. Eyes are also another route of entry, although usually only very small
amounts of chemicals in the workplace enter through the eyes or mouth.

Element 5: Potentially exposed populations. Knowledge of this determines population

that may be at risk. Populations to consider include residents, those engaged in
recreational activities, workers, transients, potential “high risk” population. When
characterizing potentially exposed populations, some questions to ask include

 Who is exposed?
 What activities are occurring?
 Where are activities occurring?
 When has exposure occurred (past current, future)? For how long?
 How are people exposed? How is the land used? Any unique exposure

These elements determine the extent to which exposure has occurred, how it may be
occurring, or may occur in the future at and around a site.
Lesson 3

Purpose of the Lesson

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

 Describe the processes and procedure of environmental risk assessment and

management.
 Enumerate and explain the major steps on which risk assessment is based.
 Describe scientific obstacles to risk assessment

3.1 Risk Assessment

Introduction

The need to carry out or conduct risk assessment will be necessitated by the occurrence
of environmental problems that require attention. These problems might have direct or
indirect effects and consequences on the health of man and wildlife. For example, the
transportation of toxic chemicals by road or waterways using unreliable tanker is likely to
result in spillage which might affect wild and ecological lives as well as man. Take the
case of individuals working in a petroleum refinery who are exposed over the course of
eight hours per day to the volatile hydrocarbon; benzene. This chemical is a constituent
of gasoline and has been linked to leukemia through epidemiological study. The
question is: to what extent are these workers at risk of developing leukaemia?

The concept of risk has become very vital in international sphere for the regulation of
several processes ranging from food, pharmaceutical, engineering etc. Industries are
increasingly required to undertake product risk assessment including those that involve
export to other countries. Hence, the application of the basic concepts of risk assessment
to all endeavors such as those mentioned earlier is increasing standard in most
organizations. An example of the protocol that could be used to carry out this
assessment includes:

1. The basics of risk assessment: definitions and language of the discipline.

2. How to perform risk assessments: stepwise progression (see study unit 3).
3. How to use risk assessments: risk management, Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point (HACCP), risk profiling etc.

What is Risk Assessment

In lesson 1, The concept of risk, hazard, dose risk characterization and Exposure
were defined. please revise these definitions as they will be handy in this lesson.
Risk assessment generally is the process of determining what hazards exist in the
workplace for example or to an ecosystem and the risk or likelihood that these hazards
will cause harm to people. In Environmental risk assessment , you determine the
likelihood that your business or what ever project you are initiating will cause harm to
the environment. According to Iyyanki et al (2017), environmental risk assessment delves
into the interaction between hazards, humans and ecological resources by describing
human populations, ecological resources and agents, it also analyses agents of exposure
potential, characterizes the potential for adverse effects, defined uncertainties, generates
options to deal with the risks identified and then communicates these information to
relevant authorities. Risk assessment has tow components; Human risk assessment and
ecological risk assessment. whereas human risk has to do with the risks that humans may
face, ecological risk assessment assesses the probability of occurrence of an undesired
ecological impact. the fields of ecology, environmental chemistry, environmental
toxicology, geochemistry, hydrology and integrated to estimate the probabilities of
undesired ecological impacts. It is part of a systematic approach to health and safety.

In addition to knowing that certain risks exists, people also want to know the likelihood
that they or their environment will suffer. they are also interested in knowing what the
effects of this risk will be. Answers to these questions are provided through a risk
assessment.

Determination of risk is a duty which is placed on employers but workers and their
representatives should be consulted on how it is carried out and their knowledge of the
job incorporated into the assessments. They should also be provided with the results. To
be suitable and sufficient risk assessments must look at all aspects of the work activity,
address what actually happens during the work activity, take into account all those who
could be affected, look at work organisation and so on. The purpose of the risk
assessment is to enable the employer to identify and prioritise the preventive and
control measures needed.

This means they must take a systematic, step by step approach to:
- Identify the hazard
- Assess the risk
- Implement measures to prevent or control the risk
- Adapt the work to the individual concerned
- Evaluate the effectiveness of the measures taken
- Review the assessment
Risk assessment may be done as a relatively rapid ‘desktop’ study or ‘screening’ study
for simple issues, or it may be a large and complex process where there are significant
health or environmental concerns. There are many models of risk assessment to suit the
many contexts in which risk assessments are undertaken.

When is Risk Assessment Undertaken?

ERA is included in the scope of environmental management and is therefore an

important part of EIA. The need to undertake a risk assessment is influenced by
situation-specific factors. Mangers are faced with the task of solving complex
environmental problems associated with the pressure that humans are placing on natural
resources. Generally, RAs are needed for products, processes, situations and activities
where there is a plausible case that there could be an increased risk of significant health
and/or environmental consequences for the human population from the product,
process, situation or activity. A risk assessment can also be used to inform the selection
of the safest option when making decisions about how to achieve a particular aim.

Risk assessment is an intensive process that should be carried out when it is necessary.
Some examples of situations where risk assessment is carried out include the following:

 When there are changes to activities.

 When new procedures are introduced.
 When new equipment or machinery are introduced in a system
 Periods of high staff turnover
 For insurance purposes
 Changes to processes
 Introduction of a new product
 Design of a new system
 Changes to people (different people have different level of tolerance to hazards
and may respond different when exposed to certain hazards.

Think of other situations when Risk assessment needs to be carried out.

It may be inappropriate to carry out a risk assessment when it is a ritual rather than a
meaningful process. This should bring to mine the examples you chose in Assignment 1.
Many of you chose a ritual processes like examples where Risk assessment was used to
make a management decision. Risk assessment should not be carried out when:

 There is no data or an insufficient amount of data

 it is clear that the proposal, situation or activity is seen by health and other
experts as having few potential risks to health
 The risks may be likely, but the evidence is already well documented and it may
be possible to develop evidence-based recommendations without the need for a
comprehensive assessment.
 There is an inability to take action or it is too late to take action
 There are insufficient resources
 The proposal is clearly politically or socially unacceptable.

Can you envisage other situations where risk assessment would be a waste of time and
resources?

The Conceptual Framework of Risk Assessment

One school of thought based this concept on three major activities that are necessary for
the protection of public health from hazardous environmental substances. These include
research, risk assessment and risk management. Each of these concepts involves discrete
sets of analytical undertakings which serve different purposes.

In a broader sense environmental risk analysis involves hazard identification, risk analysis,
risk evaluation, risk management, risk communication and monitoring and review.

Hazard identification: Hazards are the main cause of occupational health and safety
problems. Therefore, finding ways of eliminating hazards or controlling the risks is the
best way to reduce negative outcomes. Hazard identification involves finding all risks
associated with a new activity process etc that may exist in an environment.

Risk analysis: This is a process during which the nature of the hazards identified, and
the level of risk presented are understood. It provides a basis for risk evaluation and also
guides the decision made on how to control the identified risks. The information used in
Risk analyses could be historical or current data or even the opinions of those involved in
the project under question

Risk evaluation: During risk evaluation, the level of risks identified are compared against
a given criteria to determine how important the risk is.

Risk management: During risk management, the results of the risk assessment are
integrated with other information, while weighing alternatives and the negative impacts
that may arise as a result of the proposed management approach. The most appropriate
action for reducing or eliminating the risk is identified during this stage

Risk communication: It is an interactive process of exchange of information and

opinions on the nature of the risks identified. Risk communication involves
communicating the nature and extent of risks in understandable terms and sharing
information with the affected parties so that an estimate of the risk and a wise approach
to its management can be identified.

Monitoring and review: After the completion of a risk assessment, the identified risk
can be monitored to ensure that the risk data for the project or workplace remain valid.
Risk assessment data and risk identified can be reviewed based on the monitoring and
review outcome. During monitoring, a follow up risk assessment could be created, the
effectiveness of the controls can be evaluated, and many other changes can be done.

Hence, risk assessment should be carried out under its own standards of evaluation and
risk managers should not attempt to alter these standards.

3.3 Types of Risk Assessment

Introduction
There are no fixed rules regarding ways in which a risk assessment should be carried out. It
mostly depends on the nature of the activity for which the risk assessment is undertaken and
the environment where the activity is taking place

Qualitative risk assessment

This is the most common type of risk assessment and it is usually based on personal
judgement and expertise of the assessor. Risk levels are usually classified as high, medium or
low and are determined based on the likelihood that the risk will occur and the severity of the
risk. These description most of the time are inadequate. Risk is described as:

Risk = Severity x likelihood

They are simple to carry out, quickest to do but they are subjective.

Quantitative risk assessment

In quantitative risk assessment, risk is measured using numerical values. This is common in
the assessment of the risk associated with chemicals where specific levels of concentration
present different levels of risk. In this instance, hazard identification involves quantitative
tools and techniques.

Generic risk assessment

These risk assessment covers the hazards that are common to a particular activity. The
outcomes are used for similar activities in different areas. For example. The risks associated
with solid waste disposal may be known and so you can simply use a pre prepared template
that covers the known risk associated with waste disposal from one site to the other.
However, it is worth noting that the specific environment where the activity is to be carried
out could be different. Whereas the hazards may be the same, the risks may be different
because of the specific environment. This may have an implication on the risk levels and
severity.

Site specific risk assessment

This is usually done for a given site. It could be qualitative, quantitative or generic but the
site in question is taken into consideration at the end of the assessment because the specifics
of the environment vary. For example, if you want to drill a borehole, there are general risks
associated with drilling but you may want to find out whether there are buried tanks in the
site or whether it is a confined environment. In this case, the risk assessment and risks
considered may vary from one site to the other because of the specifics of the site.

Dynamic risk assessment

Involves assessing risk in an on the spot situation especially if the risk was not initially
identified or where there are uncertainties. It is used mostly during emergency situations to
handle a crisis. Because the prevailing circumstances were unforeseen, such assessment are
done continually to ascertain whether there are changes in the initial risk or uncertainty
identified, or whether the situation that prompted such a risk assessment is still valid. They
usually rely on the judgement of those who are likely to be affected by the risk.
3.4 Protocols that Precede Risk Assessment
Before carrying out the processes of assessing risk, there are fundamental activities that
precede the exercise. These include:

1. Organizing for risk assessment (a scenario case).

2. Getting started.
3. Application of risk assessment step.
4. Quantitative step (through threshold mechanisms e.g. RfDs, TDIs etc. Risk is
characterised (step 4; refer to study unit 3) by deriving what is called hazard index
(HI).

Organizing for risk assessment: The first thing to do in the preparation for the assessment
of risk is to define the problem to be assessed. This should be done before going into the
process of risk assessment. The population group to be assessed or those that are potentially
exposed to the substance or circumstance that constitutes risk. The scenario case is defined
based on the area generic situations that are amenable to risk exposure and assessment. For
example, a group of people residing near landfill site or the digging of a well (groundwater
well) close to cemetery. the level of detail to which the risk assessment will be carried out
should also be highlighted. Level of detail is usually correlated with the level of risk. for
organizational processes which do not change, the risk assessment should be such that it may
not be necessary to repeat every time there is an exposure.

Getting started to conduct risk assessment: Upon identification and definition of a scenario
and the purpose of the assessment is well understood, then the framework of the assessment
process could be embarked. .

Application of risk assessment step: All the four steps involved in the risk assessment
protocols are conducted. This begins with the problem identification where what constitute
adverse health effects and related exposure are identified i.e. the hazard identification
process. This is then followed by other steps in the risk assessment protocol.

Quantitative step: From the generic point of view, quantitative approach to risk assessment
basically involves the estimation of the extent or magnitude of the risk. However, toxicity
produced by substances through threshold mechanism or process does not result in
quantitative statement of the risks they may pose. Hence, the toxic "risks" of substances are
approached by extrapolation from observed dose-response data in order to estimate what
might be referred to as "threshold dose" for human and then compare this dose (D assessment
(D step).

3.5. The Risk Assessment Process

Risk assessment (RA) and risk management have become central tools in continued
efforts to improve public safety and the environment within the limited resources
available. RAs are designed and conducted to provide information to risk managers so as
to take decisions regarding appropriate strategies to be used to manage potentially
adverse effects. It is obvious that the Environmental Risk Assessor and the Environmental
Risk Manager must work closely together. In many smaller enterprises, they are one and
the same person. Risk Assessment is the structured gathering of information available
about risks and the formulation of a judgement about them.

Risk assessment has to do with:

 Identifying and collecting information about the hazards or potential hazards and
their(adverse) affects; and the mechanisms involved i.e. what is affecting or being
affected andhow does this happen.
 Analysing how and to what extent the effects are being induced or expressed i.e.
 Integrating information to estimate and evaluating each risk (risk characterisation)
by means of quantitative or qualitative techniques.
 Identifying possible remedial action/mitigating measures for adverse effects.

Risk Assessment thus involves the following steps or phases:

1. Problem formulation

Problem formulation in which the purpose, problem, background information on

sources, stressors, effects are defined. This includes hazard assessment, but succinctly,
involves pathway analysis and the identification of sensitive receptors. The designing of
the assessment plan (framework) requires a generic knowledge of each of the aspects
involved in the problem. It involves gathering information - mostly from literature – on
ecosystem structure and functions, possible stressor sources, stressor-response
relationships etc. Once this information is obtained, a design or plan can be drawn up to
indicate the steps to be followed in the ERA process.

2. Hazard Identification

This is usually the first step of the Risk Assessment process. It addresses two main
questions which are;

 Is there any hazard present?

 What type of hazard is present?
In hazard identification, each work area or task are carefully examined to identify the
hazards which may occur. The work area and task vary from one organisation to the next
and so the hazards and methods of identification will definitely also vary. This process
also involves identifying the causes of the hazard that exist in an area. Possible ways of
ensuring that all hazards are found include the following;

 Examine at all aspects of the work area or task

 Include non-routine activities such as maintenance, repair, or cleaning.
 Look at accident / incident / near-miss records in the examination
 Include people who work off site either at home, on other job sites.
 Look at the way the task is executed
 Look at foreseeable unusual conditions
 Determine whether a product, machine or equipment can be intentionally or
unintentionally changed as this may mean that safeguards are remoived once in a
while..
 Examine risks to visitors or the public.
 Consider the groups of people that may have a different level of risk such as
young or inexperienced workers, persons with disabilities, or new or expectant
mothers.

3.Analysis

This is composed of three major parts: characterization of entry, characterization of

exposure and characterization of effects. The importance in this step is on predicting the
effect of the stressor(s), identifying their sources or evaluating alternatives i.e.
prospective, retrospective, comparative ERAs, respectively. It also involves data
gathering, but only those relating specifically to the problem and includes determination
of ecosystem and receptor characteristics; exposure; and the associated effects of the
stressors. It could involve, inter alia, laboratory experiments, field trials or the use of
models. The purpose of this phase is to gain a clear understanding of the processes and
interrelationships involved. This phase culminates in the development of risk profiles for
exposure and for the stressor.

4. Risk characterisation

This involves two stages: Risk analysis and risk communication. It requires the integration
of information regarding exposure and effects and the estimation of risk using
techniques ranging from purely qualitative to purely qualitative. Information generated
by the Risk Assessment process is used as input for Risk Management and Risk
Communication. Risk Communication is the process whereby information is
disseminated or exchanged on issues involving human health or environmental risks
between risk assessors, risk managers, the general public, news media, interest groups,
etc. www.connyankee.com/html /glossary .html; accessed on the 19 Nov 2008). Here, the
communication intends to provide information generally on the nature of the risks on
the possibilities of exposure. Summarily, it entails the presentation of outcome from risk
assessment in a scientifically credible form for decision-making process. While risk
assessment involves risk determination and evaluation, risk management involves a risk
assessment and control.

5. Risk Management

On the other hand, the aim of Environmental Risk Management is to achieve a balance
between the cost of the analysis and the benefit accruing from using the results (DEAT,
2002). In addition to using the results obtained from the risk assessment, other factors
such as legal, regulatory constraints and relevant social, economic and ecological
information are taken into account in order to make decisions regarding the actions to
be taken. Note that specific best practice documents have been compiled for specific
applications

Recommendation

In order to gain a good understanding of the steps on which risk assessment and
management is based you should read:

 The Recommended book "Calculated Risks" by J.V Rodricks, pps. 205-214; 215-
249.
 Article by Murray and M Claasseun under Additional Resources in the Published
articles folder.

Scientific obstacles to risk assessment

Scientific processes and data are required in order to justify exposure and to take
decisions in order to avoid or ameliorate the effect of potential hazards. Evidences
involving toxic hazards and their dose-response features for a particular substance would
have been collected under a particular set of conditions. The data collected would be
used to assess risks that might arise under a different set of conditions of exposure to
that substance. Hence risk assessment involves extrapolation of observation or
deduction from these data and therefore constitutes an obstacle. Problems encountered
in risk assessment therefore include lack of data on effects/or magnitude, lack of process
understanding and potential biased results.

4.1 Purpose of the Lesson

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:
  Enumerate and explain the five major steps involved in environmental
management system (EMS).
 Design and implement Environmental Management System in an organisation.

4.2 Risk Management

Introduction

Risk management (RM) is an instrument utilized to ensure the safety of human and the
environment. It enables risk managers to take informed decisions regarding appropriate
strategies to be used to manage potentially adverse effects. Hence, there is good
communication between Environmental Risk Assessor and the Environmental Risk
Manager. Risk Management is designed to achieve a balance between the cost of the
analysis and the benefit accruing from using the results (DEAT, 2002).

In addition to using the results obtained from the risk assessment, other factors such as
legal, regulatory constraints and relevant social, economic and ecological information are
taken into account in order to make decisions regarding the actions to be taken. All
these processes are encapsulated in holistic framework in an organisation and is referred
to as Environmental management System (EMS).

EMS is part of a management system of an organisation (company, institutions,

enterprise etc. in which specific competencies, behaviours, procedures and demands for
the implementation of an operational environmental policy of that organisation is
defined. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki).

Risk management can be described as a process during which policy alternatives are
weighed and the most appropriate regulatory action taken based on the outcome of risk
assessment and social, economic, and political concerns. Environmental risk
management is becoming a critical component of corporate strategy. It is seen as an
integral part of overall business and strategic management. It is proactive and is seen as
adding value to products and services, creating a competitive advantage, improving
community image, reducing costs, and increasing the bottom line.

The essence of risk management is the systematic and comprehensive identification,

estimation, and evaluation of risk scenarios followed by careful selection of risk control
options to reduce risks. For environmental issues, the primary benefit of risk
management is improved decision-making achieved both through improved risk
assessment techniques and better selection of risk controls, and through the application
of risk communication to assist decision-makers and stakeholders to achieve a
consensus decision about acceptable risk
 ISO 14000, issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), based in
Geneva, Switzerland, is a ``series of management-system standards, covering such areas
as process documentation, training, lifecycle assessment procedures and management
reporting, and accountability for environmental performance

It is designed to bring ``environmental management into the realm of strategic decision-

making,'' and requires ``top management commitment to environmental management''
(Woellner, 1997). Section 14001 creates the specific standards for environmental
management systems

The risk management process can be particularly effective in minimizing environmental

risk costs. Its various stages are discussed below with examples of applications to
environmental risks.

Risk assessment; where potential hazards and losses are identified. refer to the process
of risk assessment in previous lessons for details on risk assessment

Loss control is a key step in environmental management that can be used to control
environmentally harmful activities. It includes loss avoidance, prevention, reduction
among others. . Loss control is particularly important in the environmental sector
because once pollution occurs, it becomes extremely difficult and expensive to clean
up.In the management of waste for example, waste reduction at source is preferred over
recycling as far as environmental risk management is concerned because it posses a
lower risk. Industries for example are developing new technologies to reduce the
generation of hazardous waste, and more industries are treating hazardous wastes on
site, rather than shipping wastes to disposal sites

Crisis Management: Natural disasters such as floods, fires etc and Environmental
disasters have been the drivers of crisis management as far as risk management is
concerned. Most organisations will usually have a team made up of consultants to drive
crisis management of risks that may present themselves in their organisation.

Claims Management: Environmental hazards/disasters will always require claims and so

insurers, brokers, are always members of this team. According to Anderson (2002)
environmental claims require some level of innovation and proper resources without
which, an organisation could be crippled. The main reason for this is that environmental
losses are not usually clearly defined areas of liability and they require tremendous
amount of technical support.

Product design/assessment: This is one of the largest loss exposures. Risks presented a
s a result of product design may be very costly and so organisation involved in product
design make extra efforts to create products which are easy to recover, reuse or recycle
to avoid environmental hazards. All the effects that a product may have on the
environment are examined and this goes with chemicals as well. It includes all inputs to
the product and examines how customers use and dispose of it.

Risk financing: The environmental insurance sector has been growing because of the
emergence of new environmental risks. These include coverages for remediation
contractors, engineers, consultants, asbestos- and lead-abatement contractors.

There is a thin line between Environmental Risk management and Environmental Risk
Assessment

Whereas the Environmental Risk manager aims to protect human from hazards, the
environmental Risk assessor provided the manager with the best information possible to
manage risks.

There are two main Elements of Risk management.

1. Risk Analyses
1. Risk identification
2. Risk assessment
3. Risk prioritization
2. Risk Control
1. Risk management planning
2. Risk resolution
3. Risk monitoring

4.3 Environmental Management Systems

An environmental management system is a set of processes and practices that enable an
organisation to reduce its environmental impacts and increase its operating efficiency. It
helps a company to achieve its environmental goal through consistent control of its
operations through out the life cycle of its activities and services. EMY reflects a
fundamental change from the traditional reactive compliance based environmental
management programs to an impact predicting management system.

The EMS as outlined in ISO 14001 provides a structured process for the achievement of
continual improvement, the rate and extent of which is determined by the organization
in light of economic and other circumstances. Although some improvement in
environmental performance can be expected due to the adoption of a systematic
approach, it should be understood that the EMS is a tool which enables the organization
to achieve and systematically control the level of environmental performance that it sets
itself. The establishment of an EMS will not, in itself, necessarily result in an immediate
reduction of adverse environmental impact. Indeed, care needs to be taken that the
mere establishment of an EMS does not lull the organization into a false sense of
security. But effectively used, an EMS should enable an organization to improve its
environmental performance and avoid or reduce adverse environmental impacts over
time.

4.4 Developing and Environmental Management System

Several models can be used to develop implement and maintain an environmental
management system. When an organisation develops and EMS, it has to decide where
the EMS will apply. When developing an EMS one should identify and prioritize the
environmental aspects of an organization. This will usually vary from one organization to
the other depending on the services they render. The international standard, ISO 14001
definition of EMS which says and EMS includes organizational structure, planning
activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes, and resources for developing,
implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the environmental policy highlights
the cycle of Plan, Do, Check, Feedback.

Below is an illustration of the model

The protocols involved in EMS could be followed from those stated in ISO 14001. This is
one of a series of international environmental management standards intended for
constant and regular improvement in environmental performance through the use of
sound EMS. The steps involved in the system are:

Environmental Policy which Establishes and communicates an organization’s position

and commitment as it relates to energy and the environment. This is documented and
communicated to employees and made available to the public, and which includes a
commitment to continual improvement and pollution prevention, regulatory compliance
and a framework for setting objectives.

Planning which Identifies energy and environmental issues and requirements, and
defines the initiatives and resources needed to achieve the environmental policy and
economic goals. The Planning phase covers the identification of the environmental
aspects of the organization’s activities, identification and access to legal requirements,
establishment and documentation of objectives and targets consistent with the policy,
and establishment of a program for achieving said targets and objectives (including the
designation of responsible individuals, necessary means and timeframes).

Implementation & Operations which Describes the procedures, programs and

responsibilities necessary to implement the key initiatives to achieve goals. It includes
the definition, documentation and communication of roles and responsibilities, provision
of appropriate training, assurance of adequate internal and external communication,
written management system documentation as well as appropriate document control
procedures, documented procedures for operational controls, and documented and
communicated emergency response procedures.

Checking and Corrective Action which Regularly monitors and assesses the
effectiveness of energy and environmental management activities. it includes procedures
for regular monitoring and measurement of key characteristics of the operations and
activities, procedures for dealing with situations of non-conformity, specific record
maintenance procedures and procedures for auditing the performance of the EMS.

Management Review where High-level evaluation of the management system as a

whole to determine its overall effectiveness in terms of driving continual improvement
and achieving business goals are made.

These five major sections are then broken down into different elements which make up
an EMS

Elements of an effective EMS

 Environmental policy This is a statement of the organisations commitment to

the environment
 Environmental aspects and impacts identify attributes of the produces that are
manufactured or the services provided that interact with the environment and the
changes that these may have on the environment
 Compliance obligations identify the relevant laws and regulation which are
applicable and ensure that there is access to these documents
 Objectives and targets and environmental management program: This
element of the EMS contains a set of environmental goals for the organisation
and the plan of action to achieve these objectives and targets
 Structure and responsibility: This presents the roles and responsibilities of
individuals within the organisation
 Training and awareness competence: Ensure that employees within the
organisation are aware of and capable of their environmental responsibilities
 Communication a process for internal and external communication on
environmental management issues should be developed
 EMS documentation There should be relevant and up to date information about
the EMS and related documents at all times
 Documents control There should be effective management of procedures and
other documents
 Operational control identification, planning and management of the
organisation’s operations and activities in line with the policy objectives and
targets and all other significant aspects of their environmental risk management
should be made regularly
  Emergency preparedness and response; a procedure for preventing and
responding to potential emergencies should be developed
 Monitoring and measuring: Monitoring of key organisational activities and
tracking of performance including periodic compliance evaluation should be
carried out
 Evaluation of compliance. A procedure that periodically evaluates compliance
obligations
 Nonconformance and corrective and preventive action designed to identify
and correct problems and prevent their recurrence
 Records to keep adequate record or EMS performance
 EMS audits to periodically verify that the EMS is effective and achieving its
objectives and targets
 Management review: review is necessary to mitigate risks and take advantage of
opportunities.

4.5 Importance of Environmental Management systems

The importance of the environment in the decision-making processes of organisations,
corporate bodies and governments cannot be over-emphasized. Environmental matters
are becoming more multifaceted and interlinked. It has been discovered that
environmental negligence or problems in a country may affect other countries very far
from it. Hence national and global environmental laws and regulations are required to be
enacted and implemented for environmental safety from holistic system point of view.
Pollution reduction and possibly elimination will ultimately translate into good health for
the environment as well as people. The importance of an EMS include but not limited to
the following;

 Consistently complying with environmental laws

 Improving overall environmental performance
 Addressing environmental liability from current or past practices
 Maximizing investment in environmental affairs
 Integration of environmental objectives into overall mission and business
objectives
 Providing an environmentally safe workplace
 Identifies causes of environmental problems and is used to eliminate them
 Improves communication and assigns responsibility
 Saves money and makes good business sense
 Important to satisfy grant or other business terms
 4.6 Integrated Environmental Management System
(IEMS)
 IEMS is a tool or process designed to harmonise the overall environmental
management issues of an organisation. One of the aims of IEMS is to improve the
environmental performance of an organisation or system that will add to a better
 quality of life. IEM system for managing the functionality of an ecosystem or
organisation typically consists of five major steps:
 (1) Baseline review
The baseline review documents the current environmental and administrative
situation, legal requirements and political priorities. It provides the basis for the
later stages of the process including identification of the actions in the strategic
programme. A SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis
has been found to be an appropriate means to assess the baseline administrative
situation.
 (2) Target Setting - Preparation of the Strategic Programme and Action
Plans
A Strategic Programme is developed to establish objectives and identify the
priorities, initiatives and actions that are necessary in the short, medium and long
term. According to the case studies, the programme should aim to build on an
active participation of citizens, business, government and nongovernmental
organizations.
 (3) Political Commitment - Approval of the Strategic Programme
The Strategic Programme is an agreed document that aims to have widespread
support and is an integral part of the strategic planning of the local authority.
Experiences show that engaging all relevant local actors in the Programme's
development can help avoid conflicts in implementing the Action Plan and the
long term vision for the city.
 (4) Implementation of Action Plan, monitoring
Having approved the Strategic Programme, the next step is the implementation
of the different measures and actions in an integrated way.
 (5) Reporting and evaluation
Experiences show that on-going assessment of the effectiveness of the Action
Plan is needed in relation to the strategic objectives for the city.
Such assessments can lead to new measures being proposed or to a redefinition
of existing actions. Projects have developed tools to assist local governments to
measure and report on their environmental performance, thereby contributing to
transparency in local governance.
 Issues to cover
 Beyond the key elements it is important to demonstrate what issues could be
addressed by an integrated approach. Based upon available information and
experience to date, an IEM system could tackle some or all of the following topics
of relevance to sustainable urban development. The list is not exhaustive but
illustrates what others have included in their IEM planning:
 - Improving water quality
- Improving waste management
- Increasing energy efficiency and use of renewable energy
- Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
- Improving outdoor air quality
- Improving urban transport
- Preventing and reducing noise and protecting quiet areas
 - Better local governance
- Better land use and planning
- Increasing biodiversity and green space
- Reducing environmental risks

4.7 Developing an IEMS

Below are the steps involved in the development of IEMS

Step 1: Laying the Groundwork

This involves analysis and determination of the components of an IEMS and tries to build
support and confidence between the managers and employees of an organisation with
respect to the need and importance of IEMS. This step reveals the impact of the
organisation’s products, processes and services on the environment.

Step 2: Creating an Environmental Policy

This step deals with a review of the existing methods used by the organisation to
manage the environment, policy statement and the scope of IEMS. The organisation’s
environmental policy is based on priorities.

Step 3: Determining Significant Environmental Aspects and Setting Objectives

Here, the organisation defines environmental issues that are of paramount and focus on
them first. Environmental risks are estimated, assessed and prioritized so as to formulate
the objectives.

Step 4: Evaluating Alternatives

Here, various alternatives and approaches are evaluated before making a decision on
how to achieve the objectives. In IEMS, an hierarchical approach of alternatives, which
include substitutes, pollution prevention, and wise resource management are adopted.

Step 5: Setting Targets and Measuring Success

This involves development of specific targets on how the objects would be achieved as
well as tools to measure the achievement.

Step 6: Developing Operational Controls

Processes and procedure that have least impact on the environment are preferred. It also
set out how to develop operational controls, measure for success of those controls, and
provide corrective action when necessary.
Step 7: Implementing Your IEMS

Operational implementation of the IEMS is essential from the beginning. It includes the
planning of IEMS development process and setting up of environmental management
projects for organisation’s objectives.

Step 8: Building Organizational Support

The long-term success of the IEMS depends on solid organizational support. Such
support includes developing documentation, meeting training needs, and implementing
effective communication and stakeholder involvement processes.

Step 9: Establishing Continuing Improvement

This step involves regular review of the overall IEMS so as to ensure continual
improvement of the process. These reviews include progress made in communication,
documentation and developing stakeholders as well as the specific environmental
targets. The reviews provide critical information to ensure continuing improvement.

IMPLEMENTATION OF IEMS

It is highly essential to build the capacity and support instrument for the achievement
and implementation of the environmental policy, objectives and set targets within the
designed EMS. It entails planning for and setting up of environmental management
projects for each objective. Some of the tools that that are used to keep the IEMS on
track include: product review process, a regulatory compliance tracking system, pollution
prevention tracking log, Emergency Preparedness and response plan development
process.

(a). Developing Environmental Managements Project(s)

This procedure will help in achieving each objective and target of the environmental
management project/strategy that was developed.

The three main elements in developing an environmental management project are:

1. Identify the person responsible for achieving the environmental objectives and
targets in each relevant function and level.
2. Establish the means or action plan for achieving targets and objectives; and
3. Implement timetables.

An outline for such a program might include: Objective, Target, Person(s) responsible,
Budget, Date of expected completion, Date of actual completion, and Performance
indicators for measurement.
(b). Compliance Tracking
(c). Pollution Prevention: Ideas and Tracking
(d). Review New Products, Processes, and Activities
(e). Emergency Preparedness and Response

Source: IEMS Implementation Guide: Entire IEMS Guide [Design for the Environment
(DfE)]; http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/iems/iems_guide/

Activity

In order to gain a good understanding of the Integrated Environmental

Management System (IEMS), you should consult:

 ISO 14001 document which is obtainable from South African Bureau of Standards
(SABS).

4.8 Environmental Risk Management Strategies

Strategies are long term objectives that ensure that an organisation can redefine its
corporate culture and hence create stability and growth. Effective Environmental Risk
Management is a basic requirement for the sustainability of the organisation.

All organisations are faced with the reality of risk. This section deals with strategies that
could be adopted to ensure that the organisation does not constitute the source of
environmental risk. It also addresses strategies that can be used to manage risks from
outside or from within the organisation.

Strategies for Sustainable Development

There are three basic strategies that can be used by an organisation:

 Risk avoidance
 Risk reduction
 Risk transfer

The specific strategy used by the company depends upon their appetite for or tolerance
of risk.

Risk avoidance is the elimination of that factor that may cause loss to processes or
products. It obviously involves the identification and elimination of hazards.

Risk reduction is the method used to counter risk by reducing factors that (may) cause
loss. This can be achieved by reducing the severity or the likelihood (frequency or
probability) of loss. In order to do this, exposure must be assessed and methods must be
identified to reduce the impacts of the exposure. Factors to be taken into account when
drawing up the EMP are the identification of root causes of the potential failures or
losses, persons responsible to implement impact reduction, and the line management
structure that should be applied when a risk or impact has been identified. Risk
reduction includes restoration, remediation and rehabilitation, and applies to the
management of pure and sequential risks.

Risk transfer may be done by, inter alia, taking out insurance to fund losses and by
making contractual arrangements to transfer risk. For example, other firms can be
employed to undertake responsibility for some of the business activities such as
transporting hazardous products.

Implementation of risk management strategies is often the weak point in organisations.

This may be due to the lack of appropriate planning and preparation for the new
approach to business management. Human beings are often resistant to change. This
resistance must be addressed so that every member of the company ‘buys into’ and
participates in the ERM process.

Sustainable development is the achievement of successful avoidance and minimization

of adverse environmental impacts under specific economic conditions. It requires the
ability of members of the management and the organisation to think ahead. Since risk is
intimately associated with public perception, management needs to be able to assess the
future expectations of society. The Environmental Risk Management Strategy can thus
make a major contribution towards sustainable development of the organisation.

The National Environmental Management Act (Act 107, 1997) requires the application of
Best Practical Environmental Option (BPEO) Chapter 1, 2 Principles 4(b) principles for
integrated environmental management.

5.1 Aim of the Lesson

At the end of this study section you should be able to:

 Design an Environmental Management Plan

 Implement an Environmental Management Plan
 Assess the effectiveness of an Environmental Management Plan in terms of
objectives and targets
 Formulate an Environmental Risk Management Strategy
 Understand the influence of an Environmental Risk Management Strategy on the
principle of Sustainable Development of an organisation.

The results of an Environmental Risk Assessment are only meaningful when identified
risk areas are managed through an Environmental Risk Management Plan (ERMP).
Environmental Risk Management Plans are drafted to ensure that effective actions are
identified and implemented to control environmental risks.
The following aspects are covered in this study unit:

 The Environmental Risk Management Plan, its Development and Implementation

 Strategies for Environmental Risk Management

5.2 what is an Environmental Management Plan?

An Environmental management plan describes how an action might impact on the
natural environment in which it occurs and presents details on how those impacts will be
avoided, minimised and managed so that they are environmentally acceptable.
Generally, An environmental management plan should:

 be balanced, objective and concise

 state any limitations that apply, or should apply, to the use of the information in
the environmental management plan
 identify any matter in relation to which there is a significant lack of relevant
information or a significant degree of uncertainty
 include adaptive management strategies for managing uncertainty
 be written in a way that is easily understood by other parties
 clearly present how conclusions about risks have been reached

ensure that the person taking the action takes full responsibility for the content
and commitments contained in the plan

 The key benefits of the EMP are that it offers means of managing its
environmental performance thereby allowing it to contribute to improved
environmental quality. The other benefit includes cost control and improved
relations with the stakeholders.

Environmental Risk Management Plan Development

The objectives of risk management are to prevent losses from occurring, to minimising
the magnitude of loss should the adverse event occur, deal physically with an event
while it is occurring, and to minimise future losses. All these aspects should be
incorporated into the plan.

Environmental Risk Management Plans should reflect the management principles of the
company. Good practice principles that form the basis of good managements are:

- The deliberate assessment of risk exposure and related losses

- The recognition of loss impact on the organisation should be an ongoing endeavour
- Risk management should form an integral part of the business process.

Risk planning should comprise contingency planning, emergency planning and

operational planning and procedures. It should identify the mechanical dimensions of
risk (eg. inefficient filters to control emissions) and possible mitigating actions, as well as
risks related to human activities. The latter are often influenced by people’s attitudes,
habits, practices or behaviour patterns. These may be mitigated by means of training and
awareness programmes and by the enforcement of rules andbregulations.

An ERMP should incorporate aspects of Quality Standards (ISO 9000 of 2000), Social
Standardsm(OHSAS 18001 (1999) and SA 8000 (1997) and Environmental Standards (ISO
14001 (2004)).

The importance of effective and open communication is often not fully appreciated. The
participation process should be used wherever practicable and information made
accessible to the public.

Environmental Management Plan Implementation

Workers in an organisation often think that the environmental management plan

belongs solely to the Environmental Manager. This is not so. It should form an integral
part of each employee’s activities. However, certain people must be assigned specific risk
management responsibilities. below is a list of inputs that are needed in environmental
risk management plans;

Enterprise environmental factors

Most critical environmental factors are the risk tolerance levels of the organization and
the stakeholders. Risk tolerance expresses an inherent trade-off decision between
benefits and cost. Stakeholders will take a risk if the benefits to be gained outweigh what
could be lost. Conversely, stakeholder will avoid taking a risk because the cost or impact
is too great for the amount of benefit that can be derived

Organizational process assets; The organization may already have policies and
guidelines that define its risk tolerance

Project scope statement

Project assumptions, constraints, and initial defined risks in scope statement. The project
scope statement contains several information sources for risk management planning:

 Project deliverables
 Project constraints
 Project assumptions
 Initial project organization
 Initial defined risks
 Schedule milestones

Environmental Risk Management Plan Conten

The following aspects should be included in an Environmental Risk Management plan

 Methodology. How risk management will be performed, including methods,

tools, and sources of data
 Roles and responsibilities. Team of people responsible for managing identified
risks and responses, the risk ‘owners’
 Budgeting. Assign resources and estimate costs of risk management and its
methods
 Timing. Timing and frequency of the risk management processes
 Risk categories. Develop and review during planning. Used in risk identification
 Definitions of risk probability and impact. Discussed in detail in Qualitative
Risk Analysis
 Probability and impact matrix. Discussed in detail in Qualitative Risk Analysis
 Revised stakeholder tolerances. Risk planning may result in changes in
stakeholder tolerance
 Reporting formats. Describes the content and format of the risk register, the
dictionary of risks for project
 Tracking. Describes how the risk activity history will be documented and how risk
processes will be audited