Chapter- 1(con’d)

Fundamentals of metal cutting

Force and power in Metal Cutting
Outlines:
 Component of Forces in metal cutting
 Power requirement for metal cutting
 Temperature rises during metal cutting
 Forces in Metal Cutting
The aspects of the cutting forces concerned :
• Magnitude of the cutting forces and their components
• Directions and locations of action of those forces
• Pattern of the forces : static and / or dynamic.

Knowing or determination of the cutting forces are required for :

• Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables selection of
the power source(s) during design of the machine tools
• Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system
• Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters ( process – Vc,
So, t, tool – material and geometry, environment – cutting fluid) on
cutting forces
• Study of behaviour and machinability characterisation of the work
materials
• Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.
 Forces in Metal Cutting
1. Forces Acting on Chip by
the tool
• The forces applied against the
chip by the tool can be
separated into two mutually
perpendicular components:
– friction force (resisting the flow
of the chip along the rake face
of the tool.) and normal force to
friction (N is perpendicular to
the friction force.)
• (a) Friction force F and
Normal force to friction N
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 Forces in Metal Cutting
2. Forces applied on the chip by the
work-piece
• In addition to the tool forces acting on
the chip, there are two force
components applied by the work-piece
on the chip:
– shear force and normal force to
shear.
• The shear force Fs is the force that
causes shear deformation to occur in the
shear plane, and the normal force to
shear Fn is perpendicular to the shear
force.
• (b) Shear force Fs and Normal force to
shear Fn 4
 Forces in Metal Cutting
3. Forces acting on the tool:
• Cutting force Fc and Thrust
force Ft
• F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be
directly measured.
Forces acting on the tool that
can be measured are:
Resultant forces:
• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R1
• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R
• Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
– R must be equal in magnitude to R1
– R must be opposite in direction to R1
– R must be collinear with R 1 5
 Merchant’s Circle Diagram and its use
In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal
plane, πO, the cutting force (resultant) and its components PZ and
PXY remain in the orthogonal plane. the forces acting on a piece of
continuous chip coming out from the shear zone at a constant
speed. That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium.
• The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter
which contains all the force components
concerned as intercepts.
• The two circles with their forces are combined
into one circle having all the forces contained
in that as shown by the diagram called
Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD).
Forces in Metal Cutting

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 Forces in Metal Cutting
• Equations to relate the forces that cannot be
measured to the forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
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 Coefficient of Friction

• Coefficient of friction between tool and chip

F

N
 Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as

  tan 

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 Shear Stress
• Coefficient of friction  Friction angle related to
between tool and chip coefficient of friction as
F
   tan 
N
• Shear stress acting along the shear
plane
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As 
sin 
• Shear stress = shear strength of work
material during cutting
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 The Merchant Equation
 
  45  
2 2
• Derived by Eugene Merchant, Based on orthogonal
cutting,
• This is the angle at which shear stress is just equal to
the shear strength of the work material, and so shear
deformation occurs at this angle.
• For all other possible shear angles, the shear stress is
less than the shear strength, so chip formation cannot
occur at these other angles.
• In effect, the work material will select a shear plane
angle that minimizes energy.
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 Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
• If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear
plane angle results in a smaller shear plane area.
• Since the shear strength is applied across this area,
the shear force required to form the chip will
decrease when the shear plane area is reduced.
• which means lower shear force, cutting forces,
power, and temperature

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 What the Merchant Equation Tells Us!
• It defines the general relationship between rake angle,
tool–chip friction, and shear plane angle.
– The shear plane angle can be increased by:
(1) increasing the rake angle and
(2) decreasing the friction angle (and coefficient of
friction) between the tool and the chip.
• Rake angle can be increased by proper tool design, and
• friction angle can be reduced by using a lubricant
cutting fluid.

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Advantage of MCD
 Power and Energy Relationships
• A machining operation requires power
• The power to perform machining can be computed
from:
Pc = Fc v
Where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force
v = cutting speed
In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed as
horsepower (dividing ft‑lb/min by 33,000)

Fc v
HPc 
33,000

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

 Power and Energy Relationships
• The gross power required to operate the machine tool is greater
than the power delivered to the cutting process because of
mechanical losses in the motor and drive train in the machine.
• These losses can be accounted for by the mechanical efficiency
of the machine tool:
Gross power to operate the machine tool
– Pg (gross power of the machine tool motor )
– HPg is given by:

Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
 Typical E for machine tools  90%
Unit Power in Machining
• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume
rate of metal cut
• Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, Hpu
or Pc HPc where RMR = material
PU  HPu =
RMR RMR removal rate

Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc v
U = Pu = =
R M R vt o w
where Units for specific energy are typically N‑m/mm3 or J/mm3
(in‑lb/in3)
 Cutting Temperature
• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is
converted into heat
• This can cause temperatures to be very high at the
tool‑chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic
energy in the work- tool material
High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the
machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to
thermal expansion of work material chip
 Cont…
• Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook from
dimensional analysis using experimental data for
various work materials
– Temperature rise at tool‑chip interface.
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T   
C  K 

where T = temperature rise at tool‑chip interface;

U = specific energy; to = chip thickness before cut;
C = volumetric specific heat of work material;
K = thermal diffusivity of work material v = cutting speed
 Cont…
• Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
– Most frequently used technique is the tool‑chip
thermocouple
• Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
– speed‑temperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where; T = measured tool‑chip interface
temperature, and
v = cutting speed
Example
 Chip Formation
• There are two
deformation areas
distinguished in
machining, namely the
primary and the
secondary deformation
zones.

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 Chip Formation
• The primary deformation zone is included in the
OAB area.
– The work piece material crossing the OA border
undergoes large deformation at high strain rates and
exits the zone at OB border, work hardened.

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Chip Thickness Ratio
Plane Angle
to
r 
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio;
to = thickness of the chip
prior to chip formation;
tc = chip thickness after
separation
• Chip thickness after cut is
always greater than
before, so chip ratio is
always less than 1.0
Determining Shear
Based on the geometric
parameters of the orthogonal
model, the shear plane angle 
can be determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 
where r = chip ratio,
and  = rake angle
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 Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
 formation of the chip depends on the type of material
being machined and the cutting conditions of the
operation.
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

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 Discontinuous Chip
• Brittle work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• High tool–chip friction
and large feed and
depth of cut promote the
formation of this chip
type.
• cause irregular surface

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 Continuous Chip
• When ductile work materials are
cut at high speeds and relatively
small feeds and depths, long
continuous chips are formed.
• Sharp cutting edge
• Low tool‑chip friction
• A good surface finish typically
results when this chip type is
formed.

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 Continuous with BUE

• Ductile materials
• Low‑to‑medium cutting
speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to
adhere to rake face
• BUE forms, then breaks
off, cyclically

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 Serrated Chip
• Semi-continuous - saw-
tooth appearance
• Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
• Associated with difficult-
to-machine metals at
high cutting speeds

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 Assignment one
1. Discus about the Purpose of cutting fluid and
list the types of cutting fluid that uses for
machining process
2. Discus about the role of tool geometry, tool
and work materials and cutting fluids on mach
inability.