Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

ENSPD

Material Removal Process: Cutting

Instructor:
Dr. Gnidakouong
Ngouanom
ngouanom@hotmail.com
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Mechanics of Chip Formation

• Material removal from the workpiece surface produce
chips.
• A chip is produced ahead of tool by shearing along the
shear plane.
Independent variables are:
1. cutting tool types
2. surface finish
3. workpiece material
4. cutting conditions
5. cutting fluids used
 3

Mechanics of Chip Formation

• Two-dimensional orthogonal cutting:
a) orthogonal cutting, known as the Merchant model
b) orthogonal cutting without a well-defined shear plane
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Mechanics of Chip Formation

• Chips are produced by the shearing mechanism.
• Shearing takes place along a shear plane.
• Cutting ratio is defined as:
t0 sin 
r 
tc cos   
• Shear strain
AB AO OB
  
OC OC OC
   cot  tan    

• For mass continuity,

V Vs V
  c
cos    cos sin 
 5

Chip morphology
• Type of chips produced influences surface finish, integrity
and machining operation.
• The tool side of the chip surface is shiny which caused by
rubbing of the chip.
• Basic types of chips produced in metal-cutting:
1. Continuous chips  formed at high cutting speeds
2. Built-up-edge chips form at tip of tool
3. Serrated chips chips with low and high shear strain
4. Discontinuous chips chip firmly / loosely attached
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Chip morphology
Chip curl
Factors contributing are:
• distribution of stresses
• thermal gradients
• work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece
• geometry of rake face of the tool
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Mechanics of oblique cutting

• Involve tool shapes that are 3 dimensional (oblique).
• Cutting edge at an angle is called inclination angle.
• Normal rake angle is between the normal of workpiece
surface and tool face.
• Effective rake angle is  e  sin 1

sin 2
i  cos2
i sin n 
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Forces in orthogonal cutting

Considerations :
1. Power requirements for a particular application.
2. Data on cutting forces are for the proper design of
machine tools.
3. Workpiece that are able to withstand cutting forces
maintain dimensional tolerances.
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Forces in orthogonal cutting

< Factors that influence the forces and power >
1. Cutting forces
• Friction and normal force is
F  R sin  N  R cos 

• Cutting force is
wt 0 cos   
Fc  R cos    
sin  cos     

• Coefficient of friction is
Ft  Fc tan 
  tan  
Fc  Ft tan 
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Forces in orthogonal cutting

2. Thrust force and its direction
• Direction of thrust force in a downward direction.
Ft  R sin    or Ft  Fc tan    

3. Observations on cutting forces

• Cutting force increases with increasing depth of cut,
decreasing rake angle and decreasing speed.
4. Shear and normal stresses in the cutting zone
• Stresses along shear plane and interface can be
analyzed by assuming it is uniformly distributed.
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Forces in orthogonal cutting

4. Shear and normal stresses in the cutting zone
• Area at shear plane is As 
wt 0
sin 

• Average shear stress in the shear plane is

Fs Fs sin 
 
As wt 0
Fn Fn sin 
• Average normal stress is  
As wt 0
5. Measuring cutting forces
• Measured by using force transducers.
• Or calculated from power consumption during cutting.
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Shear-angle relationships
• Shear stress in the shear plane is defined as
Fs Fc sec    cos     sin 
 
As wt 0

• Assuming that β is independent of Φ,

 
  0.785  
2 2

• In another study the relationship has been developed:

   for   0.26
  0.26 for   0.26
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Specific energy
• Total power input in cutting is Power  FcV
• Total energy per unit volume of material removed is
FcV F
ut   c
wt 0V wt 0

uf 
Fc sin  Ft cos r
• In terms of specific energy for friction, wt
FsVs 0

• Specific energy for shearing is us  wt V

0
• Total specific energy is the sum of the two energies
ut  u f  us

• Thus energy ratio is uf FVc sin  sin 

  
ut FcV cos    cos   
 Example 8.1
Relative energies in cutting
An orthogonal cutting operation is being carried out in which to = 0.127 mm,
V = 121.92 m/min, α = 0.175 rad, and the width of cut = 6.35mm. It is observed
that tc = 0.2286 mm, Fc = 56.699 kg, and Ft = 22.68 kg. Calculate the percentage
of the total energy that is dissipated in friction at the tool-chip interface.

Solution Friction energy FVc Fr

 
The percentage of energy is Total energy FcV Fc
t0 0.127
where r   0.555
tc 0.2286

Since R  Ft 2  Fc2  61.067 kg

Fc  R cos       0.555 rad, F  R sin   32.18 kg

Friction% 
32.180.555  0.315  32% and Shear%  68%
Thus, 56.699
 15

Temperature
• As temperature increases, it will
1. affect the properties of the cutting tool.
2. affect dimensional accuracy.
3. induce thermal damage to the machined surface.
Variables affecting temperature
• There are severe temperature gradients in the cutting
zone.
• Mean temperature for
1.2Y f Vt0
orthogonal cutting is T  3
c K
 16

Temperature
Variables affecting temperature
• From experimental measurements of temperature in
turning on a lathe,
1. max temperature should be away from the tool tip.
2. temperature increases with cutting speed.
Another expression for the mean temperature is T V a f b
 17

Tool Wear and Failure

• The wear behaviour of cutting tools are flank wear,
crater wear, nose wear, and chipping of the cutting
edge.
 18

Flank wear
• Flank wear is due to:
a) sliding of the tool along the machined surface
b) temperature rise
• Tool-wear relationship for cutting various steels is

VT n  C
V = cutting speed
T = time (min)
n = exponent depends on cutting conditions
C = constant.
 19

Flank wear
Tool-life curves
• Experimental data obtained in machining tests, note
that:
1. a tool life decreases as cutting speed increases
2. influences the condition of the workpiece material
3. difference in tool life for different microstructures of
the workpiece
 20

Flank wear
Tool-life curves
• Tool-wear relationship is modified as
VT n d x f y  C d = depth of cut
f = feed rate (in mm/rev) in turning

• When cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut are of

decreasing order of importance,

T  C 7V 7 d 1 f 4
 Example 8.3
Increasing tool life by reducing the cutting speed

Using the Taylor equation for tool life and letting n=0.5 and C=400, calculate the
percentage increase in tool life when the cutting speed is reduced by 50%.

Solution
Taylor equation can be rewritten V T  400
T2
0.5V1 T2  V1 T1   4.0
As C is a constant, T1
T2  T1  T2 
Tool-life change is     1  3 , or increased by 300%.
T1  T1 
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Surface Finish and Surface Integrity

• Influences dimensional accuracy of machined parts,
properties of the parts and fatigue strength.
• Factors that can affect surface integrity are:
1. Temperatures generated during processing
2. Residual stresses
3. Metallurgical transformations,
4. Plastic deformation, tearing, and cracking of the surface
• Tool that lacks sharpness has
a large radius along its edges.
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Surface Finish and Surface Integrity

Feed marks
• In turning, peak-to-valley roughness is:
f2 f = feed
Rt 
8R R = nose radius

• For R much smaller than f, roughness is:

f
Rt  αs and αe = side and edge cutting angles
tan  s  cot e

• For face milling roughness is:

f2
Rt  D = cutter diameter
16D  2 fn /   f = feed per tooth
n = number of inserts on the cutter
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Machinability
• Machinability of a material is defined in terms of:
1. surface finish and integrity of the machined part
2. tool life obtained
3. force and power requirements
4. chip control
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Cutting-Tool Materials
• A cutting tool has the following characteristics:
1. Hardness
2. Toughness
3. Wear resistance
4. Chemical stability or inertness
 26

Cutting Fluids
• Also called lubricants and coolants, cutting fluids.
• Used extensively in machining operations to:
1. Cool the cutting zone
2. Reduce friction and wear
3. Reduce forces and energy consumption
4. Wash away chips
5. Protect surfaces from any environmental attack
 27

High-Speed Machining
• An approximate range of the different types of cutting
speeds are:
1. High speed: 600–1800 m/min.
2. Very high speed: 1800–18,000 m/min.
3. Ultrahigh speed: >18,000 m/min.
• Spindles for high rotational speeds require high stiffness
and accuracy.
• Cutting time is significant in overall machining
operation.
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High-Speed Machining
• Important machine-tool characteristics in high speed
machining are:
1. spindle design for high stiffness, accuracy and balance
2. fast feed drives and bearing characteristics
3. appropriate cutting tools
4. effective chip removal systems
 29

Machining Processes and Machine Tools

for Producing Round Shapes
• Various types of turning processes:
 30

Turning parameters
• Turning operations involve single-point cutting tools.
 31

Turning parameters
2. Material-removal rate (MMR)
• MRR is the volume of material removed per unit time.
MMR  Davg dfN
where Davg  D0  D f  / 2
N = rotational speed

• Since distance travelled is l mm, cutting time is

l
t
fN
• Time does not include tool approach and retraction
during the machining operation.
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Turning parameters
3. Forces in turning
• 3 principal forces acting on a cutting tool: N, f and F.

• They determine the deflection of tools for precision

machining operations.
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Turning parameters
4. Tool materials, feeds, and cutting speeds
• Characteristics of cutting-tool materials gives a range of
cutting speeds and feeds for different applications.
 Example 8.4
Material-removal rate and cutting force in turning

A 15.24-cm-long, 1.27-cm-diameter 304 stainless-steel rod is being reduced in

diameter to 1.2192 cm by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N=4000 rpm
and the tool is travelling at an axial speed of 20.32 cm/min. Calculate the cutting
speed, material-removal rate, cutting time, power dissipated, and cutting force.

Solution
Maximum cutting speed is V  D0 N   1.27400  15.959 m/min

Cutting speed at machined diameter is V   1.2192400  15.321m/min

Depth of cut and feed is

1.27  1.219 20.32
d  0.0255 cm and f   0.0508 cm/rev
2 400
 Example 8.4
Material-removal rate and cutting force in turning

Solution
Material-removal rate is
MMR   1.24450.02550.0508400  2.02586cm3 / min
15.24
Actual time taken to cut is t  0.75 min
0.0508400
4103 
Amount of power dissipated is Power  2.02586  135 W
60

The torque and cutting force is

T
82597
 32.8643 kg - cm and Fc 
32.86432  52.8153 kg
4002  1.2445
 36

Boring and boring machines

• Boring produce circular internal profiles in hollow
workpieces.
• Boring mills are used for large workpieces.
• Vertical boring machine has vertical axis of workpiece
rotation.
• Drills, reamers, taps and
milling cutters can be
mounted on the spindle.
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Drilling, reaming, and tapping

• Drills have a high length-to-diameter ratio and can
produce deep holes.
• It’s flexible, depending on length and diameter.
• Used with care to prevent the drill from breaking.
 38

Drilling, reaming, and tapping

• The main features of the drill point are a point angle, a
lip-relief angle, a chisel-edge angle and a helix angle.
• The material-removal rate in drilling is
D 2
MMR  fN
4
• Some recommendations for speed and feed in drilling.
 39

Milling operations
• Milling cutter produces a number of chips per
revolution to machine a wide variety of part geometries.
• Basic types of milling operations are:
1. Slab milling
• Axis of the cutter rotation is parallel to the surface of
workpiece.
• In conventional milling, max chip thickness is at the end
of cut.
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Milling operations
1. Slab milling (continued)
• Cutting speed in milling is V  DN
where D is the cutter diameter and N is the rotational speed of the cutter

• Approximate undeformed chip thickness is d

tc  2 f
D
where f is the feed per tooth of the cutter
v
• Feed per tooth is f 
Nn
where v = linear speed (feed rate)
n = number of teeth

l  lc lwd
• Cutting time and MMR is t and MMR   wdv
v t
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Milling operations
2. Face milling
• Cutter is mounted with an axis of rotation
perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
 42

Sawing and saws

• A cutting operation where the tool consists of a series
of small teeth that removes material.
• Tooth spacing in the range of 0.08 ~ 1.25 teeth per mm.
• Hacksaws have straight blades.
• Circular saws (cold saws) used for sawing large cross
sections.
 43

Types of machining and turning centers

2 basic types of centres:

1. Vertical-spindle machining centres
• Suitable for flat surfaces with deep cavities.
• Machines which have high stiffness and a good
dimensional accuracy.
2. Horizontal-spindle machining centers
• For tall workpieces requiring machining on many
different surfaces.
3. Universal machining centers
• Equipped with both vertical and horizontal spindles.
 44

Vibration and Chatter

Both result in the following effects:

1. Poor surface finish
2. Loss of dimensional accuracy
3. Premature wear
4. Damage to machine-tool components
5. Generation of noise

• Cutting operations cause two vibrations: forced

vibration and self-excited vibration.
 45

Vibration and Chatter

1. Forced vibration
• Caused by periodic force which is present in the
machine tool.
• Solution is to isolate or remove the forcing element.

2. Self-excitation vibration
• Caused by interaction of chip-removal process with the
structure of the machine tool.
• Controlled by increasing dynamic stiffness of system
and damping.
 46

Vibration and Chatter

Damping
• Defined as the rate at which vibrations decay.
• Damping results from the energy loss within materials
during vibration.
• Bolted joints in structure of a machine tool are also a
source of damping.
Factors influencing chatter
• Due to cutting forces and the depth and width of cut.
• Cutting forces increase with strength and hardness.
 47

Machine-Tool Structures

Proper design of machine-tool structures are:

1. materials available for construction
2. forms and various properties
3. dynamics of the particular machining process
4. cutting forces involved:
• Stiffness and damping are important in machine tool
structures.
• Stiffness involves the dimensions and elastic modulus.
• Damping involves the materials used including the
number and nature of the joints.
 48

Economics of Machining

Total cost per piece consists of four items:

C p  Cm  Cs  Cl  Ct
where
C p  cost per piece
Cm  machining cost
Cs  cost of setting up for machining
Cl  cost of loading, unloading and machine handling
Ct  tooling cost

Optimum cutting speed and

 1  T 
tool life is V   1 CT 
0 n
T0    1 c  Ti 
 n  m 
 n  1 m  Ti 
c

  